All the opulent families had a great number of servants, or slaves, whose low extraction,[XXXIII_1] the chances of war,[XXXIII_2] or the parental will,[XXXIII_3] subjected to the caprices of the rich as a mere thing possessed, a right, a property (res).

They were known, like the slaves of the Jews[XXXIII_4] in former times, by their ears, which were pierced with an awl;[XXXIII_5] an ineffaceable stigma, which always reminded the freed-man of his former humiliation. The slave was also often marked with a hot iron on the back, the hands, the cheeks, or the forehead; and the characters thus imprinted served the master as an evidence against his fugitive servant in whatsoever place he might find him.[XXXIII_6] It is, perhaps, to similar marks that the prophet Zechariah makes allusion, when he says: “What are these wounds in thine hands?”[XXXIII_7] Plautus, whose comic vein respects neither the power of the Gods nor the sanctity of misfortune, calls these unfortunate creatures “lettered slaves” (servos literatos).[XXXIII_8]

A house of any note could not do without a crowd of servants, to whom the steward (dispensator) apportioned the labour, the food, and the chastisements.[XXXIII_9]

In a lodge near the vestibule was the porter (ostiarius),[XXXIII_10] whose watchful eye observed every one who went in or out by day or night. They made sure of his vigilance by chaining him to his place.[XXXIII_11]

The hall (atrium) was guarded by an intelligent and confidential servant, whose functions raised him above the other slaves.[XXXIII_12] The atriensis—such was his designation—had the care of the arms, trophies, precious furniture, and books, which adorned this apartment. He had also to take extreme care of the paintings and wax figures there preserved from motives of vanity or by a sentiment of respect; and it was he who carried those images of venerated ancestors before the funeral procession of the head of the family when, in his turn, death had numbered him with his progenitors.[XXXIII_13]

The obsonator bought in the markets the meat, fruit, and delicacies necessary for the repasts.[XXXIII_14]

The vocatores carried the invitations, received the guests, and placed them at table according to their rank.[XXXIII_15] These functions required a peculiar kind of urbanity and long experience on the part of the individual who fulfilled them.

The arrangement, the keeping in order, and adornment of the table-couches belonged exclusively to the cubicularii (valets).[XXXIII_16] These servants are mentioned in Suetonius and other ancient authors. The CÆsars had a great number of cubicularii who obeyed one particular chief.[XXXIII_17]

The dapiferi brought the dishes into the dining-room,[XXXIII_18] and the nomenclators (nomenculatores) immediately informed the guests of the names and qualities of the things with which they were going to be served.[XXXIII_19]

The structor arranged the dishes symmetrically.[XXXIII_20] The scissor (carver) cut up the meats to the sound of musical instruments, of which he followed the measure. Finally, young slaves (procillatores),[XXXIII_21] served the guests attentively, and poured out their drink. Those chosen for this employment were fine, beardless, adolescent youths, with a fresh complexion, whose long silky hair fell in curls over the shoulders. A wide riband which went twice round the waist confined their fine, white tunic—a light, graceful vestment, which descended in front to the knees, and behind hardly covered the hamstring.[XXXIII_22]

While the guests, softly reclining on their table-couches, were enjoying the agreeable surprise reserved for them by an amiable amphitryon, slaves (sandaligeruli) attended to their sandals, and fastened them on at the moment of departure.[XXXIII_23] Others, (flabellarii) armed with fans of peacocks’ feathers,[XXXIII_24] drove away the flies, and cooled the banqueting-hall.[XXXIII_25]

The banquet terminated, servants with torches and lanterns (adversitores) conducted their masters home, and pointed out to them the stones that might be lying in their path, and which repeated libations might have prevented their visual organs from discovering.[XXXIII_26]

We must not omit, in this nomenclature of the principal servants of a good house, the taster (prÆgustator), who tasted or tried the viands before the guests touched them;[XXXIII_27] nor the chief steward (triclinarches), and director of the repast, who had to occupy himself with an infinity of details in the kitchen, the cellar, the pantry, the buffet, and the dining-room.[XXXIII_28]

A living synthesis of these multiplied services, he performed them all himself. The least negligence, the slightest absence of mind on his part, would have ruined the reputation, utterly marred the sumptuous hospitality, of his master.

Never did the general of an army tremble under the weight of a responsibility so redoubtable.

Procillatores, or cup-bearer, an officer whose duty was to fill and present the cup to the king and princes. This charge was known in Egypt, and the ancients transformed Ganymede into a cup-bearer to the gods.

Charlemagne had master cup-bearers. These officers signed royal charters, and kept rank amongst the great officers of state. The head one took the title of Echanson to the king, of master, premier, or great Échanson. In the 15th century the Échansons exercised their functions only on the coronations, marriages, and entries of kings and queens. Louis XVIII. re-established the office of premier Échanson. It was abolished in 1830.

There was, moreover, a class of miserable, obscure, despised slaves, whose useful labours rendered them necessary, and who were treated much the same as beasts of burden. This order of subaltern servants were composed of:—

The lecticarii. They carried the elegant palanquin in which the haughty matron or the noble senator were conveyed to the banqueting-hall.[XXXIII_29]

The stokers (focarii), who cut the wood, lighted, and attended to the fires.[XXXIII_30]

The sweepers (scoparii), whose indefatigable activity kept the apartments and furniture clean.[XXXIII_31]

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE No. XXVIII.

No. 1. Procillatores, or Echanson, from a painting at Herculaneum.

No. 2. Triclinium, from a sculpture at Pompeii.