Gem-Stones and Their Distinctive Characters

CHAPTER XII

FASHIONING OF GEM-STONES

ALTHOUGH many of the gem-stones have been endowed by nature with brilliant lustrous faces and display scintillating reflections from their surfaces, yet their form is never such as to reveal to full perfection the optical qualities upon which their charm depends. Moreover, the natural faces are seldom perfect; as a rule the stones are broken either through some convulsion of the earth’s crust or in course of extraction from the matrix in which they have lain, or they are roughened by attrition against matter of greater hardness, or worn by the prolonged action of water, or etched by solvents. Beautiful octahedra of diamond or spinel have been mounted without further embellishment, but even their appearance might have been much improved at the lapidary’s hands.

By far the oldest of the existing styles of cutting is the rounded shape known as cabochon, a French word derived from the Latin cabo, a head. In the days of the Roman Empire the softer stones were often treated in this manner; such stones were supposed to be beneficial to those suffering from short-sightedness, the reason no doubt being that transparent stones when cut as a double cabochon formed a convex lens. According to Pliny, Nero had an emerald thus cut, through which he was accustomed to view the gladiatorial shows. This style of cutting was long a favourite for coloured stones, such as emerald, ruby, sapphire, and garnet, but has been abandoned in modern practice except for opaque, semi-opaque, and imperfect stones. The crimson garnet, which was at one time known by the name carbuncle, was so systematically thus cut that the word has come to signify a red garnet of this form. It was a popular brooch-stone with our grandmothers, but is no longer in vogue. The East still retains a taste for stones cut in the form of beads and drilled through the centre; the beads are threaded together, and worn as necklaces. The native lapidaries often improve the colour of pale emeralds by lining the hole with green paint.

PLATE V

JEWELLERY DESIGNS

Fig. 40.—Double (Convex) Cabochon.

Fig. 41.—Simple Cabochon.

The cabochon form may be of three different kinds. In the first, the double cabochon (Fig. 40), both the upper and the under sides of the stones are curved. The curvature, however, need not be the same in each case; indeed, it is usually markedly different. Moonstones and starstones are generally cut very steep above and shallow underneath. Occasionally a ruby or a sapphire is, when cut in this way, set with the shallow side above, because the light that has penetrated into the stone from above is more wholly reflected from a steep surface with consequent increase in the glow of colour from the stone. Opals are always cut higher on the exposed side, but the slope of the surface varies considerably; they are generally cut steeply when required for mounting in rings. Chrysoberyl cat’s-eyes are invariably cut with curved bases in order to preserve the weight as great as possible. The double cabochon form with a shallow surface underneath merges into the second kind (Fig. 41) in which the under side is plane, the form commonly employed for quartz cat’s-eyes, and occasionally also for carbuncles. In this type the plane side is invariably mounted downwards. In the third form (Fig. 42) the curvature of the under surface is reversed, and the stone is hollowed out into a concave shape. This style is reserved for dark stones, such as carbuncles, which, if cut at all thick, would show very little colour. A piece of foil is often placed in the hollow in order to increase the reflection of light, and thus to heighten the colour effect.

Fig. 42.—Double
(Concavo-convex)
Cabochon.

In early days it was supposed that the extreme hardness of diamond precluded the possibility of fashioning it, and up to the fifteenth century all that was done was to remove the gum-like skin which disfigured the Indian stones and to polish the natural facets. The first notable advance was made in 1475, when Louis de Berquem discovered, as it is said quite by accident, that two diamonds if rubbed together ground each other. With confident courage he essayed the new art upon three large stones entrusted to him by Charles the Bold, to the entire satisfaction of his patron. The use of wheels or discs charged with diamond dust soon followed, but at first the lapidaries evinced their victory over such stubborn material by grinding diamond into divers fantastic shapes, and failed to realize how much might be done to enhance the intrinsic beauty of the stones by the means now at their disposal. The Indian lapidaries arrived at the same discovery independently, and Tavernier found, when visiting the country in 1665, a large number of diamond cutters actively employed. If the stone were perfectly clear, they contented themselves with polishing the natural facets; but if it contained flaws or specks, they covered it with numerous small facets haphazardly placed. The stone was invariably left in almost its original shape, and no effort was made to improve the symmetry.

Fig. 43.—Table Cut
(top view).

Fig. 44.—Table Cut
(side view).

For a long time little further progress was made, and even nearly a century after Berquem the only regular patterns known to Kentmann, who wrote in 1562, were the diamond-point and the diamond-table (Figs. 43–44). The former consisted of the natural octahedron facets ground to regular shape, and was long employed for the minute stones which were set in conjunction with large coloured stones in rings. The table represented considerably greater labour. One corner of the regular octahedron was ground down until the artificial facet thus produced was half the width of the stone, while the opposite corner was slightly ground.

Still another century elapsed before the introduction of the rose pattern, which comprised twenty-four triangular facets and a flat base (Figs. 45–46), the stone being nearly hemispherical in shape. This style is said to have been the invention of Cardinal Mazarin, but probably he was the first to have diamonds of any considerable size cut in this form. At the present day only tiny stones are cut as roses.

Fig. 45.—Rose
Cut (top view).

A few more years passed away, and at length at the close of the seventeenth century diamond came by its own when Vincenzio Peruzzi, a Venetian, introduced the brilliant form of cutting, and revealed for the first time its amazing ‘fire.’ Except for minor changes this form remains to this day the standard style for the shape of diamond, and the word brilliant is commonly employed to denote diamond cut in this way. So obviously and markedly superior is the style to all others that upon its discovery the owners of large roses had them re-cut as brilliants despite the loss in weight necessitated by the change.

Fig. 46.—Rose
Cut (side view).

The brilliant form is derived from the old table by increasing the number of facets and slightly altering the angles pertaining to the natural octahedron. In a perfect brilliant (Figs. 47–49) there are altogether 58 facets, 33 above and 25 below the girdle, as the edge separating the upper and lower portions of the stone is termed, which are arranged in the following manner. Eight star-facets, triangular in shape, immediately surround the large table-facet. Next come four large templets or bezels, quadrilateral in form, arranged in pairs on opposite sides of the table-facet, the four quoins or lozenges, similar in shape, coming intermediately between them; in modern practice, however, these two sets are identical in shape and size, and there are consequently eight facets of the same kind instead of two sets of four. The eight cross or skew facets and the eight skill facets, in both sets the shape being triangular, form the boundary of the girdle; modern brilliants usually have instead sixteen facets of the same shape and size. The above 33 facets lie above the girdle and form the crown of the stone. Immediately opposite and parallel to the table is the tiny culet. Next to the latter come the four large pavilion facets with the four quoins intermediately between them, both sets being five-sided but nearly quadrilateral in shape; these again are usually combined into eight facets of the same size. Eight cross facets and eight skill facets, both sets, like those in the crown, being triangular in shape, form the lower side of the girdle; these also are generally united into a set of sixteen similar facets. These 25 facets which lie below the girdle comprise the ‘pavilion,’ or base of the stone. In a regular stone properly cut a templet is nearly parallel to a pavilion, and an upper to a lower cross facet. The contour of the girdle is usually circular, but occasionally assumes less symmetrical shapes, as for instance in drop-stones or pendeloques, and the facets are at the same time distorted. The number of facets may with advantage be increased in the case of large stones. An additional set of eight star facets is often placed round the culet, the total number then being 66. It may be mentioned that the largest stone cut from the Cullinan has the exceptional number of 74 facets.

Fig. 47.—Brilliant Cut (top view).

Fig. 48.—Brilliant Cut (base view).

Fig. 49.—Brilliant
Cut (side view).

In order to secure the finest optical effect certain proportions have been found necessary. The depth of the crown must be one-half that of the base, and therefore one-third the total depth of the stone, and the width of the table must be slightly less than half that of the stone. The culet should be quite small, not more in width than one-sixth of the table; it is, in fact, not required at all except to avoid the danger of the point splintering. The girdle should be as thin as is compatible with strength sufficient to prevent chipping in the process of mounting the stone; if it were left thick, the rough edge would be visible by reflection at the lower facets, and would, especially if at all dirty, seriously affect the quality of the stone. The shape of the stone is largely determined by the sizes of the templets in the crown and the pavilions in the base as compared with that of the table, or, what comes to the same thing, by the inclinations at which they are cut to that facet. If the table had actually half the width of the stone, the angle[5] between it and a templet would be exactly half a right angle or 45°; it is, however, made somewhat smaller, namely, about 40°. A pavilion, being parallel to a templet, makes a similar angle with the culet. The cross facets are more steeply inclined, and make an angle of about 45° with the table or the culet, as the case may be. The star facets, on the other hand, slant perceptibly less, and make an angle of only about 26° with the table. A latitude of some 4° or 5° is possible without seriously affecting the ‘fire’ of the stone.

The object of the disposition of the facets on a brilliant is to assure that all the light that enters the stone, principally by way of the table, is wholly reflected from the base and emerges through the crown, preferably by way of the inclined facets. A brilliant-cut diamond, if viewed with the table between the observer and the light, appears quite dark except for the small amount of light escaping through the culet. Light should therefore fall on the lower facets at angles greater than the critical angle of total-reflection, which for diamond is 24° 26´. The pavilions should be inclined properly at double this angle, or 48° 52´, to the culet; but a ray that emerges at a pavilion in the actual arrangement entered the table at nearly grazing incidence, and the amount of light entering this facet at such acute perspective is negligible. On the other hand, after reflection at the base light must, in order to emerge, fall on the crown at less than the critical angle of total-reflection. In Fig. 50 are shown diagrammatically the paths of rays that entered the table in divers ways. The ray emerging again at the table suffers little or no dispersion and is almost white, but those coming out through the inclined facets are split up into the rainbow effect, known as ‘fire,’ for which diamond is so famous. It is in order that so much of the light entering by the table may emerge through the inclined facets of the crown that the pavilions are inclined at not much more than 40° to the culet. It might be suggested that instead of being faceted the stone should be conically shaped, truncated above and nearly complete below. The result would no doubt be steadier, but, on the other hand, far less pleasing. It is the ever-changing nuance that chiefly attracts the eye; now a brilliant flash of purest white, anon a gleam of cerulean blue, waxing to richest orange and dying in a crimson glow, all intermingled with the manifold glitter from the surface of the stone. Absolute cleanliness is essential if the full beauty of any stone is to be realized, but this is particularly true of diamond. If the back of the stone be clogged with grease and dirt, as so often happens in claw-set rings, light is no longer wholly reflected from the base; much of it escapes, and the amount of ‘fire’ is seriously diminished.

Fig. 50.—Course of the Rays of Light passing through a Brilliant.

Needless to state, lapidaries make no careful angular measurements when cutting stones, but judge of the position of the facets entirely by eye. It sometimes therefore happens that the permissible limits are overstepped, in which event the stone is dead and may resist all efforts to vivify it short of the heroic course of re-cutting it, too expensive a treatment in the case of small stones.

The factors that govern the properties of a brilliant-cut stone are large colour-dispersion, high refraction, and freedom from any trace of intrinsic colour. The only gem-stone that can vie with diamond in these respects is zircon. Although it is rare to find a zircon naturally without colour, yet many kinds are easily deprived of their tint by the application of heat. A brilliant-cut zircon is, indeed, far from readily distinguished by eye from diamond, and has probably often passed as one, but it may easily be identified by its large double refraction (cf. p. 41) and inferior hardness. The remaining colourless stones, such as white sapphire, topaz, and quartz (rock-crystal), have insufficient refractivity to give total-reflection at the base, and, moreover, they are comparatively deficient in ‘fire.’

Fig. 51.—Step- or Trap-Cut (top view).

Fig. 52.—Step- or Trap-Cut (side view).

A popular style of cutting which is much in vogue for coloured stones is the step- or trap-cut, consisting of a table and a series of facets with parallel horizontal edges (Figs. 51–52) above and below the girdle; in recent jewellery, however, the top of the stone is often brilliant-cut. The contour may be oblong, square, lozenge, or heart-shaped, or have less regular forms. The table is sometimes slightly rounded. Since the object of this style is primarily to display the intrinsic colour of the stone and not so much a brilliant play of light from the interior, no attempt is made to secure total-reflection at the lower facets. The stone therefore varies in depth according to its tint; if dark, it is cut shallow, lest light be wholly absorbed within, and the stone appear practically opaque, but if light, it is cut deep, in order to secure fullness of tint. Much precision in shape and disposition of the facets is not demanded, and the stones are usually cut in such a way that, provided the desired effect is obtained, the weight is kept as great as possible; we may recall that stones are sold by weight. In considering what will be the optical effect of any particular shape, regard must be had to the effective colour of the transmitted light. For instance, although sapphire and ruby belong to the same species and have the same refractive indices, yet, since the former transmits mainly blue and the latter red light, they have for practical purposes appreciably different indices, and lapidaries find it therefore possible to cut the base of ruby thicker than that of sapphire, and thus keep the weight greater. It is instructive too what can be done with the most unpromising material by the exercise of a little ingenuity. Thus Ceylon sapphires are often so irregularly coloured that considerable skill is called for in cutting them. A stone may, for instance, be almost colourless except for a single spot of blue; yet, if the stone be cut steeply and the spot be brought to the base, the effect will be precisely the same as if the stone were uniformly coloured, because all the light emerging from the stone has passed through the spot at the base and therefore been tinted blue.

The mechanism employed in the fashioning of gem-stones is simple in character, and comprises merely metal plates or wheels for slitting, and discs or laps for grinding and polishing the stones, the former being set vertically and rotated about horizontal spindles, and the latter set horizontally and rotated about vertical spindles. Mechanical power is occasionally used for driving both kinds of apparatus, but generally, especially in slitting and in delicate work, hand-power is preferred. In the East native lapidaries make use of vertical wheels (Plate XIII) also for grinding and polishing stones, which explains why native-cut stones never have truly plane facets; it will be noticed from the picture that a long bow is used to drive the spindle.

Owing to the unique hardness of diamond it can be fashioned only by the aid of its own powder. The process differs therefore materially from the cutting of the remaining gem-stones, and will be described separately. Indeed, so different are the two classes of work that firms seldom habitually undertake both.

The discovery of the excellent cleavage of diamond enormously reduced the labour of cutting large stones. A stone containing a bad flaw may be split to convenient shape in as many minutes as the days or even weeks required to grind it down. The improvement in the appliances and the provision of ample mechanical power has further accelerated the process and reduced the cost. Two years were occupied in cutting the diamond known as the Pitt or Regent, whereas in only six months the colossal Cullinan was shaped into two large and over a hundred smaller stones with far less loss of material.

Although the brilliant form was derived from the regular octahedron, it by no means follows that, because diamond can be cleaved to the latter form, such is the initial step in fashioning the rough mass. The aim of the lapidary is to cut the largest possible stone from the given piece of rough, and the finished brilliant usually bears no relation whatever to the natural octahedron. The cleavage is utilized only to free the rough of an awkward and useless excrescence, or of flaws. Although the octahedron is one of the common forms in which diamond is found, it is rarely regular, and oftener than not one of the larger faces is made the table.

The old method, which is still in use, for roughly fashioning diamonds is that known as bruting, from the French word, brutage, for the process, or as shaping. Two stones of about the same size are selected, and are firmly attached by means of a hard cement to the ends of two holders, which are held one in each hand, and rubbed hard, one against the other, until surfaces of the requisite size are developed on each stone. During the process the stones are held over a small box, which catches the precious powder. A fine sieve at the bottom of the box allows the powder to fall through into a tray underneath, but holds back anything larger. By means of two vertical pins placed one on each side of the box the holders are retained more easily in the desired position, and the work is thrown mainly on the thumbs. This work continued day after day has a very disfiguring effect upon the hands despite the thick gloves that are worn to protect them; the skin of the thumbs grows hard and horny, and the first and second fingers become swollen and distorted. When the surfaces have thus been formed, the stone is handed to the polisher, who works them into the correct shape and afterwards polishes them, the stone passing backwards and forwards several times between the cutter and the polisher. The table, four templets, culet and four pavilions are first formed and polished, so that the table has a square shape. Next the quoins are developed and polished, and finally the small facets are polished on, not being shaped first. In modern practice the process of bruting has been modified in some cases by the introduction of machinery, and the facets are ground on, with considerable improvement in the regularity of their size and disposition, and reduction in the amount of polishing required. Moreover, to obviate the loss of material resulting from continued grinding, large stones are first sliced by means of rapidly-revolving copper wheels charged with diamond powder.

The laps used for polishing diamonds are made of a particular kind of soft iron, which is found to surpass any other metal in retaining the diamond powder. They are rotated at a high rate of speed, which is about 2000 to 2500 revolutions a minute, and the heat developed by the friction at this speed is too great for a cement to be used; a solder or fusible alloy, composed of one part tin to three parts lead, therefore takes its place. The solder is held in a hollow cup of brass which is from its shape called a ‘dop,’ an old Dutch word meaning shell. Its external diameter is ordinarily about 1½ in. (4 cm.), but larger dops are, of course, used for large stones. A stout copper stalk is attached to the bottom of the dop; it is visible in the view of the dop shown at e on Plate VI, and two slabs of solder are seen lying in front of the dop. The dop containing the solder is placed in the midst of a non-luminous flame and heated until the solder softens, when it is removed by means of the small tongs, c, and placed upright on a stand such as that shown at a. The long tongs, d, are used for shaping the solder into a cone at the apex of which the diamond is placed. The solder is worked well over the stone so that only the part to undergo polishing is exposed. A diamond in position is shown at f. The top of the stand is saucer-shaped to catch the stone should it accidentally fall off the dop, and to prevent pieces of solder falling on the hand. While still hot, the dop with the diamond in position on the solder is plunged into cold water in order to cool it. The fact that the stone withstands this drastic treatment is eloquent testimony to its good thermal conductivity; other gem-stones would promptly split into fragments. It may be remarked that so high is the temperature at which diamond burns that it may be placed in the gas flame without any fear of untoward results. The dop is now ready for attachment to an arm such as that shown at b; the stalk of the dop is placed in a groove running across the split end of the arm, and is gripped tight by means of a screw worked by the nut which is visible in the picture.

PLATE VI

APPLIANCES USED FOR POLISHING DIAMONDS.

PLATE VII

POLISHING DIAMONDS

Four such arms, each with a dop, are used with the polishing lap (Plate VII), and each stands on two square legs on the bench. Pins, p, in pairs are fixed to the bench to prevent the arms being carried round by the friction; one near the lap holds the arm not far from the dop, and the other engages in a strong metal tongue, which is best seen at the end of the arm b on Plate VI. Though the arm, which is made of iron, is heavy, yet for polishing purposes it is insufficient, and additional lead weights are laid on the top of it, as in the case of the arm at the back on Plate VII. The copper stalk is strong, yet flexible, and can be bent to suit the position of the facet to be polished; on Plate VII the dops a and b are upright, but the other two are inclined. In addition to the powder resulting from bruting, boart, i.e. diamonds useless for cutting, are crushed up to supply polishing material, and a little olive oil is used as a lubricant. Owing to the friction so much heat is developed that even the solder would soften after a time, and therefore, as a precaution, the dop is from time to time cooled by immersion in water. The stone has constantly to be re-set, about six being the maximum even of the tiny facets near the girdle that can be dealt with by varying the inclination of the dop. As the work approaches completion the stone is frequently inspected, lest the polishing be carried too far for the development of the proper amount of ‘fire.’ When finished, the stones are boiled in sulphuric acid to remove all traces of oil and dirt.

The whole operation is evidently rough and ready in the extreme; but such amazing skill do the lapidaries acquire, that even the most careful inspection by eye alone would scarce detect any want of proper symmetry in a well-cut stone.

The fashioning of coloured stones, as all the gem-stones apart from diamond are termed in the jewellery trade, is on account of their inferior hardness a far less tedious operation. They are easily slit, for which purpose a vertical wheel (Plate VIII) made of soft iron is used; it is charged with diamond dust and lubricated with oil, generally paraffin. When slit to the desired size, the stone is attached to a conveniently shaped holder by means of a cement, the consistency of which varies with the hardness of the stone. It is set in the cement in such a way that the plane desired for the table facet is at right angles to the length of the holder, and the whole of the upper part or crown is finished before the stone is removed from the cement. The lower half or base is treated in a similar manner. Thus in the process of grinding and polishing the stone is only once re-set; as was stated above, diamond demands very different treatment. Again, all coloured stones are ground down without any intermediate operation corresponding to bruting. The holder is merely held in the hand, but to maintain its position more exactly its other end, which is pointed, is inserted in one of the holes that are pierced at intervals in a vertical spindle placed at a convenient distance from the lap (Plate VIII), which one depending upon the inclination of the facet to be formed. For hard stones, such as ruby and sapphire, diamond powder is generally used as the abrasive agent, while for the softer stones emery, the impure corundum, is selected; in recent years the artificially prepared carborundum, silicide of carbon corresponding to the formula CSi, which is harder than corundum, has come into vogue for grinding purposes, but it is unfortunately useless for slitting, because it refuses to cling to the wheel. To efface the scratches left by the abrasive agent and to impart a brilliant polish to the facets, material of less hardness, such as putty-powder, pumice, or rouge, is employed; in all cases the lubricant is water. The grinding laps are made of copper, gun-metal, or lead; and pewter or wooden laps, the latter sometimes faced with cloth or leather, are used for polishing. As a general rule, the harder the stone the greater the speed of the lap.

PLATE VIII

SLITTING COLOURED STONES

POLISHING COLOURED STONES

PLATE IX

FACETING MACHINE

As in the case of diamond, the lapidary judges of the position of the facet entirely by eye and touch, but a skilled workman can develop a facet very close to the theoretical position. During recent years various devices have been invented to enable him to do his work with greater facility. A machine of this kind is illustrated on Plate IX. The stone is attached by means of cement to the blunt end, d, of the holder, b, which is of the customary kind, while the other end is inserted in a hole in a wooden piece, a, which is adjustable in height by means of the screw above it. The azimuthal positions of the facets are arranged by means of the octagonal collar, c, the sides of which are held successively in turn against the guide, e. The stand itself is clamped to the bench. The machine is, however, little used except for cheap stones, because it is too accurate and leads to waste of material. Stones are sold by weight, and so long as the eye is satisfied, no attempt is made to attain to absolute symmetry of shape.

The pictures on Plates X–XIII illustrate lapidaries’ workshops in various parts of the world. The first two show an office and a workshop situated in Hatton Garden, London; in the former certain of the staff are selecting from the parcels stones suitable for cutting. The third depicts a more primitive establishment at Ekaterinburg in the Urals. The fourth shows a typical French family—pÈre, mÈre, et fils—in the Jura district, all busily engaged; on the table will be noticed a faceting machine of the kind described above. In the fifth picture a native lapidary in Calcutta is seen at work with the driving bow in his right, and the stone in his left, hand.

A curious difference exists in the systems of charging for cutting diamonds and coloured stones. The cost of cutting the latter is reckoned by the weight of the finished stone, the rate varying from 1s. to 8s. a carat according to the character of the stone and the difficulty of the work; while in the case of diamonds, on the other hand, the weight of the rough material determines the cost, the rate being about 10s. to 40s. a carat according to the size, which on the average is equivalent to about 30s. to 120s. a carat calculated on the weight of the finished stone. The reason of the distinction is obviously because the proper proportions in a brilliant-cut diamond must be maintained, whatever be the loss in weight involved; in coloured stones the shape is not of such primary importance.

PLATE X

LAPIDARY’S WORKSHOP AND OFFICE IN ENGLAND

PLATE XI

LAPIDARY’S WORKSHOP IN RUSSIA

When finished, the stone finds its way with others akin to it to the manufacturing jeweller’s establishment, where it is handed to the setter, who mounts it in a ring, necklace, brooch, or whatever article of jewellery it is intended for. The metal used in the groundwork of the setting is generally gold, but platinum is also employed where an unobtrusive and untarnishable metal is demanded, and silver finds a place in cheaper jewellery, although it is seriously handicapped by its susceptibility to the blackening influence of the sulphurous fumes present in the smoke-laden atmosphere of towns. The stone may be either embedded in the metal or held by claws. The former is by far the safer, but the latter the more elegant, and it has the advantage of exposing the stone À jour, to use the French jewellers’ expression, so that its genuineness is more evidently testified. It is very important that the claw setting be periodically examined, lest the owner one day experience the mortification of finding that a valuable stone has dropped out; gold, owing to its softness, wears away in course of time.

Up to quite recent years modern jewellery was justly open to the criticism that it was lacking in variety, that little attempt was made to secure harmonious association in either the colour or the lustre of the gem-stones, and that the glitter of the gold mount was frequently far too obtrusive. Gold consorts admirably with the rich glow of ruby, but is quite unsuited to the gleaming fire of a brilliant. Where the metal is present merely for the mechanical purpose of holding the stones in position, it should be made as little noticeable as possible. The artistic treatment of jewellery is, however, receiving now adequate attention in the best Paris and London houses. Some recent designs are illustrated on Plates IV and V.

PLATE XII

FRENCH FAMILY CUTTING STONES

PLATE XIII

INDIAN LAPIDARY

Clyx.com