THE initial step in the examination of a crystallized substance is to determine its physical characters and to resolve it by chemical analysis into its component elements; the final, and by far the hardest, step is to build it up or synthetically prepare it from its constituents. Unknown to the world at large, work of the latter kind has long been going on within the walls of laboratories, and as the advance in knowledge placed in the hands of experimenters weapons more and more comparable with those wielded by nature, their efforts have been increasingly successful. So stupendous, however, are the powers of nature that the possibility of reproducing, by human agency, the treasured stones which are extracted from the earth in various parts of the globe at the cost of infinite toil and labour has always been derided by those ignorant of what had already been accomplished. Great, therefore, was the consternation and the turmoil when concrete evidence that could not be gainsaid showed that man’s restless efforts to bridle nature to his will were not in vain, and congresses of all the high-priests of jewellery were hastily convened to ban such unrighteous products, with what ultimate success remains to be seen. Crystallization may be caused in four different ways, of which the second alone has as yet yielded stones large enough to be cut— 1. By the separation of the substance from a saturated solution. In nature the solvent may not be merely hot water, or water charged with an acid, but molten rock, and the temperature and the pressure may be excessively high. 2. By the solidification of the liquefied substance upon cooling. Ice is a familiar example of this type. 3. By the sublimation of the vapour of the substance, which means the direct passage from the vapour to the solid state without traversing the usually intervening liquid state. It is usually the most difficult of attainment of the four methods; the most familiar instance is snow. 4. By the precipitation of the substance from a solution when set free by chemical action. Other things being equal, the simpler the composition the greater is the ease with which a substance may be expected to be formed; for, instead of one complex substance, two or more different substances may evolve, unless the conditions are nicely arranged. Attempts, for instance, to produce beryl might result instead in a mixture of chrysoberyl, phenakite, and quartz. By far the simplest in composition of all the precious stones is diamond, which is pure crystallized carbon; but its manufacture is attended by well-nigh insuperable difficulties. If carbon be heated in air, it burns at a temperature well below its melting point; moreover, unless an enormously high pressure is simultaneously applied, the product Next to diamond the simplest substances among precious stones are quartz (crystallized silica) and corundum (crystallized alumina). The crystallization of silica has been effected in several ways, but the value in jewellery of quartz, even of the violet variety, amethyst, is not such as to warrant its manufacture on a commercial scale. Corundum, on the other hand, is held in high esteem; rubies and sapphires, of good colour and free from flaws, have always commanded good prices. The question of their production by artificial means has therefore more than academic interest. Ever since the year 1837, when Gaudin produced a few tiny flakes, French experimenters have steadily prosecuted their researches in the crystallization of corundum. FrÉmy and Feil, in 1877, were the first to meet with much success. A portion of one of their crucibles lined with glistening ruby flakes is exhibited in the British Museum (Natural History). In 1885 the jewellery market was completely taken by surprise by the appearance of red stones, emanating, so it is alleged, from Geneva; having the physical characters of genuine rubies, they were accepted as, and commanded the prices of, the natural stones. It was eventually discovered that they had resulted from the fusion of a number of A notable advance in the synthesis of corundum, particularly of ruby, was made in 1904, when Verneuil, who had served his apprenticeship to science under the guidance of FrÉmy, invented his ingenious inverted form of blowpipe (Fig. 53), which enabled him to overcome the difficulties that had baffled earlier investigators, and to manufacture rubies vying in appearance after cutting with the best of nature’s productions. The blowpipe consisted of two tubes, of which the upper, E, wide above, was constricted below, and passing down the centre of the lower, F, terminated just above the orifice The alumina was precipitated from a solution of pure ammonia—alum, (NH4)2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O, in distilled water by the addition of pure ammonia, sufficient chrome-alum also being dissolved with the ammonia-alum to furnish about 2½ per cent. Very few changes have been made in the method when adapted to commercial use. Coal-gas has, The drops, unless the finished stone is required to have a similar pear shape, are divided longitudinally through the central core into halves, which in both shape and orientation are admirably suited to the purposes of cutting; as a general rule, the drop splits during cooling into the desired direction of its own accord. Each drop is a single crystalline individual, and not, as might have been anticipated, an alumina glass or an irregular aggregation of crystalline fragments, and, if the drop has cooled properly, the crystallographic axis is parallel to the core of the pear. The cut stone will therefore have not only the density and hardness, but also all the optical characters—refractivity, double refraction, The success that attended the manufacture of ruby encouraged efforts to impart other tints to crystallized alumina. By reducing the percentage amount of chromic oxide, pink stones were turned Early attempts made to obtain the exquisite blue tint of the true sapphire were frustrated by an unexpected difficulty. The colouring matter, cobalt oxide, was not diffused evenly through the drop, but was huddled together in splotches, and it was found necessary to add a considerable amount of magnesia as a flux before a uniform distribution of colour could be secured. It was then discovered that, despite the colour, the stones had the physical characters, not of sapphire, but of the species closely allied to it, namely, spinel, aluminate of magnesium. By an unsurpassable effort of nomenclature these blue stones were given the extraordinary name of ‘Hope sapphire,’ from fanciful analogy with the famous blue diamond which was once the pride of the Hope collection. A blue spinel is occasionally found in nature, but the actual tint is somewhat different. These manufactured stones have the disadvantage of turning purple in artificial light. By substituting lime for magnesia as a flux, Paris, a pupil of Verneuil’s, produced blue stones which were not affected to the same extent. The difficulty was at length overcome at the close of 1909, when Verneuil, by employing as tinctorial agents 0·5 per cent. of titanium oxide and 1·5 per cent. of magnetic iron oxide, succeeded in producing blue corundum; it, however, had not quite the tint of sapphire. Stones subsequently manufactured, which were By the addition to the alumina of a little nickel oxide and vanadium oxide respectively, yellow and yellowish green corundums have been obtained. The latter have in artificial light a distinctly reddish hue, and have therefore been termed ‘scientific alexandrite’; of course, quite incorrectly, since the true alexandrite is a variety of chrysoberyl, aluminate of beryllium, a very different substance. If no colouring matter at all be added and the alum be free from potash, colourless stones or white sapphires are formed, which pass under the name ‘scientific brilliant.’ It is scarcely necessary to remark that they are quite distinct from the true brilliant, diamond. The high prices commanded by emeralds, and the comparative success that attended the reconstruction of ruby from fragments of natural stones, suggested that equal success might follow from a similar process with powdered beryl, chromic oxide being used as the colouring agent. The resulting stones are, indeed, a fair imitation, being even provided with flaws, but they are a beryl glass with lower specific gravity and refractivity than the true beryl, and are wrongly termed ‘scientific emerald.’ Moreover, recently most of the stones so named on the market are merely green paste. It is unfortunate that the real success which has been achieved in the manufacture of ruby and sapphire should be obscured by the ill-founded claims tacitly asserted in other cases. At the time the manufactured ruby was a novelty it fetched as much as £6 a carat, but as soon as |