The Ojibwe are probably the best informed and the strictest observers of the medicine lodge ceremonies in the country. Their knowledge of plants both in their own environment and far away is probably the best of any group of Indians. While their flora is not so rich in species as that of Indians farther south, they make trips far away from their home to obtain necessary plants.

As among the white people, one plant may bear several common names, according to different individuals in different sections of the country, and again, one name may be given to several plants, as in the case of plants used as “revivers”. Yet, there is an agreement in names of Lac du Flambeau and Leech Lake Ojibwe, that well checks information received. The name is usually descriptive, just as their names for animals usually are either descriptive or representative of the cry or note uttered by the animal, like “ko-ko-ko-o”, the hoot owl, or “ka-ka-ka”, the raven or crow. The medicine name usually tells what the plant looks like, where it may be found, some peculiar taste or property, or its chief use. Often a termination is added signifying the plural of a noun or the part of the plant used, such as the wood, the leaf, the flower, the root, or the berry or fruit.

It is worth noting that they understand the proper time to gather the plant part. At times, the medicinal qualities are inert, undeveloped or dispersed by being too old. Much of the knowledge of white men originated from studying the Indian plant uses, in the early days. Eclectic practitioners sought the Indian herbs and observed carefully what parts of the plant were used. This mass of early information was sifted scientifically by the students of medicine, and finally tested physiologically on animals. Perhaps sixty-five per cent of their remedies were found to be potent and are included in our pharmacopoeas; the other thirty-five per cent were discovered to be valueless medicinally. All of the references to uses of the plants by white men were obtained from the 1916 edition of the National Standard Dispensatory, by Hare, Caspari & Rusby.

The medicine man depended largely upon his reputation and often cured fancied diseases by shamanistic suggestions. His peculiar incantations to the patient to inspire confidence and induce the patient to think he was getting well, often worked, as it works in the case of quack doctors and credulous white men. The young man who had the proper dream following the period of fasting in his youth, predicting his predilection towards the medicine man’s profession, was taken through a rigorous course of training. Individual knowledge was handed down through the family. Instruction to boys and girls usually comes from the uncle or aunt, and if they have no natural uncle or aunt, then one is assigned to them. This is considered the closest relationship among Wisconsin Indians, and when one is adopted into the tribe and given a medicine bag, it will be through the sponsorship of an uncle for his nephew. Among the Ojibwe, both at Lac du Flambeau and at Lac Court Oreilles, the writer is known as Shagashkandawe “Flying Squirrel,” which they say was the name of a famous old chief and medicine man.

The Ojibwe still use the songs essential to digging medicine roots. Jack Doud, the old scout captain of the Civil War, of the old Flambeau village, told the writer that Winabojo, their deity, had received the seeds of all plants from Dzhe Manido, the creator of the universe, and that Winabojo had given them to Nokomis, grandmother, the Earth, to keep in her bosom, for the use of the Indians. Jack Doud also said that Winabojo took some of the native foods from his own body. He said that Winabojo pulled out a little pinch of flesh and threw it on the ground telling it to grow there as mandamin or corn for the Indians. Another pinch yielded squash, another beans and so on until Winabojo had very little flesh left on his body. In other words, the Indians did not know the sources of their cultivated crops, and had invented this tradition to attempt to explain their presence.

As with other Algonkians, the Ojibwe place tobacco in the cavity from which they dig the root, as an offering to Grandmother Earth, to Winabojo, and to Dzhe Manido, praying in song to these deities to make their chosen medicine potent. The medicine man or woman is usually distinguished by two long braids of hair over either shoulder. They are usually shrewd diagnosticians, and depend upon their senses for discovering the ailment. They feel the pulse rate, look at the pupils of the eyes, at the condition of the tongue, at the complexion variation, feel the body temperature and inquire where the pain is felt. From these symptoms they diagnose the disease. Usually they want time to dream over the case, and drink a draught of their own dream-inducing medicine before going to sleep. In a vision or dream, they are directed to the proper medicine to use, and concoct it the following day. External afflictions are treated with lotions or poultices, while internal troubles are almost invariably treated with a medicinal tea. The ingredients are steeped in lukewarm water, and copious draughts are prescribed several times a day. The writer has taken such draughts of various medicines and finds them not unpleasant to the taste. Bitter and nauseous ingredients are usually disguised by “seasoners” which they add to make them taste good. The time alloted for a cure is usually four days, their sacred number, and unless there is marked improvement in the patient at the end of that period, the medicine man will change the treatment.

Some of the medicine men have “tattooing outfits”, which are not really tattooing outfits as we understand the term, but rather blood-letting instruments. Sharp fish teeth are mounted at the end of a four or five-inch stick, and with a quick stroke on the upper side of the elbow or near the collar bone the blood is caused to gush out. The patient holds the arm out tensely while lying down and when the artery is tapped the blood spurts out rapidly. A tourniquet is applied to the upper arm when the medicine man thinks enough blood has flowed and the medicine man then sucks out the residue. The wound is then bandaged and the tourniquet removed. It is the thought of the medicine man that it is necessary to let out a certain amount of bad blood, so that the remaining blood in the patient’s body can be more easily purified by his heart and his breathing.

The Ojibwe also believe that the medicine man can make bad medicine as well as good, and can prescribe certain medicines from his medicine bundle that will enable him to get the better of his enemies. They had many hunting charms which were supposed to help them get game. The hunter in using these would often trace the outline of the desired game upon the ground drawing a line to its heart. He would then pierce the heart with the line and put the proper medicine on the heart puncture indicated. A similar procedure might be followed against human enemies. Such practices were always kept a deep secret, becoming valueless should anyone see the perpetrator making the figure. They were likewise deprecated and resented by the tribe and punishment was apt to follow anyone caught in such a practice, which all agreed was a perversion of the grand medicine society teachings. Most of the remedies of the medicine men were kept tied in little bits of cloth, compounded and ready to steep for use. Combinations of nine to twelve herbs are common. These have been ground with a mortar and pestle until it would be difficult to identify the ingredients of the prepared medicines. Even if one knew all of the ingredients, the amounts of each herb would be difficult to ascertain. Often, as in the case of Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus), the amount must be very limited since the medicinal effect is so severe.

The medicine men are taught that their medicines have a great value and will not be efficacious if disposed of cheaply. Since money is not so plentiful they are quite willing to accept pay in valuable goods. This may be a pony, so many blankets, so much wild rice or whatever the patient has of value. The patient usually calls the medicine man for ailments that have not responded to his own individual treatment. When the patient pays what the medicine man thinks is proper, then he may be told what was used to effect the cure, and how and when to gather the ingredients and how to administer the remedy. The recipient is admonished to see that he does not impart the knowledge unless he is well paid for it, as he paid the medicine man. This explains the difficulty one encounters when he tries to get medicinal information. Only by completely securing the confidence of the Indians, can a white man get this information without pay, and then it must be thoroughly understood that the investigator is not copying their medicines to take commercial advantage of this knowledge. The Indian is quick to appreciate favors and to acknowledge the respect that is given to him by the white man, and becomes quite confident when he realizes that his confidence is not abused.

OJIBWE MEDICINAL MATERIALS

While the Ojibwe use a few remedies outside the plant kingdom, they are not of such great importance as among some other tribes. These are here considered first, the plants following under the proper families alphabetically.

OTHER THAN PLANTS

REPTILES

Rattlesnake, “jicigwe”. The flesh of the rattlesnake commonly known as the massasauga rattler, is sometimes used in combination with other medicines, for its lubricant effect, similar to Russian mineral oil. The Plains Indians and those farther south in the United States consider rattlesnake meat quite efficient in making childbirth easier.

FISH

Sturgeon, “namÊ”. Fine teeth of the sturgeon were said to be used to make the “tattooing” tool employed by the medicine man in blood-letting. Large fish bladders, “pÎkwadj”, were sometimes used as syringes; a hollow duck bone bound with sinew in the end of it, being used for anal applications.

MINERALS

White Clay, “waba'bÎgan”. White clay was sometimes mixed with medicinal powders to make them into pellets or pills, and the clay was supposed to be a medicine, too, but for what purpose we were unable to discover. Red Clay “osa'man” was also used in fabricating poultices and was supposed to help draw out the inflammation.

MAMMALS

Bear, “mÛkwo”. Bear’s fat was used in several compounds. Melted alone and swallowed it became a drastic physic. Buds of the Balsam Poplar (Populus balsamifera) and the Large-toothed Poplar (Populus grandidentata) stewed in bear fat, yielded an aromatic salve that was used in curing ear-ache, soothing boils, and healing wounds and ulcers.

OJIBWE MEDICINAL PLANTS

ACERACEAE (MAPLE FAMILY)

Box Elder (Acer negundo L.), “adjagobi'mÛk”, shown in plate 68, fig. 2. The Pillager Band of Ojibwe reported that the inner bark of the box-elder is steeped to make an emetic. There is no record of its use by the whites.

Red Maple (Acer rubrum L.) “cicigÎme'wÎc”, shown in plate 65, fig. 1. The Flambeau Ojibwe boil the bark of the red maple to obtain a tea with which to wash and cure sore eyes. There is no record of its use by the whites.

Mountain Maple (Acer spicatum Lam.) “cacagobi'mÛk” [emetic bark]. The Pillager Ojibwe extract the pith of the twig and pinch off small particles which are put into the eye like flax seed to remove foreign matter. It becomes sticky and holds foreign matter which can then be removed with the pith. The pith is also soaked in water to make a lotion for treating sore eyes. Among the whites, Mountain Maple bark is often gathered and sold for Cramp Bark (Viburnum opulus L. var. americanum [Mill.] Ait.) In fact, it has often been wholly substituted for it, and seems about as effective as a uterine sedative and preventative of abortion.

ALISMACEAE (WATER-PLANTAIN FAMILY)

Arum-leaved Arrowhead (Sagittaria arifolia Nutt.) “wabasi' pÎn” [white potato].[92] Upon short lateral rootlets, amongst the mass of fibrous roots of the arrowhead, firm corms develop, pinkish-white and bulb-shaped, but solid and composed of a sweetish, starchy texture. These are the choice Indian potatoes. These corms break away from the root mass very easily so that the utmost care is necessary in digging to get them in situ. Muskrats are very fond of them, as are beavers, and sometimes store up large covered caches, which the Indian recognizes and appropriates. They will also dig for them, if they cannot be more easily obtained. While they are chiefly prized for food, they are also taken to be a remedy for indigestion among the Pillager Ojibwe.

ANACARDIACEAE (SUMAC FAMILY)

Smooth Sumac (Rhus glabra L.) “bakwa' nak” [binding tree]. According to Jack Doud and other Flambeau Ojibwe all parts of the Smooth Sumac are suitable for medicine, the root bark, trunk bark, twig bark, leaves, flowers and fruit. The root bark tea is used as a hemostatic. Trunk and twig innerbark are used in combination with other medicine for their astringent qualities. Blossoms are sometimes steeped for sore eyes, leaves are used in poultices, and the fruit is considered a throat cleanser as well as being the basis of a beverage. Eclectic practitioners, or the old time herbalists, used the berries of Rhus glabra because of the malic acid in the skin, claiming it to be a good gargle in acute throat inflammation.

Staghorn Sumac (Rhus typhina L.) “bakwana' tÎg” [binding tree].[93] The Staghorn Sumac was absent from the Flambeau Ojibwe territory, but plentiful around Leech Lake, Minnesota, while the Smooth Sumac was not found near Leech Lake. The Pillager Ojibwe only used the root as a medicine to stop a hemorrhage. They suggested that they had heard of it being used in medicinal combinations but did not know how to make or use them.

Poison Ivy (Rhus toxicodendron L.) “anÎmÎki'bÛg” [cloud], shown in plate 68, fig. 1. Mukwean (Bearskin), Flambeau medicine man, called this a poison to the skin and said that the Ojibwe have no distinctive name for it. John Peper, one of the Bear Island Pillager Indians, gave us the Indian name and said that no one now alive there knew how to use it. Since Kepeosatok, Meskwaki medicine man, at Tama, Iowa, used it in a certain manner for poulticing some kinds of swellings, the writer thinks this may be the use to which John Peper referred.

APOCYNACEAE (DOGBANE FAMILY)

Spreading Dogbane (Apocynum androsaemifolium L.) “wesa' wÛckwÛn” [nearly blue flowers] or “magosÎÑe' cnakwÛk” [needle-like].[94] Bearskin, Flambeau medicine man, said that the stalk and root of this plant are steeped to make a tea for women to drink. It keeps the kidneys free during pregnancy. Other Flambeau Ojibwe agreed with the use but cited the second name as more correct for it. Under the Ojibwe name of “mÎdewÎdji'bÎk” [medicine lodge root], the Pillager Ojibwe declared it to be one of the sacred roots that is eaten during the medicine lodge ceremony. They use it also for throat trouble. When one has a coated tongue and is afflicted with headache, the root is also used. In the case of headache, the root is placed upon live coals and the incense is inhaled.

AQUIFOLIACEAE (HOLLY FAMILY)

Winterberry (Ilex verticillata [L.] Gray), “awe'nÎsibÛg” [wintergreen leaf], and “anÎmÛ'cÎmÎnÛn” [dog berry]. The bark of this native holly is medicine among the Flambeau Ojibwe, but the use could not be discovered, other than that it might be used for diarrhea. Winterberry has been employed by eclectic practitioners as a tonic and astringent. It has been substituted for quinine in the treatment of periodical fevers, and also used in the treatment of diarrhea. The eclectic practitioner has also used it in treating malignant ulcers and chronic skin eruptions.

Mountain Holly (Nemopanthus mucronata [L.] Trel.), “mÎckimÎnÛ' nÎmÎc” [red berry tree], shown in plate 65, fig. 2. This bush is very common around the reservation of the Flambeau Ojibwe and the berries are used as medicine, but the writer was unable to discover for what disease or how used. There is no record of its use among the whites.

ARACEAE (ARUM FAMILY)

Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus L.) “na' bÛgÛck” [something flat]. The root of Sweet Flag is a quick acting physic, supposed to act in half a day. Bearskin cautioned the writer that no more than one and a half inches was to be used, as more would make one ill, and even this much is quite harsh. The Pillager Ojibwe recognize the Sweet Flag under the name “we'ke”, which is the same word used by another tribe for the Yellow Water-lily, and by another for the Blue Flag. John Peper said that the root was used for curing a cold in the throat or for curing a cramp in the stomach. In earlier days, among the whites, slices were candied to create a more popular form of medication. It was formerly used among the white men as a tonic for dyspepsia and for correcting flatulent colic. It was also supposed to be beneficial as a mild stimulant in typhoid cases.

Indian Turnip (Arisaema triphyllum [L.] Schott.), “caca' gomÎn.”[95] The root of Indian Turnip was said by John Peper, Bear Island Ojibwe, to be used in treating sore eyes, but he did not know how to use it. One wonders if the calcium oxalate crystals so firefull to the mouth lining were equally so to the delicate membranes of the eye.

Small doses of the partially dried root have been used by the white man in the treatment of chronic bronchitis, asthma, flatulent colic and rheumatism, certainly widely different maladies. The juice of the fresh corm in lard has been used by the white man as a local application to cure ringworm.

ARALIACEAE (GINSENG FAMILY)

Wild Sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis L.) “bebamabi' k” [root runs far through the ground]. The Flambeau Ojibwe recognize the root of this plant as a strong medicine, but do not steep it to make tea. The fresh root is pounded and applied as a poultice to bring a boil to a head or to cure a carbuncle. Among the Pillager Ojibwe, the writer found two names applied to this, one of which he thinks to be a case of mistaken identification by the informant. “O kadak” [wild carrot] is more likely to refer to Aralia racemosa though no specimens were found there. They used it under this name as a special squaw remedy for blood purification during pregnancy. The root was pounded in a mortar, then boiled in hot water. Under their name “wabo' s Ûskwe” [rabbit] the root was prepared the same way and the tea was used to cure a cough.

Among the white men, this root has the same properties and uses as the Indian Spikenard (Aralia racemosa); namely, stimulant, diaphoretic, and alterative.

Ginseng (Panax quinquefolium L.) “jÎssÊ'ns.” Evidently the word they used was an attempt to pronounce the white man’s term for it. The writer was unable to discover any medical use made of it by the Ojibwe, though they gathered it assiduously for sale to the traders. Their method of gathering was a thoughtful one. Although they undoubtedly recognized it in any stage of growth, they only gathered the root when the red berries were mature, but before they were ready to drop. Into the hole from whence the root came, they would thrust the whole fruiting top, and carefully firm the soil upon it. Knowing the location well, they would revisit the place in three to five years and find more roots than they harvested in the first instance.

According to our pharmacopoeia, the medicinal value of ginseng is almost nothing, but there is a great market for it in China, where it is worshipped as a sort of fetish, and is acclaimed as a panacea for sexual impotency, nervousness, vomiting and dyspepsia. The more nearly the root approximates the human torso, the more valuable it is to the Chinese. Thus one root in a six hundred-pound bale may be worth many times the entire remainder of the bale, and when ten dollars a pound is the price, one can realize the extreme value of such a piece.

ARISTOLOCHIACEAE (BIRTHWORT FAMILY)

Wild Ginger (Asarum canadense L. var. acuminatum Ashe.) “name' pÎn” [sturgeon potato].[96] The Pillager Ojibwe called this a potato for sick people. They are supposed to chew the root, and then they can eat anything they desire.

The white man calls this Canada Snakeroot in his dispensatories, considering it a feeble remedy with tonic, aromatic and diuretic properties. Cases of convalescent acute febrile infections are sometimes given the extract of wild ginger root.

ASCLEPIADACEAE (MILKWEED FAMILY)

Common Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca L.) “cabo' sÎkÛn” [milk] or “ÎnÎni'wÛnj” [Indian plant], according to Flambeau Ojibwe.[97] Although the Pillager Ojibwe used this chiefly for food, the root was also used as a female remedy, but for what phase of illness, we were not able to discover. Eclectic practitioners have used the roots as counter-irritants or internally as stomachics, carminatives, or anti-spasmodics of the stimulating class.

BALSAMINACEAE (TOUCH-ME-NOT FAMILY)

Spotted Touch-me-not (Impatiens biflora Walt.) “wesa' wÛs ga'skonÊk” [yellow light]. Bearskin, Flambeau medicine man said that the fresh juice of this plant rubbed on the head would cure a headache. The leaves are steeped for a medicinal tea, but the ailment was undiscovered.

The herbage of this plant, under the name Wild Celadine, has been largely employed by homoeopathic physicians and eclectics. The chemical constituents are not known though the leaves apparently contain tannin. The medicinal value is questionable, though fresh applications of the juice appear to relieve skin irritations of various kinds, especially that of Poison Ivy.

BERBERIDACEAE (BARBERRY FAMILY)

Blue Cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides [L.] Michx). “oci' gÎmÎc”.[98] The Pillager Ojibwe use the root for female troubles especially for cramps in the stomach during painful menstruation. The fine roots are also boiled to make a tea for emetic purposes. White people seldom use it. Eclectics have used it in the treatment of hysteria and uterine diseases. They have claimed that it will prevent abortion, by causing uterine contraction when uterine inertia is present.

BETULACEAE (BIRCH FAMILY)

Speckled Alder (Alnus incana [L.] Moench.) “wado' bÎn” [root to sew a canoe]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root for its hemostatic qualities. When one passes blood in his stools, the root tea will act as an astringent and coagulant.

The white man has also used alder bark for its mild astringent properties. The eclectic practitioner in the United States and Canada employed it in a powdered condition for dusting upon chafed body surfaces.

Paper Birch (Betula alba [L.] var. papyrifera [Marsh.] Spach.) “wÎgwas”. From “wÎgwas” comes the word “wigwam” or house, because birch bark was used in covering the house, furnishing a waterproof roof. The root of the Paper Birch was used in medicines as a seasoner. Its sweetish, aromatic, wintergreen flavor disguised less pleasant doses. The root bark and maple sugar cooked together made a soothing syrup to alleviate cramps in the stomach. The white man has employed only the leaves medicinally as a diuretic.

Low Birch (Betula pumila L. var. glandulifera Regel.) “bÎne' mÎcins” [partridge tips]. Among the Pillager Ojibwe, the Low Birch is a valued source of medicine. Although it is plentiful around the Flambeau Reservation, none of them seemed to consider it medicine, although their name agreed, “bÎne' mÎc”, without the diminutive. The Pillager Ojibwe use the tiny cones upon a plate of coals as an incense to cure catarrh. No doubt the resinous covering of the twigs and cones in this variety causes the aromatic incense. Also a tea made from the cones is drunk by women in their menses. Such tea is also accounted strengthening when the patient is enfeebled by childbirth. The leaves probably possess diuretic properties as do other species of Betula. No record of its use by white men has been discovered.

Hazelnut (Corylus americana Walt.) “mÛkwobaga' nak” [bear nut].[99] Bearskin said that the bark of the hazelnut bush is medicine. It is boiled and used as a poultice on cuts to close and heal them. No record of its medical use by white men has been discovered.

Beaked Hazelnut (Corylus rostrata Ait.), “baga'n” or “baga'nak” [nut] Flambeau names, and “baga'namijic” [nut tree], Pillager name. Bearskin assigned the same properties and uses to the bark of the Beaked Hazelnut as to the Hazelnut. The Pillager Ojibwe used only the hairs of the hazelnut husk as a medicine to expel worms. Eclectic practitioners have used it in the same manner as an anthelmintic, depending probably on the irritant effect of the tiny stickers.

BORAGINACEAE (BORAGE FAMILY)

Hound’s Tongue (Cynoglossum boreale Fernald), “masa'n”. Three terms are used to denote the action of such plants as this, which are burned upon live coals that the patient may inhale the fumes. They are: “aba' bÛson”,—to revive or “head standing by smoke”; “sasa' bÎkwat”,—to snuff it; and “nokwe' sÎkÛn”,—“smell as it comes”. They are used interchangeably in designating the use of the plant. Hound’s Tongue is specifically fumed to cure a headache.

Among the whites, Hound’s Tongue has been recommended as a sedative and demulcent in the treatment of bronchial and pulmonary affections. It is said to be of value also in dysentery. The fresh leaves are used locally as a remedy for superficial burns and abraded surfaces.

CAMPANULACEAE (BELLFLOWER FAMILY)

Marsh Bellflower (Campanula aparinoides Pursh.) Although plentiful around the Lac du Flambeau region, our informants said that this is not used.

Harebell (Campanula rotundifolia L.) “adota'gons” [little bell]. The Pillager Ojibwe use the root of the Harebell combined with three other unnamed roots for lung troubles. There is no record of its use by whites.

CAPRIFOLIACEAE (HONEYSUCKLE FAMILY)

Bush Honeysuckle (Diervilla lonicera Mill.), “osawa' skanet” [yellow fluid]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root together with other plants such as the Ground Pine, for their most valued urinary remedy. It is also known among white men as a diuretic and a remedy to relieve itching.

Red Elderberry (Sambucus racemosa L.), “papaskatcÎksi'gana'tÎg” [popgun wood]. According to the Pillager Ojibwe, this bark is an emetic or a purgative, depending upon how it is prepared for use. It is a last resort purgative to be used when other remedies for the same complaint are of no avail. It may be said that the Ojibwe have more plants for physic than for any other purpose, thus the Red Elder will be seen to be their most important one.

Four internodes of the stalk are taken, because four is their magic number. These sections are measured carefully from the point of the ulna to the point of the humerus. The inner bark is secured by peeling downward. This is steeped and boiled, and the resulting liquid is drunk for constipation. It is supposed to thus save the life of one threatened with serious constipation. It is reserved for extreme cases, because of the many other physics they employ, and they consider it drastic and dangerous otherwise. If these same four sticks had been peeled upwards and the resulting tea drunk, then it would have acted as a powerful emetic. The writer can testify to its strength, but notes that it works both ways at once, no matter how prepared, so that the method of preparation is doubtless superstitious.

Among the whites only the elder flowers are recognized in the New Formulary, but the inner bark has been known to produce death in children, a short time after being eaten, with symptoms similar to Poison Hemlock (Cicuta). In moderate doses, it is also known to produce vomiting and purging. The active alkaloid evidently works only in the fresh state, as it loses its potency in a dried state.

Snowberry (Symphoricarpos racemosus Michx.) “anÎgomiji' mÎnaga'wÛnj” [little crow bush]. Among the Pillager Ojibwe, the root of the Snowberry is used to make a tea to clear up the afterbirth, and enable quicker convalescence. Among the Meskwaki Indians the same use is ascribed to the Wolfberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis). There is no record of its use by white men.

Nannyberry (Viburnum lentago L.), “atÎte' tamÎnÛn” or “atÎte' tamÎnaga'wÛnj.”[100] The Pillager Ojibwe collect the inner bark of the trunk, down low next to the ground, to yield a tea which is used as a diuretic.

Among the white men, Nannyberry is often sold as Viburnum prunifolium which is official in our pharmacopoeia. The virtues assigned to this class of medicine are as feeble as they are numerous. It has been used as a nervine, astringent, tonic, diuretic and has been said to have value as an uterine sedative and preventive of abortion.

Highbush Cranberry (Viburnum opulus L. var. americanum [Mill.] Ait.) “a'nibÎmÎ'nÛga'wÛck” [anib means elm, berries, bush].[101] The Pillager Ojibwe used the inner bark as a physic, and also drank the tea to cure cramps in the stomach.

Among the white men, Viburnum opulus is considered to be the same as Viburnum prunifolium, only less potent. It is recommended as an antispasmodic in asthma, hysteria, puerperal convulsions, and dysmenorrhea.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE (PINK FAMILY)

White Campion (Lychnis alba Mill.) “basi' bÛgÛk” [small leaf]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root of this for a tea to physic a patient. There is no record of its use by white men.

CELASTRACEAE (STAFF TREE FAMILY)

Climbing Bittersweet (Celastrus scandens L.) “manÎdobima' kwÎt” [spirit-twisted]. The Pillager Ojibwe use the red berries of this plant for stomach trouble.

The white man uses the berries for decorative purposes, and has used the bark for emetic, diaphoretic and antisyphilitic purposes.

COMPOSITAE (COMPOSITE FAMILY)

The composite family is represented by many species in northern Wisconsin and also in northern Minnesota. There are probably three times as many plants in this family as in any other, hence it furnishes numerous medicines.

Woolly Yarrow (Achillea lanulosa Nutt.), “wa' bÎgwÛn” [white-flower]. The Flambeau Ojibwe, under the name given, use the leaves of this plant as a poultice to cure the bite of a spider. The dried flowering heads are smoked in mixture with other things, much as kinnikinnik, not for pleasure, but more for ceremonial purposes.

It has not been distinguished by the eclectic practitioner from the Common Yarrow, which was used for its bitter and aromatic principles. It was used as an emmenagogue and for various ailments of the reproductive organs. It was sometimes used to cure diseased conditions of the entire gastro-intestinal tract.

Yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.), “adjidamo' anÛk” [squirrel tail].[102] The Pillager Ojibwe used the florets in ceremonial smoking and placed them on a bed of coals inhaling the smoke to break a fever.

Yarrow has always been a home remedy of the white man, and the Germans still use the dried flowers in a tea, called “schafesgarbetee”, to break a fever. Other uses are the same as above.

Pearly Everlasting (Anaphalis margaritacea [L.] B. & H.), “basi' bagÛk” [small leaf]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the flowers of this plant, calling attention to the fact that it smells like acorns, reducing them to a powder which is sprinkled on live coals as a “nokwe' sÎgÛn” or perfume. This is inhaled by a party who has had a stroke of paralysis and is said to revive him.

The Pearly Everlasting has never been properly analyzed by white men, but the flowers have been locally used by them as soothing expectorants and are known to have more or less marked stomachic properties.

Lesser Cat’s-Foot (Antennaria neodioica Greene) “gagÎge' bÛg” [everlasting leaf]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the whole herb as a valued remedy to make a tea to be given to the mother after child birth. It is to purge the afterbirth and heal them internally.

Eclectic practitioners have used this plant as a hemostatic.

Common Burdock (Arctium minus Bernh.), “gi' masan” [big stickers]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root of burdock as one of the ingredients of a medicine for pain in the stomach. It is also supposed to have a tonic effect.

Burdock root has quite a reputation among home practitioners among the white men as a diaphoretic, diuretic, alterative, aperient and depurative. It has been used for rheumatism, gout, pulmonary catarrh, chronic skin diseases such as scrofula and syphilis, and to dissolve urinary deposits. Externally it has been used as a salve or wash for eruptions, burns, wounds, hemorrhoids and swelling.

White Sage (Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt.) “ÎmbjÎ'goa” according to White Cloud, Bear Island Ojibwe, but “wÎngÛskw” or “bebeji'goga'nji” [horse medicine] by John Peper, another Bear Islander. Peper said the Pillager Ojibwe used it as a horse medicine, but the Sioux smoked it.

Miners and frontiersmen prized it in their treatment of “mountain fevers.”

Large-leaved Aster (Aster macrophyllus L.), “naskosi' ÎcÛs”. The Flambeau Ojibwe consider this a feeble remedy but also good as a charm in hunting. Young roots were used to make a tea to bathe the head for headache. The informant giving this latter use called it “megÎsi' bÛg” [eagle leaf]. There is no record of its use by the whites.

Ox-eye Daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum L.). The Flambeau Ojibwe had no name for this, as they said it was from the south, and they do not use it.

Canada Thistle (Cirsium arvense [L.] Scop.) “masa' nÛck” [prickly]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the plant for a bowel tonic. Canada Thistle is one of the worst American weeds, and white men have used the dried plant for a diuretic and tonic.

Common Thistle (Cirsium lanceolatum [L.] Hill), “ji' masa'nÛck”. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root of this for alleviating stomach cramps in both men and women. The dried plant has been used by the whites as a diuretic and tonic.

Philadelphia Fleabane (Erigeron philadelphicus L.) “mÎcao'gacan” [odor of deer hoof]. The Pillager Ojibwe use the flowers to make a tea to break fevers. The smoke of the dried flowers is inhaled to cure a cold in the head. The disk flowers, pulverized, were snuffed up the nostrils to cause the patient to sneeze and thus loosen a cold in the head. The whites have used the Canada Fleabane as a remedy in the pharmacopoeia, and also have used the Philadelphia Fleabane locally, but for different purposes. It is diuretic rather than astringent.

Daisy Fleabane (Erigeron ramosus [Walt.] BSP). The Flambeau Ojibwe do not assign this plant a special name but class it as a “nokwe' sÎgÛn” or perfume for curing sick headache. Several species of Erigeron have been substituted by white men for the Canada Fleabane, which is used as a diaphoretic and expectorant.

Joe-Pye Weed (Eupatorium purpureum L.), “bÛ' gÎsowe” [bathing]. The Flambeau Ojibwe make a strong solution of the root, with which to wash a papoose up till the time he is six years old. This is supposed to strengthen him.

Joe-Pye is officinal but not official among white men. Official designates that it is authorized by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia while officinal means that it is regularly kept for sale in drug stores. Officinal remedies are much used by eclectic practitioners. The root has the odor of old hay and is diuretic, stimulant, astringent and tonic. It has been used in chronic urinary disorders, gout, rheumatism, and hematuria.

Tall Blue Lettuce (Lactuca spicata [Lam.] Hitchc.), “dadoca'bo” [milk]. The Flambeau Ojibwe employ the plant to make a tea given to women with caked breasts to render lactation easier. A dog whisker hair is used to pierce the teat. Among white men Lactuca was formerly employed as a soporific and sedative.

White Lettuce (Prenanthus alba L.), “weca' wÛs wa' ckwÎnÊsk” [yellow light]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the milk of the White Lettuce as a diuretic, especially in female diseases. The root is also used as a female remedy.

White men have used the root decoction internally for dysentery. Old time herb doctors gave the milk of the plant internally, and used the leaves, steeped in hot water, as a poultice for the bite of a snake.

Black-eyed Susan (Rudbeckia hirta L.). The Flambeau Ojibwe claim that this plant is adventive from the south and have no name or use for it. It has been used by the white men as a diuretic.

Golden Ragwort (Senecio aureus L.).

Entire-leaved Groundsel (Senecio integerrimus Nutt.) Both of these plants are considered adventive by the Pillager Ojibwe and neither was named nor used.

Under the name squaw weed, white men have exploited the Golden Ragwort as a female regulator, claiming diuretic, pectoral, diaphoretic and tonic properties. It is also said to be useful in treating gravel and other urinary affections.

Indian Cup Plant (Silphium perfoliatum L.), “asasa' weskÛk” [square stem]. According to John White Feather, of the Flambeau Ojibwe, this root was carried from Iowa and transplanted on the Lac du Flambeau Ojibwe Reservation. They all accept it as great medicine. A tea is made from the root for lumbago and some other kinds of rheumatic pains in the back. John Peper, Pillager Ojibwe, gave it the same Indian name and said that an old Indian had brought it to Bear Island from Iowa a hundred years ago, and had planted it in his field, whence it escaped to the south end of the island. He said they use it for stomach trouble, and hemorrhage. White men have used the Indian Cup Plant root for its tonic, diaphoretic and alterative properties. It has also been used in intermittent fevers, ulcers, liver affections and debility. The resinous gum collected from the stem has been used by the whites as a stimulant and antispasmodic.

Fragrant Golden-rod (Solidago graminifolia [L.] Salisb.), “wasa' waskwÛne'k” [yellow light]. Besides being of use in hunting medicine, the flowers in infusion were used by the Flambeau Ojibwe for a pain in the chest.

Golden-rod leaves and flowers have at times held a rather important place in materia medica, for their carminative, and antispasmodic properties. They have also been used as an intestinal astringent.

Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L.) “muckiki'wÎt” [medicine]. The Flambeau Ojibwe have no distinctive name for this plant, claiming it came from the south and they were told it was good for fevers.

Among white men, it is deemed tonic, emmenagogue and diaphoretic. It has been used in a cold infusion in convalescence from exhausting diseases, dyspepsia, hysteria and jaundice.

Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale Weber) “wesa'usakwÛnek” [yellow light].[103] While the Flambeau Ojibwe do not use this plant, the Pillager Ojibwe give it a name and use the root for a tea for heartburn. It was found growing at the north end of Bear Island in Leech Lake, Minnesota.

Among the whites, the virtues of the root are much overrated. The dried root is steeped in boiling water and is used as a stomachic and tonic, with slight diuretic and aperient action.

Cocklebur (Xanthium commune Britton), “sakati'komÛk” [stickers]. Although giving it a name, the Flambeau Ojibwe did not use it. It has been used by white men in intermittent fevers, also as a diuretic, diaphoretic and sialagogue.

CORNACEAE (DOGWOOD FAMILY)

Alternate-leaved Dogwood (Cornus alternifolia L. f.) “moso'mÎc” [moose tree].[104] The Pillager Ojibwe use the inner bark for an emetic. Although other species of Cornus are officinal with white men, there is no record of the use of this species.

Bunchberry (Cornus canadensis L.) “ode' imÎnÎdji' bÎk” [strawberry root, or heart-berry root]. The Bunchberry or Dwarf Cornel somewhat resembles the Wild Strawberry. The Flambeau Ojibwe make a tea from the root, which is used to cure babies of colic. There is no record of its medicinal use by the whites, though it has been eaten by them.

Panicled Dogwood (Cornus paniculata L’Her.), “meskwabi' mÎc” [red bush]. It is peculiar that the Flambeau Ojibwe would call this a red bush, for the branches are distinctly gray. Only the fruit stalks or pedicels are bright red. The bark is used as a tea for flux. An aggregate of this bark compressed into a stopper shape is forced into the anus as a treatment for piles. There is no record of its use by the whites.

CRUCIFERAE (MUSTARD FAMILY)

Tower Mustard (Arabis glabra [L.] Bernh.), “misodjidamo' anÛk” [black squirrel tail]. Although the Pillager Ojibwe have a name for this plant, they say it is from the south, and they do not use it. There is no record of its use by white men.

Marsh Cress (Radicula palustris [L.] var. hispida [Desv.] Robinson), “wabÎgwÛn” [yellow flower]. The Flambeau Ojibwe name for Marsh Cress is not very distinctive although it does have yellowish flowers. They have no use for the plant as it came in from the south, according to them. Neither have white men.

Tansy-mustard (Sisymbrium canescens Nutt.) The Pillager Ojibwe do not know this plant, which they consider to be adventive from the south and do not use it. Aside from the fact that the seeds have a volatile oil similar to mustard seed, the whites do not use it.

CUCURBITACEAE (GOURD FAMILY)

Squash (Cucurbita maxima Duchesne.) “ogwÎssi'maun o'wasokwÛne'k” [threads like hair; yellow light]. The Flambeau Ojibwe used the seed tea as a diuretic. There is no distinctive medicinal use of squash among the whites.

Wild Balsam-apple (Echinocystis lobata [Michx.] T. & G.) “nÎgÎtÎni' gÛnÛk” or “mÎtcigi' mÊnÛk” [man in the ground], shown in plate 69, fig. 1. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root tea as a bitter medicine for stomach troubles and as a tonic. The root is certainly bitter enough. On the west coast, the root has been employed by white men as a simple bitter.

CYPERACEAE (SEDGE FAMILY)

Hare’s Tail (Eriophorum callitrix Cham.) “bÎwee' ckÎnÛk” [fuzz of fruit]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the matted fuzz as a hemostatic. Under the name “mesadi' wackons” [little catkins from popple], the Pillager Ojibwe refer to it, but none of them knew any use for it. There has been a limited use of its tannic properties as an astringent by white men.

EQUISETACEAE (HORSETAIL FAMILY)

Field Horsetail (Equisetum arvense L.) “gÎji' bÎnÛsk,” [duck round].[105] The Pillager Ojibwe use the whole plant to make a tea to cure the dropsy. The plant has been used indefinitely chiefly in domestic practice by the whites.

Wood Horsetail (Equisetum sylvaticum L.), “siba' mÛckÛn”. The Pillager Ojibwe use the whole plant to make a tea to cure kidney trouble and dropsy. It has not been much used by the whites, except as a domestic remedy for gravel.

ERICACEAE (HEATH FAMILY)

Bog Rosemary (Andromeda glaucophylla Link.), “bÎne' mÎkci” [swamp partridge berry]. The plant was found on the Flambeau Ojibwe Reservation, but was not used medicinally. Among the whites, it is credited with poisonous properties.

Prince’s Pine (Chimaphila umbellata [L.] Nutt.), “ga' gÎge'bÛg” [everlasting leaf].[106] The Flambeau Ojibwe pronounce the name of Prince’s Pine nearly the same as the Menomini Indians, and use it for the same purposes, namely a tea for treating stomach troubles. Chimaphila is official with white men as a tonic and diuretic. It stimulates the mucous membrane of the genito-urinary tract, and has been used in renal dropsy, scrofulous conditions, chronic ulcers and skin lesions. It is employed both internally and as an embrocation.

Wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens L.), “wÎnÎsi' bÛgÛd”, [dirty leaves], shown in plate 75, fig. 2. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the leaves to brew a tea to cure rheumatism and “to make one feel good.” The white man discovered the properties of this plant from the Indians, and originally wintergreen was the chief source of methyl salicylate. Aspirin is synthetically the same thing. Birch twigs were later used as a source and finally it was made from coal tar dye. Like other volatile oils, methyl salicylate was used as an antiseptic, analgesic, carminative and flavoring agent. It was added to liniments for rubbing muscular rheumatism, and similar complaints. Overdoses of the pure oil on the skin produce drowsiness, congestion and delirium.

Cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccus L.) “mÛcki' mÎnaga' wÛnj” [swamp berry bush]. A tea for a person who is slightly ill with nausea. White men have used the bitter, astringent leaves in diarrhea and diabetes and for purifying the blood.

Blueberry (Vaccinium pennsylvanicum Lam.), “minÛga' wÛnj” [berry bush]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the leaves of this common blueberry for a medicinal tea as a blood purifier. White men have employed it in the same manner.

EUPHORBIACEAE (SPURGE FAMILY)

Flowering Spurge (Euphorbia corollata L.), “cabosÎ' kÛn” [milky bitter root]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root for a physic. A half inch of the root is pounded and steeped in a cup of water, which is drunk before eating. The resinous, milky juice of the root has been employed by eclectic practitioners as an emetic, but its use has been practically abandoned because of its irritant and uncertain qualities.

FAGACEAE (BEECH FAMILY)

Bur Oak (Quercus macrocarpa Michx.), “mÎtÎgo' mÎc” [wooden tree], shown in plate 64, fig. 1. The bark is an astringent medicine to the Pillager Ojibwe. They also use it to bandage a broken foot or leg. All oaks are noted among the whites for their astringent properties. Eclectic practitioners used it for gargles in cases of inflammation of the tonsils and pharynx. It was also used in treating leucorrhea and piles.

Red Oak (Quercus rubra L.), “mÎtÎgo' mÎc”, [wooden tree], shown in plate 64, fig. 2. The bark,—“mÎtÎgo' mÎc wena' gÊk”. The bark is a medicine for heart troubles and bronchial affections among the Flambeau Ojibwe. Its use by white men was approximately the same as Bur Oak.

FUMARIACEAE (FUMITORY FAMILY)

Golden Corydalis (Corydalis aurea Willd.), “tÎpotÎe' kwason,” [looks like pants]. The Pillager Ojibwe place the root on coals and inhale the smoke for clearing the head and reviving the patient. There is no record of its use by white men.

FUNGI

The Ojibwe have evidently had disastrous experiences with mushrooms in the past and do not use them as a food. The children often gather the common brackets (Fomes applanatus) and draw pictures on them, using them as toys.

Giant Puffball (Calvatia craniiformis Schw.) shown in plate 61, fig. 2, “oskwe'tÛk”. This is kept on hand in the mature stage. The inner part has an organized mass of threads and does not break down entirely into spores as do the smaller puffballs. The substance is snuffed up the nose to stop nose bleed.

The Ojibwe also made use of an unidentified fungus matte material, found in the windshake spaces of down timber. This is the matted vegetating mycelium of some timber fungus, such as Fomes, Trametes, Polyporus or Pholiota. This made a good tinder for use in the fire base block, and when the fire stick was rapidly twirled against this material, it caught fire and was blown into a blaze that became the basis of their fire. In all medicine lodge ceremonials, the fire was kindled in this manner and thus deemed a sacred fire. Things cooked over this fire were ceremonial, and the calumet or pipe used in the ceremonies was always lighted from a coal of the sacred fire.

GERANIACEAE (GERANIUM FAMILY)

Wild Geranium (Geranium maculatum L.), “o' sawaskwÎni' s” [yellow light].[107] The Pillager Ojibwe use the astringent root for the treatment of flux, and also for healing a sore mouth. Eclectic practitioners have also used it as a mild internal astringent, useful for infants and people who have a delicate stomach, because it is not irritating. It is valuable in serious diarrheas. It has also been used by white men for rectal and vaginal injections to tone up weak muscles.

GRAMINEAE (GRASS FAMILY)

Rattlesnake Grass (Glyceria canadensis [Michx.] Trin.), “anagone' wÛck” [fern]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the roots of this as a female remedy, but it is difficult to understand why they call it a fern. There is no record of its use by white men.

HYDROPHYLLACEAE (WATERLEAF FAMILY)

Virginia Waterleaf (Hydrophyllum virginianum L.),[108] “ne' bÎneankwe' Ûk” according to the Pillager Ojibwe White Cloud on Bear Island, Leech Lake, Minnesota, but “anÎmÛcÎde' bÎgons” [dog feet medicine], according to John Peper, of the same island. It furnishes a root that may be used to keep flux in check. He states that it is good for man, woman or child. It was used for the same purpose among the Meskwaki Indians, but there is no record of its use by whites.

IRIDACEAE (IRIS FAMILY)

Blue Flag (Iris versicolor L.), “na' bÛkÛck”.[109] The Flambeau Ojibwe use a half inch of the root boiled in water as a quick physic. Under the name “cabo'sÎkÛn” [milk root], the Pillager Ojibwe use a little piece of the root in boiling water, drinking a tablespoonful and a half as an emetic and physic.

Blue Flag root has been accounted one of the most valuable remedies by the eclectic practitioner. It is alterative, cathartic, sialagogue, vermifuge and diuretic. It has been used in scrofula and syphilis, chronic hepatic, renal and splenitic affections.

LABIATAE (MINT FAMILY)

Wild Mint (Mentha arvensis L. var. canadensis [L.] Briquet), “name' wÛckons” [little sturgeon plant].[110] Among the Flambeau Ojibwe a tea is brewed from the entire plant, to be taken as a blood remedy. It is also used by them in the sweat bath, “akÛskati”. John Peper, Pillager Ojibwe, made an especial trip to find this on the lake shore but calls it “andego' bÎgons” [little crow leaf] and says that they use it as a tea to break fevers. This species of mint was rarely used by white men for carminative, stimulant and anodyne affects.

Wild Bergamot (Monarda fistulosa L.), “weca' wÛs wackwÎ' nek” [yellow light].[111] The Flambeau Ojibwe gather and dry the whole plant, boiling it in a vessel to obtain the volatile oil to inhale to cure catarrh and bronchial affections. In some sections, the whites use it as a domestic antiperiodic and diaphoretic.

Catnip (Nepeta cataria L.) “tci' name' wÛck” [big sturgeon plant].[112] The Flambeau Ojibwe brew a tea of catnip leaves for a blood purifier. The mint water obtained by steeping the herb in lukewarm water is used to bathe a patient, to raise the body temperature. The plant is employed by the whites as an emmenagogue and antispasmodic. It has been used as a carminative to allay flatulent colic in infants, and is supposed to be useful in allaying hysteria.

Heal-all (Prunella vulgaris L.), “basi' bÛgÛk” [partridge leaf]. The root is used by the Flambeau Ojibwe in combination with others for a female remedy. It has been used by eclectic practitioners as a pungent and bitter tonic and antispasmodic. It has vermifuge properties and is slightly diuretic. It has also been used for obstructions of the liver, cramps and fits.

Marsh Skullcap (Scutellaria galericulata L.), “tcatcabonÛ' ksÎk” [refers to the way the stem comes up through the leaves]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use this for medicine, having something to do with heart trouble, but we could get no definite information upon it. There is no record of its use by white men, although a similar species, S. lateriflora has been used as a nervine, tonic and antispasmodic in chorea, convulsions, fits, delirium tremens and all nervous affections.

LEGUMINOSAE (PULSE FAMILY)

Creamy Vetchling (Lathyrus ochroleucus Hook.) “bÛgwa' dj Ûk pÎni' k mÎne' bÛg” [unusual potato, berry, leaf]. John Peper, Pillager Ojibwe, said that the foliage was fed to a pony to make him lively for a race. The Flambeau Ojibwe call it “basi' bÛgÛk” [partridge leaf], in common with several other plants, and say that the Creamy Vetch is used for stomach trouble. By the white men, it is considered one of the loco weeds, bad for horses.

Marsh Vetchling (Lathyrus palustris L.), “bebejÎgoga'nji macki' ki” [horse medicine]. The Pillager Ojibwe feed this to a pony that is sick and claim it will make him fat. There is no record of its use as medicine by white men.

White Sweet Clover (Melilotus alba Desr.). The Flambeau Ojibwe claim that this plant is adventive and so they do not use it. There is no record of its use as medicine by white men.

LICHENS

Reindeer Moss (Cladonia rangiferina [L.] Hoffm.) “asa' gÛniÑk'” [moss].

The Ojibwe boil this moss and use the water to wash a new born baby. They declare it is the same as if you were putting salt into the water. So far as is known, it has never been utilized as a medicine by the white man.

LILIACEAE (LILY FAMILY)

Northern Clintonia (Clintonia borealis [Ait.] Raf.), “gÎnose' wibÛg” [muskellunge leaf].[113] The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root tea as a remedy to help parturition. John Peper, Pillager Ojibwe called it “adota'gons” [little bell] and said that the dogs use it to poison their teeth so that they can kill their prey. Should they bite a person, then it would be necessary to procure the same root and put it on the bite to draw out the poison. This curious superstition was also encountered in another tribe,—the Menomini. There is no record of its medicinal use by white men.

Canada Mayflower (Maianthemum canadense Desf.), “agoÑgosi' mÎnÛn” [chipmunk berries], shown in plate 71, fig. 1. The Flambeau Ojibwe recognize that this is somewhat different from Spikenard (Smilacina racemosa), but give it the same name and uses, namely to keep the kidneys open during pregnancy, to cure sore throat and headaches. It is also used to make smoke for inhaling. The Pillager Ojibwe do not know or use it.

Small Solomon’s Seal (Polygonatum biflorum [Walt.] Ell.) “nanÎbÎte'ode'kÎn”, [grows in a row], shown in plate 72, fig. 2. The Pillager Ojibwe use the root as a physic and it is also cooked to yield a tea to treat a cough. White men have used it as a substitute for Convallaria for the same purposes, namely the treatment of dropsy.

False Spikenard (Smilacina racemosa [L.] Desf.), “agoÑgo' sÎmÎnÛn” [chipmunk berries], shown in plate 71, fig. 2. The Flambeau Ojibwe use this root in combination with Spreading Dogbane (Apocynum androsaemifolium) to keep the kidneys open during pregnancy, to cure sore throat and headache. It is also used as a reviver, “aba'bÛsÛn”. Convallarin is the important constituent of Spikenard and it is classed the same as Solomon’s Seal and Canada Mayflower.

Star-flowered Solomon’s Seal (Smilacina stellata [L.] Desf.) The Pillager Ojibwe have no name nor use for this root.

Carrion-flower (Smilax herbacea L.), “gÎne' bÎgomÎnaga'wÛnj” [snake berry bush], shown in plate 73, fig. 2. The root of this plant was used in lung troubles according to the Pillager Ojibwe. It has been used by eclectic practitioners as an alterative.

Twisted Stalk (Streptopus roseus Michx.), “nanibÎte' ode' kÎn”, [grows in a row], shown in plate 72, fig. 1. This plant is called by the same name as Polygonatum biflorum among the Pillager Ojibwe, but this particular one is always referred to as the squaw, while Polygonatum has always been called the man. It is used for a physic or to make tea for a cough. There is no record of its medicinal use by white men.

Large Flowered Bellwort (Uvularia grandiflora Sm.), “wesawabi' kwonÊk” [yellow light][114], the name applied to the plant, but the root is called “wabÛckadji' bÎk” [white root]. The Pillager Ojibwe use the root for stomach trouble. The trouble is described as a pain in the solar plexus, which may mean pleurisy. It has been used by eclectic practitioners for erysipelas, ulcerated mouth, etc.

LYCOPODIACEAE (CLUB MOSS FAMILY)

Ground Pine (Lycopodium complanatum L.), “gÎji'k gando' gÛng” [cedar-like]. The dried leaves are used by the Flambeau Ojibwe as a “nokwe'sÎkÛn” or reviver. Lycopodium spores are used by the white man as a surgical dusting powder.

Ground Pine (Lycopodium obscurum L. var. dendroideum [Michx.] D. C. Eaton) “cigona' gan” [evergreen], shown in plate 61, fig. 1. The Flambeau Ojibwe use this plant in combination with Bush Honeysuckle roots (Diervilla lonicera) as a diuretic. The spores are the only part used by the white man for medicine. They are an antiseptic dusting powder.

MENISPERMACEAE (MOONSEED FAMILY)

Canada Moonseed (Menispermum canadense L.), “bÎma' kwÎt wa' bÎgons” [twisted pod or stick]. White Cloud, Pillager Ojibwe of Bear Island, did not know the use of this root, but assured the writer that other Ojibwe knew it and used it. Moonseed root is used by eclectic practitioners as a tonic and alterative, and has been employed as a substitute for Sarsaparilla.

MYRICACEAE (BAYBERRY FAMILY)

Sweet Fern (Myrica asplenifolia L.), “gibaime' nÛna'gwÛs” [coverer]. Sweet fern is called “a coverer,” because it is used to line the blueberry pails and cover the berries to keep them from spoiling. The word is almost the same as that used by the Menomini and means the same. The Flambeau Ojibwe consider the leaves too strong for a beverage tea, but make a medicinal tea to cure the flux and cramps in the stomach. The white man uses Sweet Fern as a stimulant and astringent; sometimes using it to relieve colic and check diarrhea. It has also been used in a fomentation to relieve rheumatic pains.

NYCTAGINACEAE (FOUR-O’CLOCK FAMILY)

Heart-leaved Umbrella-wort (Oxybaphus nyctagineus [Michx.] Sweet) “goko' coadji' bÎk” (pig root). The Pillager Ojibwe say that the pig is fond of the roots of this plant because they are large and succulent, hence call it “pig root”. The root is used by them to reduce sprains and swellings. There is no record of its use among the whites.

NYMPHAEACEAE (WATER LILY FAMILY)

Sweet White Water Lily (Castalia odorata [Ait.] Woodville & Wood.), “odÎte'abÛg wa' bÎgwÛn” [flat heart leaf, white flower]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root as a cough medicine for those who have tuberculosis. The roots have been used by white men in the treatment of diarrhea, dysentery and leucorrhea.

Yellow Water Lily (Nymphaea advena Ait.), “oga' da mÛn” [standing on legs]. The Flambeau Ojibwe word is a bit different in spelling but means the same as the Menomini word for this plant. The Ojibwe call the leaves, “odÎte'abÛg” [flat heart leaf]. The root is the only medicinal part and is grated to make a poultice for sores. Other ingredients such as Skunk Cabbage root are added to this poultice. The Ojibwe gather goodly quantities of the large underwater stems; which we are prone to call roots, dry them and reduce them to powder. The powder alone is supposed to heal cuts and swellings. The roots have been used by white men in the treatment of diarrhea, dysentery and leucorrhea.

OLEACEAE (OLIVE FAMILY)

Red Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh), “a' gÎma'k” [snow-shoe wood]. The Pillager Ojibwe use the inner bark in combination with other things for a tonic. The inner bark is official with white men as a bitter tonic and astringent. It is also said to be valuable as an antiperiodic.

ONAGRACEAE (EVENING PRIMROSE FAMILY)

Great Willow-herb (Epilobium angustifolium L.), “o' ca cadji' bÎkes” [slippery or soap root], shown in plate 69, fig. 2. The Flambeau Ojibwe say that the outer rind of this root lathers in water and they pound it to make a poultice. This is used to draw out inflammation from a boil or a carbuncle. With white men, it is a demulcent, tonic and astringent. It has been used internally for its tonic effect on mucous surfaces and its value in intestinal disorders.

Evening Primrose (Oenothera biennis L.) While the Flambeau Ojibwe have no Indian name for this, still they use the whole plant soaked in warm water to make a poultice to heal bruises. Because of its antispasmodic properties, the white man has used it internally in the treatment of whooping cough, hiccough and spasmodic asthma.

OPHIOGLOSSACEAE (ADDER’S TONGUE FAMILY)

Virginia Grape Fern (Botrychium virginianum [L.] Sw.), “gÎckÊnsÎne' namÛkÛk” [man, squaw and baby], shown in plate 66, fig. 2. John Peper, Pillager Ojibwe, hunted a long time for this plant around Leech Lake, Minnesota, because his mother said it was good for lung trouble and consumption. He called attention to the fact that one always finds two stems together in the proper plant to use, which he described as the man and squaw, with the little one or fruiting frond, in the center. There is no record of its use by white men.

ORCHIDACEAE (ORCHIS FAMILY)

Yellow Ladies’ Slipper (Cypripedium parviflorum Salisb. var. pubescens [Willd.] Knight), “ma' kasÎn” [moccasin].[115] Among the Pillager Ojibwe, the root of this species is said to be a good remedy for female troubles of all kinds. The white man has used it as a gentle tonic for the nerves, a stimulant and antispasmodic, similar to Valerian, only less powerful.

Rein Orchis (Habenaria bracteata [Willd.] R. Br.), “goko'cgÛnda mÎnÊskwe' mÎn” [pig-woman enticer root]. The Ojibwe Pillager would smuggle this into food as an aphrodisiac, which they considered a bad use and not to be talked about or countenanced. There is no record of its use by the white men.

Adder’s Mouth (Microstylis unifolia [Michx.] BSP.) “aÎa' nÎkotci' mÎn” [twisted berry]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the tiny root of this plant to mix with Bush Honeysuckle bark (Diervilla lonicera) as a diuretic. There is no record of its use by white men.

PAPAVERACEAE (POPPY FAMILY)

Bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis L.)[116] “meskwa' dji' bÎkÛk” [red root]. The Pillager Ojibwe use the orange-red juice of the Bloodroot to cure sore throat. The juice is squeezed out on a lump of maple sugar, and this is retained in the mouth until it has melted away. They also use the juice to paint the face for the medicine lodge ceremony or when on the warpath.

Sanguinaria is official only in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, and in small doses it produces a sense of warmth in the stomach and stimulates gastric secretion. It is given as an expectorant and in larger doses as an emetic.

PINACEAE (PINE FAMILY)

Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea [L.] Mill), “jÎngo' b” [any kind of fir tree name], shown in plate 62, fig. 1. While the Flambeau Ojibwe call the tree “jÎngo' b” as a short term, the full name of the Balsam Fir according to them is “jÎngo' b pÎkewa' ndag”. They claim that the liquid balsam is used direct from the bark blister upon the eyes, for sore eyes. The leaves are a reviver or “aba' bÛsÛn” and are also used in combinations as a wash. The Pillager Ojibwe call it “jÎngo' bandag”, and use the balsam gum for colds and to heal sores. This corresponds to the way the Hudson Bay Indians use the bark. The needle-like leaves are placed upon live coals and the smoke is inhaled for colds. They are also used as a part of the medicine for the sweat bath.

The sweat bath is taken in a small hemispherical wigwam, like the regular abode, but entirely covered with mats or nowadays with canvas. The medicines are coiled into wreaths to fit into large iron kettles. Water is added and finally hot rocks which cause steam. The Indian taking the sweat bath may be taking it for ceremonial reasons, for cleansing, but most likely as a medicated steam bath. He sits naked within until there is no more steam and his body is entirely dried again. He then puts on all clean clothes and will not wear the discarded clothes until they have all been thoroughly washed. The candidate for degrees in the medicine lodge, must undergo the sweat bath in a ceremonial way. Usual plants employed to medicate the steam are White Pine leaves, Hemlock leaves, Arbor Vitae leaves, Wild Bergamot plant, Balsam needles, Peppermint plants, and the like. They are undoubtedly very beneficial to the health. Canada balsam is accounted the same medicinally as turpentine, but its principal value to the white man today is its perfect transparency and peculiar optical properties, which fit it for use in mounting microscopic specimens.

Tamarack (Larix laricina [Du Roi] Koch), “mÛckÎgwa' tÎg” [swamp tree], shown in plate 60, fig. 2. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the dried leaves as an inhalant and fumigator, “nokwe'sÎkÛn”. Larch bark has been highly valued in the past in chronic bronchitis with profuse expectoration, in chronic inflammation of the urinary passages, and in phases of hemorrhage.

White Spruce (Picea canadensis [Mill.] BSP.), “gawa' ndag”, shown in plate 62, fig. 2. The leaves of White Spruce are used in the same manner as Larch, as a “nokwe'sÎkÛn”, an inhalant or fumigator. The needle oil is considered about the same as turpentine, by white men.

Black Spruce (Picea mariana [Mill.] BSP.), “jingwÛp”. If the bark is meant as a medicinal salt, then its name is “jingwÛ' p gawa' ndag” but if the leaves are the part meant for a reviver, “aba busun”, then it carries only the name “jingwup”. The needle oil is used by white men the same as turpentine.

Jack Pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.), “gÎga' ndag”. The leaves are used as a reviver,—“nokwe' sÎkÛn” according to the Flambeau Ojibwe. There is no record of its medicinal use by the white men.

Norway Pine (Pinus resinosa Ait.), “abakwanÛg i'mÛg” [bark in plates], shown in plate 63, fig. 2. The Norway Pine is used in all particulars by the Flambeau Ojibwe, just as the White Pine.

White Pine (Pinus strobus L.), “jÎngwak kweseskwe' tÛk” according to Bearskin of the Flambeau Ojibwe, shown in plate 63, fig. 1, “jÎngwak waceskwe'do” according to Charley Burns of the Flambeau Ojibwe. The bark medicine is, “jÎngwak ona' gÊk” and is gathered in the same manner as by the Menomini, with a song to grandmother Earth, and the placing of tobacco on the ground. The cones, when boiled and likewise the bark of the young tree trunk yield a pitch which is medicine, called “jÎngwak bÛgÎo.” The dried leaves are powdered and used as a reviver or inhalant. There are three names referring to this sort of treatment, as said before,—“nokwe' sÎkÛn”, “sasa' bÎkwat” and “aba' bÛsÛn”. Of these three terms, “sasa' bÎkwat” is the proper one to use when White Pine needles are employed in this manner. White Pine is a very valuable remedy with all Ojibwe, but Norway Pine is sometimes substituted for it. White Pine bark is used in making cough syrup, by white men, but it possesses only feeble properties as an expectorant.

Arbor Vitae (Thuja occidentalis L.), “gi' jÎkandag” [sky or cedar tree].[117] The Flambeau Ojibwe use the leaves as a perfume, “aba' bÛsÛn” and also as a tea for headache. During ceremonies of the medicine lodge, it is necessary to purify sacred objects and the hands and persons of participants. A plate of live coals is used and dried Arbor Vitae leaves placed upon them. The servitor wafts the incense over sacred objects by fanning the smoke with his hands. Others hold their hands over and in the smoke, waving it upon their persons.

The Pillager Ojibwe call it by the simple name “gi' jÎk” [sky or cedar]. They also use it as a purifying incense, and as an ingredient for the sweat bath with White Pine, Balsam, Hemlock and other plants. They drink the boiled leaves claiming that the steam goes through the blood and purifies it. This treatment cures coughs.

The U. S. Pharmacopoeia formerly required that leaves for medicinal use be in a fresh state but the new formulary only requires them to be recently dried and leafy. Internally it has been used for an emmenagogue, for fevers, bronchial catarrh, rheumatism and to remove intestinal worms. Externally it is applied in ointment to treat ulcers, warts and cancerous growths.

Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis [L.] Carr.), “gagagi' wÎc” [raven tree]. The Flambeau Ojibwe medicine man puts the leaves in his medicinal tea to disguise the taste. The bark is used for healing cuts and wounds, and for stopping the flow of blood from a wound. The bark is rich in tannin and naturally quite astringent. White men have used the bark and its resulting pitch as substitutes for burgundy pitch in making plasters. These have been used as external remedies for lumbago, chronic rheumatic pains, chronic bronchitis and pleurisy.

PLANTAGINACEAE (PLANTAIN FAMILY)

Common Plantain (Plantago major L.), “ceca' gÛski' bÛge sÎnk” [leaves grow up and also lie flat on the ground].[118] The Flambeau Ojibwe soak the leaves in warm water then bind them on bruises, sprains or sores as a poultice. It is also a healing and soothing remedy for burns, scalds, bee stings, and snake bites. The Flambeau Ojibwe also refer to it as “pakwan”. The Pillager Ojibwe use it in the same manner but call it “jimÛcki' gobÛg” [sort of swamp leaf]. Although plantain is a feeble remedy, it has been ascribed potency in many diseases by eclectic practitioners. They still use it to some extent in treating inflammation of the skin, malignant ulcers, intermittent fevers, etc. The leaves are of some value in arresting hemorrhages when applied to the bleeding surfaces. The writer cured a badly swollen and lacerated hand, which swelled to three times its normal size, probably because dirt from a sewer was ground into it, with the simple leaf bound upon the hand.

POLYGONACEAE (BUCKWHEAT FAMILY)

Carey’s Persicaria (Polygonum careyi Olney). The Ojibwe have no name or use for this, nor have white men.

Swamp Persicaria (Polygonum muhlenbergii [Meisn.] Wats.), “agoÑgo' simÎnÛn” [chipmunk berries]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use this plant for a tea to cure a pain in the stomach. It is also hunting medicine. Several of the polygonums have been used by eclectic practitioners for their astringent properties.

Curled Dock (Rumex crispus L.) “ci'obÛg” [twisted leaf]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root, which contains considerable tannin, for closing and healing cuts. White men have used it for its astringent properties.

POLYPODIACEAE (FERN FAMILY)

Shield Fern (Aspidium cristatum [L.] Sw.), “ana' ganÛck” [fern]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root tea for stomach trouble. Among the white men, this fern has been found to have almost the same value as Male Fern as a teniafuge. Great care is exercised in the size of the dose and to see that no part of the drug remains in the system after it has performed its task of killing intestinal worms, as fatalities have been known to occur.

Female Fern (Asplenium filix-femina [L.] Bernh.), “ana' ganÛck” [fern]. The Flambeau Ojibwe grate the dry root into a powder which is used as a healing powder for sores. The Pillager Ojibwe call it “nokomi' skÎnÛn” [grandmother?]. The root is made into a tea to cause milk flow in patients with caked breast. There is a record of its medicinal use by white men to alleviate backache.

Sensitive Fern (Onoclea sensibilis L.), “a' nana' ganÛck” [fern]. The Pillager Ojibwe powder the dry root, and make a tea to give the patient whose breasts are caked, to stimulate the flow of milk. There is no record of its medicinal use by white men.

Brake (Pteris aquilina L.), “ana' ganÛck” [general fern name]. This is the general name of the bracken fern, where used for food. When used for medicine, it is called by the Flambeau Ojibwe—“makate' wa ana' ganÛck” [black fern], and the root is made into tea to alleviate cramps in the stomach. It is only used by the women for this purpose. The dried leaves are smoked upon live coals to relieve a headache. Under the name “a' nanagana' wÛck” the root is used by the Pillager Ojibwe in the same manner as by the Flambeau Ojibwe. White men have considered this root to be pectoral, demulcent, purgative and anthelmintic. A syrup solution is used in pulmonary and hepatic diseases. A strong decoction is used to expel worms.

PRIMULACEAE (PRIMROSE FAMILY)

So far as is known, none of the Primrose family is used by the Ojibwe for medicine. The Pillager Ojibwe did not know the Tufted Loosestrife (Lysimachia thyrsiflora L.).

RANUNCULACEAE (CROWFOOT FAMILY)

Red Baneberry (Actaea rubra [Ait.] Willd.), “wÎckobidji'bÎk” [sweet root], shown in plate 76, fig. 1. The Pillager Ojibwe make a tea from the root, to be drunk by women after childbirth. It is to clear up the system. A man also eats the root for stomach troubles. White men use the root as a substitute for Black Cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa), which it resembles in appearances and properties. It has been used in treating ovarian neuralgia, uterine tenderness, subinvolution, and amenorrhea. It has also been used as a substitute for digitalis in fatty or irritable heart, but only after other remedies have failed. Headache due to eyestrain has also been cured by this root.

Canada Anemone (Anemone canadensis L.), “mÎdewidji' bÎk” [medicine lodge root], shown in plate 74, fig. 2. The Pillager Ojibwe eat the root of this plant to clear the throat so they can sing well in the medicine lodge ceremony,—a sort of throat lozenge. Most of the anemones have been substituted for Pulsatilla and used for the same host of diseases by eclectic practitioners. Included in these ailments are: cataract, paralysis, rheumatism, melancholia, syphilis, dysmenorrhea, and many other morbid conditions.

Thimble-weed (Anemone cylindrica Gray.), “gande gwa' soninke' cÎnagwÛk” [looks like tumble-weed]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root for making a tea to relieve lung congestion and tuberculosis. Among the white men it has the same uses as Canada Anemone.

Wild Columbine (Aquilegia canadensis L.), shown in plate 74, fig. 1. The Pillager Ojibwe have no name for this plant, but the root is considered a good medicine for stomach trouble. Eclectic practitioners consider it a diuretic, diaphoretic, and antiscorbutic, using it in jaundice, in smallpox to promote eruption, and in scurvy.

Goldthread (Coptis trifolia [L.] Salisb.), “wesa wa' nikwe'ak” [yellow?] and “wesa wadji'bÎkwe'ak” [yellow root], shown in plate 75, fig. 1. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the decoction of the root to soothe and heal the baby’s gums while it is teething. It is also used as a mouth wash for adults when their mouths are sore. This use has been adopted by white men, who also use it in dyspepsia and chronic inflammation of the stomach.

Bristly Crowfoot (Ranunculus pennsylvanicus L. f.), “manwe' gons”. The seeds are a hunting medicine with the Flambeau Ojibwe. Several of the Ranunculaceae have been used as counter-irritants by the white men.

Cursed Crowfoot (Ranunculus sceleratus L.). The Pillager Ojibwe do not know this plant, and have no name for it. Eclectic practitioners have used it as a counter-irritant.

Purple Meadow Rue (Thalictrum dasycarpum Fisch. & Lall.), shown in plate 73, fig. 1. The Pillager Ojibwe have no Indian name for this, but use the root to make a tea to reduce fever. The properties of this root are considered almost identical with Berberis, which is used by white men as a tonic, stimulant and antiperiodic.

ROSACEAE (ROSE FAMILY)

Agrimony (Agrimonia gryposepala Wallr.), “saga' tÎgans” [seeds stick], shown in plate 77, fig. 1. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root with other ingredients as a medicine for urinary troubles. It is not much valued now by white men, although it has been used for its bitter astringent properties.

Smooth Juneberry (Amelanchier laevis Wiegand), “goziga'gominaga'wÛnj” [thorny wood][119] according to John Whitefeather, Flambeau Ojibwe, and “bÎsega'gomÎnaga'wÛnj” according to Charley Burns, another Flambeau Ojibwe who said that the bark was used for medicine, but he did not know what it was to treat. The Pillager Ojibwe call it “goziga'gomÎnÛk” and say that the bark is to make a tea for the expectant mother. There is no record of its medicinal use by white men.

Hawthorn (Crataegus sp.), “mÎnesaga' wÛnj” [berries and thorn bush], shown in plate 77, fig. 2. The Flambeau Ojibwe use both the fruit and the bark for medicine, a kind not made now, other than for women. Eclectic practitioners have used the berries for their astringent and reputed cardiac properties.

Wild Strawberry (Fragaria virginiana Duchesne), “ode' imÎnÎdji' bÎk,” [heart berry root].[120] The root of the common Wild Strawberry is used to make a tea good for the stomach-ache, and especially for babies. The white man uses the herb as an astringent and tonic for convalescents and especially for children having bowel and bladder weakness.

Large-leaved Avens (Geum macrophyllum Willd.), “wica'wasa' konek” [yellow light]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use this for a female remedy. Eclectic practitioners consider the root tonic and astringent.

Rough Cinquefoil (Potentilla monspeliensis L.), “tcode' imÎnaga' wÛnj” [like a strawberry]. This plant seemed to be known to all the Pillager Ojibwe, even the eight-year-old girls, as a physic. There is no record of its use as a medicine by white men.

Marsh Five-finger (Potentilla palustris [L.] Scop.), “beba' akwÛndek” [floats about]. This was dug from the water by John Whitefeather’s wife, Flambeau Ojibwe, who said it was a cure for cramps in the stomach, and is used alone as one medicine. Under the Pillager Ojibwe name of “mÛcki' godji'bÎk” [swamp root], John Peper said that it was medicine with them, but he did not know how to use it. There is no record of its use as medicine by white men.

Pin Cherry (Prunus pennsylvanica L. f.), “bae'wimÎnÛn”. The inner bark is a valued remedy for coughs. Most of the species of cherry have been used by white men for the bitter principle contained, which suits it for use as a stomachic and bitter tonic in gastric atony and general debility. The syrup of wild cherry has been used as a pleasant vehicle for other drugs.

Wild Cherry (Prunus serotina Ehrh.) “okwe' mÎn” [worm out of a fly’s egg; refers to the little worms in a cherry when it is ripe].[121] The Flambeau Ojibwe value the bark of this species to make a tea as a remedy for coughs and colds. It is used the same as Pin Cherry by white men.

Choke Cherry (Prunus virginiana L.), “a' sasawe' mÎnaga' wÛnj.”[122] The Pillager Ojibwe make a tea for lung trouble from the inner bark. This is the official bark in the pharmacopoeia, which is used as a stomachic and bitter tonic useful in gastric atony and general debility. Wild cherry syrup is used to mask other unpleasant drugs.

Smooth Rose (Rosa blanda Ait.), “ogÎne' mÎnaga' ons” [rose berries].[123] The Pillager Ojibwe use the skin of the fruit or “rose hip” for stomach trouble. The Flambeau Ojibwe call it “ogÎni” or “ogÎni' gawÛnj” [rose berries]. They dry and powder the flowers for use in relieving heartburn. The skin of the rose hips is a medicine for indigestion. Rose hips are described by white men as refrigerant and astringent, but are only used in medicine to prepare the confection of hips. Roses are used almost wholly today to impart their pleasant odor to pharmaceutical preparations.

High Bush Blackberry (Rubus allegheniensis Porter), “o'dataga' gomÎc” [its name].[124] The Flambeau Ojibwe boil the canes to obtain a tea that is used as a diuretic. The roots furnish a tea for arresting flux. Blackberry and Dewberry root are official in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia because of their tonic and astringent properties. They are favorite household remedies among white men in the treatment of summer diarrhea of children and adults. Blackberry cordial is often used for the same purpose.

Red Raspberry (Rubus idaeus L. aculeatissimus [C. A. Mey] Regel & Tiling) “meskwa' mÎnaga' wÛnj” [red bush berry]. The Flambeau Ojibwe value the berries as a seasoner for their medicines. That is, the flavor is used to disguise less pleasant ingredients. The root bark makes a tea for healing sore eyes. Under the name Rubi Idei Fructus, N. F. white men use the berries for making an agreeable syrup as a vehicle for less pleasant tasting medicines. When the Red Raspberry is not readily available the Black Cap Raspberry is used in the same manner.

Meadow-sweet (Spiraea salicifolia L.), “wabÛckÎki' bug” [rabbit leaf]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root as a trapping medicine. There is no record of its use by the white man.

Steeple Bush (Spiraea tomentosa L.), “memÎsgwÛ'nagÛg” [squaws’ drink]. The Flambeau Ojibwe make a tea from the leaves and flowers of the Steeple Bush to drink for the sickness of pregnancy and to act as an easy parturient. The whites have used the root and the leaves as an astringent and tonic, in diarrhea, hemorrhages, gonorrhea, ulcers, etc.

RUBIACEAE (MADDER FAMILY)

Goose Grass (Galium aparine L.), “sakate' bwi” [stickers]. The whole plant is used by the Pillager Ojibwe to make a tea used for a diuretic, in kidney trouble, gravel, stoppage of urine, and allied ailments. Other species are used in much the same way and for the same purposes. White men have recognized it as a valuable refrigerant and diuretic, and have found it useful in diseases of the urinary organs. It is not recommended for diseases of a passive character, on account of its refrigerant and sedative effects, but is used freely in fevers and all acute diseases.

Small Cleaver (Galium tinctorium L.), “waboskÎki' mÎnÛn” [rabbit swamp berries]. The Flambeau Ojibwe make a medicinal tea from the whole plant, for its beneficial effect upon the respiratory organs. Eclectic practitioners have used it for its nervine, antispasmodic, expectorant and diaphoretic properties. It has been successfully used in asthma, cough, and chronic bronchitis. The plant has a pungent, aromatic, pleasant, persistent taste.

Small Bedstraw (Galium trifidum L.), “ojÎbwe' owe' cÛwÛn”, [ojibwe male genitalia]. The Pillager Ojibwe make a medicinal tea of this species for skin diseases such as eczema, ringworm and scrofula. White men undoubtedly use it in much the same way as the preceding species through error in identifying it correctly.

RUTACEAE (RUE FAMILY)

Prickly Ash (Zanthoxylum americanum Mill.), “gawa' kumÎc”,[125] [its name]. Both Flambeau and Pillager Ojibwe make trips further south to get this bark, since none of the trees grow near them. They want it for treating quinsy and sore throat. They say that even the berries are good for a hot tea to treat sore throat, and also to use as a spray on the chest to cool and relieve congestion in bronchitis. Among the white men, it is considered a stimulant, tonic, alterative and sialagogue and is used for chronic rheumatism, colic, syphilis, and hepatic derangements.

SALICACEAE (WILLOW FAMILY)

Balsam Poplar (Populus balsamifera L.), “manasa' di” [perfume poplar]. The Pillager Ojibwe cook the buds of the Balsam Poplar in lard or bear fat, and use the cold product for a salve on cuts, wounds or bruises. They also rub it on the inside of the nostrils, so that the balsamic odors can course through the respiratory passages and open them in case of congestion from cold, catarrh or bronchitis. Poplar buds are also official with white men who use them as a stimulating expectorant, and in the form of an ointment in treating sluggish ulcers and sores. Eclectic practitioners have used tinctures of the buds for stomach and kidney treatment and in scurvy and rheumatism, and sometimes, apply it to the chest. The bark is used by white men for a tonic and cathartic, of service in gout and rheumatism.

Large-toothed Aspen (Populus grandidentata Michx.), “asadi” [bitter bark]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the young roots of this tree in a tea as a hemostatic. There is no record of its use by the whites.

Quaking Aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.), “asadi” [poplar]. The Flambeau Ojibwe give this tree the same name as the Large-toothed Aspen. They use the bark of a young trunk for poulticing cuts and wounds. The astringent salacin in the inner bark undoubtedly draws the cuts together and causes healing. The Pillager Ojibwe distinguish the tree with a slightly different name, “asadins”, the diminutive of “asadi”, meaning “little poplar”. They use the inner bark for poulticing a sore arm or leg, and make the inner layer of their splints of the inner bark so that a broken limb may heal healthily. Eclectic practitioners use both bark and leaves in treating acute rheumatism, also to lower the temperature in fevers, to relieve pain and reduce arterial swellings, colds, hay fever, influenza, neuralgia and diabetes. Externally the whites have used it as a wash for gangrenous wounds, eczema, cancer, burns, and body odor.

Crack Willow (Salix fragilis L.), “sizigo' bimÎc” [willow name]. This tree has escaped from cultivation around the water-courses of the Flambeau Reservation and has been accepted by the Ojibwe there as efficacious along with the native willows. The bark is astringent from its salacin content and is used as a styptic and poultice for sores. Willow bark was formerly employed by physicians among the whites as a stomachic and antiperiodic in the treatment of intermittents, but is rarely used today.

Shining Willow (Salix lucida Muhl.), “zigo' bamÎc”. The Pillager Ojibwe use the bark of this species as an external remedy for sores. The Ojibwe do not generally distinguish any particular willow with any other name, but Whitefeather, Flambeau Ojibwe, called this species “mÛckigo' bamÎc” [swamp tree] and said it was used on a cut to stop the bleeding, and that the bark was also a poultice material for sores. Other Flambeau Ojibwe called it “sizigo' bamÎc”, but it was generally noticed that in that latitude the Shining Willow was invariably found in swamps, and not along streams, so there is justification for Whitefeather’s name. Among the whites, this bark was used formerly as a stomachic and antiperiodic.

Bog Willow (Salix pedicellaris Pursh.), “sizigo' bamÎc”. This is a species of the cold bogs and meadows found far up toward the Arctic Circle. While the Pillager Ojibwe did not give it a distinctive name, they said it was not used for bark to smoke, but for bark to treat stomach trouble. There is no record of its use by whites.

SARRACENIACEAE (PITCHER-PLANT FAMILY)

Pitcher-plant (Sarracenia purpurea L.), “o' makaki' wÎdass” [frog’s leggins], as shown in plate 67, fig. 1. Bearskin, Flambeau Ojibwe medicine man had a slight variant in pronouncing this—“o' makaki' odass”. He said that the root is used to make a tea to help a woman accomplish parturition. Eclectic practitioners used the whole plant to make a tea for a tonic, stimulant, diuretic and laxative.

SAXIFRAGACEAE (SAXIFRAGE FAMILY)

Wild Red Currant (Ribes triste Pall.), “mÎci' tcimÎnÛk.” The Flambeau Ojibwe use the leaves as some sort of a female remedy. There is no record of its use by the whites.

SCROPHULARIACEAE (FIGWORT FAMILY)

Butter and Eggs (Linaria vulgaris Hill.), “owacawa' skwÛneg” [yellow light]. The whole plant is dried by the Flambeau Ojibwe and used in the kettle with other foliage and twigs as a bronchial inhalant in the sweat lodge. The Ojibwe name for medicine to be inhaled is “nokwe'sÎkÛn” which sounds much like the Menomini Indian name for the same thing,—“na' sÎkon”. The eclectic practitioners claimed that the plant is diuretic, and cathartic, using it in dropsy, jaundice, and cutaneous eruptions. The fresh plant was sometimes used as a poultice for hemorrhoidal tumors, and an ointment was made of the fresh flowers for the same purpose and to use locally in diseases of the skin. In Germany, the flowers were used for a yellow dye.

Cow Wheat (Melampyrum lineare Lam.), “agoÑgasi' mÎnÛk” [chipmunk berries]. The Flambeau Ojibwe say that this plant is made into a tea, which is a “little medicine for the eyes”. There is no record of its medicinal use by the whites.

Wood Betony (Pedicularis canadensis L.), “mandamÎ' nÎodji' bÎkÎns” [little corn root]. According to John Peper, Pillager Ojibwe, this root was a bad kind of medicine, an aphrodisiac, when cut fine and placed in some dish of food without the knowledge of those who were going to eat it. There is no record of its medicinal use by the whites.

Mullein (Verbascum thapsus L.). The Flambeau Ojibwe have no name for this since it has come into their territory from the south and they do not use it. The writer has gathered this for his grandmother who smoked the leaves for relieving asthma and bronchitis. The flowers are supposed to have diuretic properties and have been used in the treatment of tuberculosis.

THYMELEACEAE (MEZEREUM FAMILY)

Moosewood (Dirca palustris L.), “djibe' gÛb” [djibe means a dead person, or ghost or spirit]. The bark of Moosewood is very soft, strong and elastic, so that twigs can be tied into knots. The Pillager Ojibwe say that all their people use it as a tea for a diuretic. The bark is sometimes substituted for Mezereum bark, which is official in the U. S. pharmacopoeia. It is usually used in a compound decoction with sarsaparilla for chronic skin diseases, and syphilitic, rheumatic and scrofulous conditions. As an external ointment, it was used for a stimulant to foul or ill-conditioned ulcers.

TYPHACEAE (CAT-TAIL FAMILY)

Cat-tail (Typha latifolia L.), “bebamasÛ'n” [it flies around]. The Flambeau Ojibwe used the fuzz of the fruit for a war medicine. They claim that the fuzz thrown into an enemy’s face will blind him.

UMBELLIFERAE (PARSLEY FAMILY)

Musquash Root (Cicuta maculata L.), “apagwasÎ'gons”. The Pillager Ojibwe say that this root is used a little in their medicine, but did not know just how. It was smoked in hunting.

Cow Parsnip (Heracleum lanatum Michx.) “pi' pÎgwe' wanÛck” [flute stem].[126] The Pillager Ojibwe pound the fresh root and apply it as a poultice to cure sores. The fresh leaves and root are known to produce vesication or blisters by the whites, and therefore have been used by them as counter-irritants. The root has been used by eclectic practitioners to cure epilepsy. In infusions, it is thought to cure dyspeptic disorders.

Sweet Cicely (Osmorhiza longistylis [Torr.] D. C.), “osaga' tÎkÛm” [interlaced twigs]. The same name was applied by the Pillager Ojibwe to O. claytoni, and evidently they did not distinguish between the two species. A tea for making parturition easier is prepared from the roots. The liquorice flavor of the tea is said to be good for a sore throat.

Wild Parsnip (Pastinaca sativa L.), “pigwe'wÛnÛsk” [flute stem]. The Pillager Ojibwe are quite cautious in using this poisonous root. They claim that a little bit is very powerful, while much is poisonous. They use a very minute quantity mixed with four other kinds of roots to make a medicinal tea for female troubles. There is no record of its medicinal use by the whites.

Black Snakeroot (Sanicula marilandica L.), “masan” [from the woods]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root pounded as a poultice to cure rattlesnake bite or any snake bite. Bearskin, chief Flambeau medicine man said that if this root be chewed, it would cause eruptions on the epithelial lining of the mouth. They consider it a very potent remedy. The Pillager Ojibwe call it “gÎne'bÎg odji' bÎk” [snake root] and make a root tea that is used to cure fevers of various kinds. Eclectic practitioners have accredited it with active aromatic, bitter principles. They have used it in intermittent fevers, sore throat, erysipelas and cutaneous affections. It has been also used for St. Vitus dance and other nervous affections.

URTICACEAE (NETTLE FAMILY)

Hop (Humulus lupulus L.), “jiwÎ'cgoni'bÛg”. The Pillager Ojibwe use the common hop to make a tea which acts like saleratus on the system, increasing the excresence of urine and reducing its acidity. It is official in the U. S. pharmacopoeia as a tonic, diuretic, sedative and somewhat anaphrodisiac.

Wood Nettle (Laportea canadensis [L.] Gaud.), “masa'natÎk” [forest wood]. The Pillager Ojibwe use the root to make a medicinal tea for its diuretic properties. It is said to cure various urinary ailments. Eclectic practitioners have considered it tonic, astringent and diuretic. They use both roots and leaves. The seeds and flowers are given in wine for the ague.

Slippery Elm (Ulmus fulva Michx.), “anib”. The Pillager Ojibwe use the slippery inner bark for sore throat, especially when the throat is apt to be dry. Slippery Elm is official in the U. S. pharmacopoeia as a demulcent, emollient and nutritive. It is considered useful internally for dysentery, diarrhea and bronchitis. Pounded bark for poultices has been used for boils and inflammations, and in compounding suppositories.

Lyall’s Nettle (Urtica lyallii Wats.), “masan” [woods]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use only the leaves as medicine. These are soaked in warm water and used as a poultice for heat rashes. It is something like fighting fire with fire. Among the whites, nettles are known for their powerful and peculiar diuretic properties.

VIOLACEAE (VIOLET FAMILY)

Canada Violet (Viola canadensis L.) Although a common violet in the territory of the Pillager Ojibwe, they claimed to have no name or use for it. It was formerly used by eclectic practitioners as a blood purifier and as a remedy in chronic affections of the lungs, and in skin diseases, but is no longer used.

American Dog Violet (Viola conspersa Reichenb.), “wewaÎe' bÛgÛg”. The whole plant is used by the Flambeau Ojibwe to make a tea for heart trouble. The whole plants have been used among the whites as alterative and expectorant remedies. They were said to be useful in skin diseases, scrofula, syphilis and bronchitis.

VITACEAE (VINE FAMILY)

River-bank Grape (Vitis vulpina L.), “ci'wÎ mÎnÛn” or “ciwÎ mÎnaga wÛnj”, shown in plate 70, fig. 2. The Pillager Ojibwe used a tea of boiled twigs for women to drink to clear up afterbirth and enable it to pass easily. They use the sap as a medicine for stomach and bowel trouble. Among the whites, the tender branchlets and leaves were sometimes employed for their agreeable acidulous flavor.

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