APPENDIX. Articles Received too Late to be Included Alphabetically Between Pages 117 and 212.
Chains, Cables, and Anchors.—[Benjamin Hingley, M.P.]—(B. 99). The manufacture of chains, cables, and anchors is carried on at Tipton, and to a much larger extent at Netherton, and in the neighbourhood of Old Hill near Dudley. The manufacture of chain cables in their present form, namely, with elongated links supported by a bar or stud in the centre of each link is of comparatively modern origin; there are Naval men still living who remember that Men-of-War and Merchant Ships were fitted with hempen cables of large diameter, which occupied a considerable space in the fore-hold of the ship. The British Fleet in Nelson’s fighting days knew not chain cables, but was encumbered with large coils of hempen rope.
It is certain that iron chains of some description were known and used in the days of the Romans, as it is recorded that Julius CÆsar could not cut the cables of the vessels of the Gauls, because they were made of iron. Such chains were doubtless a succession of iron rings, or “S” hooks of comparatively small size. It is believed that the first chain cable was used on a British Ship, in the year 1808. It was made by a blacksmith named Robert Flinn, at North Shields, for a vessel which at that time was reckoned to be of a considerable size, namely, the “Ann and Isabella.” of 221 tons. It not only saved that vessel when in peril, but also saved a whole tier of ships that had been made fast to her, their hempen cables having been cut by the ice, owing to a great flood with much ice in the Tyne. This notable instance gave a great impetus to the making of chain cables on the banks of the Tyne, where it is still carried on to a considerable extent.
At about the same date, Samuel Brown, afterwards Sir Samuel Brown, a Lieutenant in the Royal Navy, having, it is said, been in communication with Flinn, and taken a great interest in Flinn’s iron cables, took out a patent, and in the year 1810 he prevailed upon the British Admiralty to put iron cables on several Men-of-War, with such successful results that the days of hempen cables became numbered; Lieutenant Brown afterwards devoted his attention to the making of chain cables, and established a manufactory at Millwall on the Thames, he also, with the assistance of “John Rennie, an Engineer,” constructed an efficient testing machine as he “was of opinion that there was nothing more essential in completing an iron cable than the most rigid attention to proving.”
The manufacture of chain cables naturally commenced on the sea coast, and it rapidly spread from the Tyne and Wear, where it first commenced, to London, Liverpool, Bristol, and to Aberdeen, and Irvine in Scotland. It may be said, that up to the year 1820, although chain making was a local industry in the district of Birmingham, it was confined to small welded chains in the form of elongated rings, for farming and domestic purposes; but about the year 1820 a new impetus was given to it by the late Mr. Noah Hingley, who then carried on business as a nail master and dealer in small chains at Cradley Heath near Dudley. He in the course of his business made periodical visits to the Port of Liverpool, travelling sometimes by the Stage Coach, and at other times on horseback, and there, one of the new chain cables, with a stud in the centre of each link, attracted his attention. He at once resolved to develop the trade in Staffordshire, and without hesitation made a contract to supply to a Liverpool ship owner, a chain cable made of iron 1½ inch diameter to be used in lieu of an hempen one. It was a bold venture, as no workman in the Midland district had ever seen a chain of such large size, or one fitted with studs, but after a few trials a workman with the assistance of two strikers, and two boys to blow the bellows, succeeded in turning out a good chain cable which was duly delivered in Liverpool, and did good service on board ship. The making of this first chain cable was a source of wonder in the district, and people came from far and wide to see it.
Mr. Hingley afterwards introduced the making of anchors in a similar manner—bringing men from Liverpool with a knowledge of the trade, and afterwards erecting the first Nasmyth’s steam hammer for that purpose in the Staffordshire district, namely, at Netherton Ironworks, near Dudley.
Mr. Hingley lived to see the chain cable and anchor trade developed to a large extent, and by several eminent firms who engaged in the business in and about Dudley; he also took part in the establishment of efficient public testing machines at Netherton and at Tipton, under the authority of an Act of Parliament, making compulsory the testing of cables and anchors for British ships. The machines in question are under the control of the Board of Trade, and of Lloyd’s Registry of British and Foreign shipping, and are of the most powerful description. One of the machines at Netherton is not only capable of testing, but also of breaking for experimental purposes, a chain made of bar iron 4 inches in diameter.
The manufacture of anchors and cables is now almost exclusively located in Staffordshire, having entirely left the sea coast except at Newcastle-on-Tyne. The making of chain cables and anchors is for the most part carried on in factories and exclusively by men and boys with the aid of machinery, but the smaller chains for a variety of purposes, and especially trace chains, are made to a large extent by women and girls in shops attached to the cottages. There are many hundreds, probably a thousand or two, of the shops in question spread around the district of Cradley Heath and Old Hill in the county of Stafford. It cannot be said that such work is unsuitable for women and girls within certain limits; but there is no doubt that close inspection under the Workshops Act is necessary, and that there should be strict limitations of the hours of labour. The tendency is not only to work children of tender years, but to do so until late at night, especially at the end of the week, to make up for lost time in the earlier part of the week. It is computed that the Staffordshire chain and anchor trade as a whole consumes annually about 50,000 to 70,000 tons of iron, according to the state of trade, and the annual value, when trade is fair, approaches one million sterling. The workpeople earn from five shillings per week—the wages of a woman or girl—to fifty shillings per week, the wages of a large cable maker. It is a singular fact that anchor makers are to a considerable extent either Irish or of Irish origin, the descendants of the original stock imported from Liverpool by the late Mr. Noah Hingley. Their work is laborious and the wages continue high, varying from thirty to sixty shillings per week, and for the most part they spend it freely.
Die Sinking.—[G. Sherriff Tye.]—(B. 560.) For brooches, buttons, &c., a block of iron is moulded by the forger on to which a piece of cast steel is welded. Medal dies are all steel, as the powerful pressure applied would flatten them were they of iron. When a sharp blow is given, instead of pressure, the part-steel die stands the blow well, though it will not withstand a squeeze. While the steel is soft the die is cut out with steel cutting tools and finished by gravers, previous to the final polishing. The die sinkers of Birmingham make dies for the following purposes, among others: buttons, military ornaments, brassfoundry, plated wares, tea trays and tin work, gun work and small iron work, medals and coins, jewellery, seals for wax and paper embossing, brass dies for paper wrappers and bands, as used in the wholesale linen trades; needles, papers, etc., wheels and rolls for ornamenting metal tubes or sheets.
Saddlery Trade.—[Thomas Middlemore.]—(B. 463). Obsolete Articles of Manufacture.—The articles supplied by the Saddlery trades being for use rather than for ornament, it follows that fashion can have little effect in making any of them obsolete. Old wants have still to be satisfied.
It is yet worth noticing that whilst a very large trade was done some 30 years ago in shot belts, shot and cap pouches, and powder flasks, this trade has now become practically obsolete, since the breechloader has superseded the muzzleloader. Cartridges, both for military and sporting purposes, are now carried in a bag, or a bandolier, i.e., a shoulder or waist belt, to which is fastened transversely a series of pockets, each of which holds a cartridge.
New varieties introduced.—For welts of saddles, “hide bellies” split very thin have for the most part taken the place of seal skins. Crocodile skins have been used occasionally for saddles with indifferent success, but for bags, purses and pocket books, they, along with snake skins, have been largely and successfully employed. Calf skins for the latter purposes have been superseded by hides split specially thin. Kangaroo skins are now used in the whip trade for covering whips, but still more for making the whip thong. Hog skins, for which formerly the sole use was the saddle manufacture, are now prepared for furniture purposes, bookbinding, and bags. They have the advantages of being very durable, and of having a unique and handsome grain.
Saddles—The old “spring bar,” to which the stirrup leather is fastened, is gradually giving way to the “safety bar,” the object of which is to release the rider in the event of a fall, and to remove the danger of his being dragged, which is an universally admitted fault of the old “spring bar.” Further, increased safety is secured to lady riders by various “safety stirrups” which render dragging by the foot impossible. For the comfort of the horse the following inventions are worth notice:—“Gaussen’s corrugated rubber pannels” which break the jar caused by the weight of the rider—“Inflated air pannels,” which have the same effect—“ventilating pannels,” which are at the same time movable; these last prevent the danger of sore backs, and are very readily cleaned; they promise to become of general use.
Harness.—The changes that have here taken place concern rather the furniture or metal work, than the general form. For cheaper kinds of harness, electro-plating has superseded close plating. Again, electro-plating in its turn is being superseded by the new white metals, which are alloys having the colour of silver, and of analogous composition to German silver. The advantages of the new metals are, that they are uniform in their composition, and therefore durable, cheap, and of good appearance.
Military.—The regulation saddle of 20 years back, called the “Nolan,” has been superseded by an “Iron Arch Saddle,” and now another regulation, introduced in 1884, made entirely of steel, with the exception of the wooden side bars, is being used along with the “Iron Arch Saddle.” The old “knapsack” has given place to the new “Valise Equipment,” which was designed to distribute the weight of the pack more evenly. On the introduction of the Camel Corps, a special equipment was designed. Large quantities of this pattern were used in the Egyptian campaign.
Travelling Appointments.—The “Gladstone Bag,” a combination of a bag and portmanteau, has become more popular than any kind of either the one or the other. Tin Boxes have quite replaced the old wooden trunks. The quality has, however, of late years, been so reduced in order to force a sale, that unquestionably a reaction has set in against them. When damaged they are unsightly, and cannot be repaired. Baskets covered with canvas or leather are now, in consequence of their cheapness, lightness, and strength, much used for ladies’ travelling trunks. The introduction of Bicycles and Tricycles has created a new and vast trade in saddles, satchels, and the like for wheelmen. The trade is now only second in importance to that for ordinary English riding saddles.
Increase since 1865.—In the year 1864, the declared value of the exports of saddlery and harness for the United Kingdom was £345,419. For the year 1885, the total value was only £385,687. This increase, of less than 12 per cent., compares unfavourably with that of the sixteen years from 1849 to 1865, which was more than 300 per cent. The exports for the first four months of the present year were £122,093, which is less than the exports for the same period in 1865 by £8,569. This declining prosperity, which has occurred during the past five years, is due to a strangled trade in South Africa, and droughts in Australasia. Good seasons, and a rise in the wool market, give promise of an immediately better future for the saddlery trade.
Effects of the spread of Civilization on Supply of Raw Material.—The most noteworthy fact in the leather trade, with regard to the spread of civilization upon its supply of material, is furnished by the basils now sent in enormous quantities from the Australasian Colonies. Before 1865, a sheep was grown simply for its fleece, and tallow. Of late years the skin has been tanned, and converted into a basil. These Colonial basils supply a demand which the home production has, of late years, failed to satisfy. The Colonial basils are excellent in colour and texture. If they were tanned in larch instead of the native mimosa bark, they could scarcely be further improved. The increase of competition has, during the past twenty years, led to the adulteration of leather. The adulterants most used are glucose and barytes. Such adulteration is now so general, that large consumers of leather are compelled to avail themselves of the resources of chemical science, in order to learn the true value of the leather they buy, by ascertaining the kind, and by estimating the quantity of the adulterant employed in the leather tested.
New Processes introduced in Leather Dressing.—The old “Splitting” Machines have been improved, and a new kind called the “Band Knife” has been introduced. Further Machines for “Scouring,” “Setting,” and “Rolling” leather have been invented, which do their work both better and cheaper than hand labour. The currier, as a rule, welcomes these machines, since he is thereby relieved from much hard physical toil, whilst his special skill has an unimpaired scope, and is just that part of his work that is best remunerated. Saddles—The sewing by Machine has now become universal, and in point of quality is only just inferior to hand work. Harness—The “Lock Stitch” Machine has superseded the “Chain Stitch” Machine. The former sews with hard wax, such as is used in handwork. Generally for all cutting, where quantities are required, and when shaped pieces other than strips are wanted, the steam press has superseded the hand knife.
Machinery or Hand Labour.—During the last 20 years all branches of the saddlery trades have benefited by the steadily increased employment of machinery—this is most marked in the currying of leather.
Effects of Improved modes of Manufacture on Cost of Production.—The articles of the saddlery trade combine so many different kinds of material and include such a variety of labour, that no estimate could be relied upon of the reduction of cost due to improved methods of manufacture. The values of articles generally reckoned in money are about 10 per cent. below the values of 1865.
Present Extent and Description of Manufacture.—In regard to the Home trade it is only needful to say that owing to the agricultural depression of the past 10 years, the demand for saddlery has very greatly fallen off. To some extent this falling off in bulk is supplied by the demands of cycle riders. In the Foreign trade the past 20 years have witnessed a vast development of the demand from the South African Colonies. This, owing to a series of seasons of drought, to the commercial panic of the diamond fields, and to the unsettled political state of the Colonies, has been followed by an unparalleled state of depression, which has made the export saddlery trade one of the most disastrously depressed of our industries. Indeed, it has been remarked by one thoroughly conversant with the trade, that, if the present state of things continue, Walsall, which solely depends on the saddlery and leather trades, will, before long, wear the same look as Bruges, with grass growing in its streets.
Effects of Foreign Tariffs.—The effect of the continued high duties in the United States has been to practically kill the English trade both in saddlery and saddlers’ ironmongery. Since the Franco-German war, the French tariff has been increased. This seems to have had little effect on the saddlery trade between England and France. Unquestionably, however, France is now losing markets where formerly her goods were preferred to those of this country.
Where else Manufacture carried on.—Since 1865, Glasgow has ceased to be an important centre of the saddlery trade. It is now chiefly carried on in Birmingham and Walsall, for export saddlery. In military goods, Bermondsey competes with Birmingham and Walsall.
Approximate Number of Persons employed in this Town and District.—Men, Women, Boys, and Girls.—No satisfactory statement can now be made, as the present time is one of exceptional depression.
Average Earnings.—Speaking generally there has been a reduction in money wages of about 10 per cent. This wage reckoned in commodities, of course, represents a substantial improvement, as compared with 1865. In good times the workman was never so well remunerated, and, on the other hand, his employer so poorly rewarded.
Social Condition of Workpeople.—No remark need be made in regard to the improvement of his social condition which the saddler has shared with those of other trades. The Factory Acts have practically ended the employment of children. The trade hardly knows the “half-timer.” The new Patents Act has proved a great stimulus to the invention of the workman.
Utilisation of Waste.—If the past 5 years have been disastrous for the saddlery trade, misfortune has yet taught its lessons. Chief amongst these are an economical use of material, and the utilisation of waste. The belly and shoulder parts of hides, which used often to be sent to market, are now mostly consumed, thus saving capital and enabling a cheaper article to be produced. Again, the scrap leather, which is necessarily created by even the most careful cutting, is now utilised in making goods of extraordinary cheapness. A splitting machine for dividing pieces of leather, however small, into any required number of thicknesses, is of great help to this end. When leather is reduced in size below what is required for any article of commerce, it is then used either for hardening purposes, or to form imitation leather when reduced to a pulp and rolled either by itself or with rope fibre.
Chemicals.—In obtaining the statistical information on p. 152, I am indebted in great measure to Dr. Bostock Hill, Secretary of the Birmingham Section of the Society of Chemical Industry.—C. J. W.
APPENDIX TO GEOLOGY AND PHYSIOGRAPHY.
Part III., Pages 213 to 265.
MINERALS. (OF THE BIRMINGHAM DISTRICT.)
BY C. J. WOODWARD, B.SC., F.G.S.
The crystalline minerals occurring within the limits of the Birmingham district may be most conveniently referred to under the titles of the several counties in which they actually occur. These counties are: Derbyshire, Gloucestershire, Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Nottinghamshire, Oxfordshire, Shropshire, Staffordshire, Warwickshire, and Worcestershire.
Derbyshire.—The mines in this county are worked out, and there is but little opportunity of meeting with minerals. On the spoil-banks of the old mines poor specimens may be found. Mr. John Tym, of Castleton, is a local dealer, and the guide to the High Tor Grotto has minerals for sale. The following list with localities is taken from a paper on “Economic Geology of Derbyshire,” by Mr. A. H. Stokes, F.G.S., H.M. Inspector of Mines. Barytes, nearly all lead mines, Newhaven; Blende, Old hillocks, near Ashover and Hartington; Gypsum, Chellaston, also railway cutting between Trent and Loughborough; Brown HÆmatite, north west of Hubberdale mine, near Taddington, also near Elton; Brown Lead Ore “Linnets,” Elton, and Newhaven, Winster; Calcite, colourless at lead mines of Nether Haddon, near Bakewell. Alpart, Ashover, and Wirksworth yield good specimens. Elaterite, Windy Knoll Quarry, Main Tor, Castleton; Fluor Spar, Blue John and other mines, Castleton; Limonite, a field, one mile north of Castleton, and to the east of Odin Lead mine; Petroleum, Riddings Colliery, near Alfreton. A sump is sunk at the bottom of the mine, and into this the oil finds its way. Some years as much as 100 tons of oil have been obtained at a price as high as £7. 10s. per ton. Phosgenite, very scarce, Meer Brook Sough mine, near Worksworth; Pyrites, large cubic crystals at Gregory mine, near Ashover; Rock crystal, Buxton, in amygdaloid cavities of toad stone; also Diamond Hill, near Miller’s Dale station; Towanite, Old hillocks at Ecton mine, Cumberland mine, Matlock Bath; Wad, mines near Elton; White Lead Ore (Cerussite), near Brassington; Heyspots mine, near Elton; Cabin mine, Newhaven. A more extensive list of the minerals of Derbyshire, compiled by the Rev. J. M. Mello, will be found in “The Midland Naturalist,” Vol. iv., p. 183.
Gloucestershire.—Mr. H.B. Woodward, of the Geological Survey, has given the following list:—Agate, Berkeley, Damory Bridge; Barytes, Tortworth; Bitumen, Clifton; Brown Spar, Tortworth; Celestine, Tortworth, Thornbury, Wickwar, Aust; Fluor Spar, Clifton; GÖthite, Clifton; Jasper, Tortworth; Prehnite, Woodford Bridge, Berkeley; Rock Salt (pseudomorphs), Aust; Steatite, Tortworth; Talc, Tortworth; Vivianite, near Clifton.
Pyle Hill, near Clifton, is a well-known locality for Celestine. At Garden Cliff, near Westbury-on-Severn, the “bone bed” is well exposed, and in this bed occurs plenty of iron pyrites; and in the shales, as might be expected, crystals of selenite occur.
Leicestershire.—Gold occurs in the quartz veins round Pedlar Tor, Charnwood Forest. Garnets occur in “gneiss” at Brazil Wood (Mr. W. J. Harrison). Copper pyrites, Molybdenum, Mount Sorrel and Breedon. Galena, Blende, Dimminsdale; Dolomite, Cloud Hill; Gypsum and Selenite, various places; Iron pyrites in cubes, Swithland Great Pit (Mr. James Plant).
Northamptonshire and Oxfordshire.—Barytes, Blende, Calcite, Galena, Glauconite, Gypsum (Selenite), Lignite, Limonite, Pyrites, Websterite, occur in the neighbourhood of Banbury (Mr. Thomas Beesley).
Nottinghamshire.—Gypsum occurs in veins near Retford, and is used for garden rock-work.
Shropshire.—At Lilleshall an old mine known as the Stump Leasow, worked for limestone, yielded the following minerals:[67]—Quartz, a minute crystal only. Erubescite, a few minute patches in the massive form. Copper Pyrites, in sphenoids. Iron Pyrites, in radiating masses. HÆmatite, in minute chocolate-coloured hemispherical masses, also in an almost continual film containing the calc spar and other minerals with a coppery sheen. Barytes, in pink, lamellar, somewhat radiating masses. At the free surfaces of these masses are transparent crystals. Calcite, in beautiful ice-like clusters of crystals taking the form of steep three-faced pyramids. The groups are made up of steep scalenohedrous with rhombohedral summits. The calcite is in some cases pink due to manganese, a sample contained 1·20 per cent. of MnO. In the lower measures the calcite occurs in pointed scalenohedrous lining cavities in the stone. Dolomite, is the most interesting mineral of the group. It occurs in nodules made up of a succession of laminÆ of varying diameters, the laminÆ crystallizing at the edges in rhombs resembling pearl spar. The composition of one sample of this dolomite is nearly identical with what according to Boricky is one of the possible values of Ankerite. Another approximates to the formula 3 CaCO3 + (FeMn) CO3 + MgCO3 and should be described as a ferriferous dolomite.
In the mining district of West Shropshire many beautiful and interesting minerals are met with. The district is best reached from Birmingham by taking train to Minsterley, via Shrewsbury. At Snailbeach Mine, near Minsterley, occur beautiful rhombs of Calcite, having a violet tinge, due to a small quantity of manganese. There are also crystals of Blende and Galena. At several of the mines Witherite and Barytes are found, and, according to Mr. Morton, other minerals met with are Quartz, Chalcedony, Petroleum, Pyrites, Malachite, Redruthite, Wad, Minium, and Cerussite. At Wotherton, two miles from Chirbury, is a fine barytes lode which has been worked for more than 60 years, at first as an open mine, and subsequently by means of a shaft. The barytes is remarkably pure, and after grinding is sold in large quantities. In the lode are crevices and cavities filled with a fine mud, and penetrating into the mud are fine transparent crystals. These crystals have been measured by Mr. Miers, of the British Museum, and a record of the forms present will be found in his description.[68] (“Nature,” vol. xxix., p. 29.)
In connection with the mineralogy of Shropshire, it should be recorded that the extremely rare instance of the fall of an iron meteorite in the British Isles took place in this county at Rowton, near Wellington, on April 20th, 1876. This meteorite was extracted by Mr. G. Brooks, from the hole in which it had buried itself, and was hot when removed. It is now in the possession of the British Museum, and Prof. Maskelyne has given particulars of it in “Nature,” vol. xiv., p. 472. It weighs 7 lbs. 11 oz., “is a mass of metallic iron irregularly angular, although all its edges appear to have been rounded by fusion in its transit through the air, and, except at the point where it first struck the ground, it is covered by a thin black pellicle of the magnetic oxide of iron … the exposed metallic part of the surface exhibits crystalline structure very clearly when it is etched. It is only the seventh aËrosiderite or meteoric iron of which the fall has been witnessed, although upwards of a hundred iron masses have been discovered in different parts of the globe, which are undoubtedly meteoric, and two such have been found in Great Britain.”[69]
Warwickshire.—Many years ago a pocket of Grey Oxide of Manganese was found near Atherstone, but I have been unable to find now any traces of it. Gypsum occurs in the cutting of a disused railway near Henley-in-Arden, and at Spernall (Spernall Plaster Pits), near Alcester. Mr. A. H. Atkins has called attention to the fact that gypsum was met with in sinking an artesian well in Small Heath Park, near Birmingham; he also mentions the occurrence of Green Copper Carbonate at Vaughton’s Hole, near Birmingham.
Worcestershire.—Dr. Harvey B. Holl mentions the following minerals as occurring at the Malvern Hills:—Quartz, Orthoclase, Labradorite, Anderine, Potash Mica, Ferruginous Mica (Biolite), Augite, Hornblende, Epidote, Chlorite, HÆmatite, Calc Spar, Graphite, Zeolites, and Garnet.
[The following articles refer to subjects which could not be included in previous papers, and which are yet worth notice as part of the history of Birmingham.—Ed.]
Botanical Gardens.—[Sam: Timmins.]—The first proposal to establish Botanical Gardens, in accordance with the science of horticulture of the time, was made in 1829. Twelve acres were secured in the then rural suburb of Edgbaston, and on the advice of the famous J. C. Loudon four more acres were added, and the buildings erected by Clarke of Birmingham, and opened to the public in 1831. The original capital was 500 shares of £5 each, and an annual payment of three guineas which secured certain privileges of admission beyond those of the subscriber’s payment. The institution flourished, with some vicissitudes, for many years, but was necessarily exclusive, and only recently have admissions been made more easy by reduced and varying charges on different days. On Monday—the people’s day—large numbers attend, and the experiment has proved successful. The buildings were recently greatly extended and rearranged from the designs of Mr. Frank Osborne, and are now believed to be amongst the best of the kingdom. Flower shows are held during the summer, and prizes awarded, which are eagerly contended for by numerous horticulturists and florists of the town and neighbourhood.
Guinea Gardens.—[Sam: Timmins.]—Near the Botanical Gardens a group of small gardens may be seen, which are the only “survivals” of the acres of “allotment gardens” or “guinea gardens,” which surrounded Birmingham within a mile from the centre as late as 1830 to 1840. Birmingham was, in fact, a town of gardens fifty years ago, not merely as to the gardens attached to houses—front and back gardens in the principal parts of the town,—but of the groups of gardens rented by workmen and others, who could reach their gardens easily from their homes by a short walk, and devote mornings and evenings to them. The sites of the Kent Street Baths, and those opposite St. Thomas’s Church,—at Ladywood, Spring Hill, Hockley, Handsworth, and Aston road,—all within the Parish Boundary, formed a belt of gardens where the workman and his family often spent the summer evenings and enjoyed the (then) country air. All is now changed, and the distances even by rail and tram are too great, and land too valuable, to be let out in readily accessible gardens for the workers of the town, who cannot for many reasons live in the suburbs which railways have opened since 1840.
Sunday Lecture Society.—[Thos. Rose.]—This Society, which has now become one of the most successful of our local institutions, had a very humble origin. In 1877, a few members of the Birmingham Temperance Society (foremost amongst whom was Mr. Thos. Hewins), conceived the idea of holding Meetings on Sunday evenings “for the social, moral, and intellectual improvement of the non-church and chapel-going portion of the community.” They accordingly formed themselves into a Committee, who engaged the then newly erected Board Schools in Bristol Street, for the winter season of 1877-8, and commenced what were described as “Sunday Evening Meetings for the People.” For a short time these meetings were of a purely temperance character, but finding that they were not so thoroughly appreciated as they had expected, the Committee extended the variety of the subjects, and lectures were delivered embracing a wide range of thought, both moral and religious, literary and dramatic, scientific and historical, occasionally interspersed with musical evenings illustrative of the principal oratorios. Foremost amongst the lecturers (who numbered many of our chief local literary and scientific men), was Mr. Sam: Timmins, who from the first took an active part in the movement, the success of which was from this time assured, the lectures being attended by crowded and appreciative audiences every Sunday evening, and occasionally hundreds were unable to obtain admission.
In 1880, the then Mayor (Alderman R. Chamberlain), generously offered the Committee the free use of the Town Hall, and for some months the lectures were delivered consecutively in that place to audiences numbering from 3 to 4,000 each Sunday. This gave rise to considerable opposition on the part of the various religious sects of the town against what was considered to be “a monopoly of the use of the hall by one particular sect,” and after much controversy in the public press, and debate in the Town Council, the question of the letting of the Town Hall on Sundays was left in the hands of the Mayor for the time being, on the understanding that its continuous use by any one sect should be refused. Thereupon the lectures were resumed in the Bristol Street Board School, with occasional special lectures in the Town Hall.
In 1881, the movement assumed a more representative character. The then Hon. Sec. (Mr. T. Rose), assisted by some of the leading members of the Committee, took steps to organize a Sunday Lecture Society, and a Meeting was held on July 1st, 1881, under the Presidency of Mr. William Harris, J.P., when the present Society was publicly inaugurated, the objects being—“To provide for the delivery on Sundays in the Borough of Birmingham, and to encourage the delivery elsewhere of lectures upon subjects calculated to promote the social, moral, and intellectual well-being of the community at large, as hitherto conducted by the Committee of the Sunday Evening Meetings for the People.”
The constitution of the Society also provided that a minimum subscription of One Shilling per year should constitute membership, and that any pecuniary profit should be applied to the further promotion of the objects of the Society. Mr. Sam: Timmins was elected first President, and the management of its affairs was entrusted to a Committee of 30, exclusive of Officers, to be elected annually from amongst the body of members.
In the first year of the Society’s existence the members numbered 80, including the names of many of the most influential public men of the town, and the subscription list amounted to £45. 14s. 6d. The number of members is now 168, and the subscription list amounts to £70; the income being further augmented by the collections taken at the various lectures (which are thus largely self-supporting). Nearly all the lectures being given voluntarily, the cost of working the Society is comparatively small, and is fully met by the income derived from subscriptions and collections. Five of the principal Board Schools are engaged every Sunday evening throughout the winter season, from October to April, and at intervals special lectures are delivered in the Town Hall. During the season from 1885 to 1886, 71 lectures were delivered at the Board Schools, with a total attendance of 23,150, or an average of 326 to each lecture, and 10 lectures were delivered at the Town Hall, with a total attendance of 33,000, or an average of 3,300 for each lecture. Ald. R. Chamberlain, M.P., is now President of the Society, as well as one of its most popular lecturers. In Councillor R. F. Martineau, the Committee possesses a most able and energetic Chairman. Mr. W. B. Smith is the Treasurer, and Mr. J. H. Forrester, No. 1, Summer Hill Terrace, worthily fills the office of Hon. Secretary.
Newspapers.—[Sam: Timmins.]—The earliest known Birmingham Newspaper was “The Birmingham Journal,” published by Thomas Warren, in 1733. It was at first published on Thursdays, but afterwards on Mondays. Only one copy has survived, that of May 21st, 1733, No. XXVIII. The “Journal” is interesting as it shows some traces of the style of Dr. Johnson, who very probably assisted Warren in his newspaper. “Aris’s Birmingham Gazette” was first published in 1741, and its original title is used on the Saturday issue from the Daily Gazette Office to this day. It was originally published on Mondays, and some of its earlier issues bore another heading, for special County circulation. “Swinney’s Birmingham Chronicle” was published for several years, from 1796 to 1816, but no complete file has been preserved. Jabet’s “Commercial Herald” was issued from 1804 to 1813. The “Birmingham Journal” was revived in 1825, by Wm. Hodgetts, and was continued until absorbed in “The Daily Post.” The “Birmingham Advertiser” was commenced in 1833, and continued till 1845. In 1836, the “Midland Counties Herald” was begun on a new plan of gratuitous circulation and is continued as a sheet of advertisements and news relating to the land and agricultural interests to this day. The “Birmingham Morning News” appeared in 1871, with George Dawson as its first editor, and was continued till 1875.
“Aris’s Birmingham Gazette” was one of the first two country papers which began a series of “Local Notes and Queries” in 1856. The example has been very generally followed, and the series continued in the “Weekly Post” and the “Weekly Mercury,” and many important facts of local history have thus been discovered and preserved.
The removal of the “taxes on knowledge”—the stamp duty and advertisement duty and the paper duty—soon produced local daily papers, the first being the “Daily Press,” in 1855, edited for some time by George Dawson, and followed by the “Daily Mercury.” In 1857 the “Daily Post” was started, and in 1879 the “Daily Globe” appeared. In 1869 the “Midland Illustrated News” was begun, but it survived only about a year and a half. Among the other newspapers were the “Birmingham Chronicle” (1823); the “Midland Chronicle” (1811); the “Philanthropist” (1835). Many other short-lived newspapers have been issued from time to time—many of which are to some extent preserved by odd copies in the Reference Library, and among them a German newspaper of which only one number appeared. Birmingham was one of the first towns which produced a Sunday newspaper—the “Sunday Echo,” and some others have been issued since. The “cheap press” secured a very large number of readers, when the first halfpenny daily evening paper, the “Daily Mail,” was established in 1869, followed for some time by a similar issue from the “Daily Gazette” office, and afterwards by the “Midland Echo.”
Many monthly pamphlets—practically newspapers—were issued, such as the “Independent” (1827), and “Inspector” (1817); the “Weekly Recorder” and “Register” (1819), by George Edmonds; and many serials, sarcastic or humorous, have appeared from time to time. The scurrilous “Argus” of fifty years ago, and later the “Town Crier” (1861), “Brum,” “Graphic,” “Dart,” “Owl,” “Free Lance,” &c., with our illustrated “Phonographic Punch,” and one local monthly, “Edgbastonia,” in which many interesting biographies of local celebrities have appeared. On several occasions Sunday sermons have been published in serials such as the “Birmingham Pulpit” (1871-73). Other attempts to establish newspapers for discussion rather than mere news have been tried as in the “Liberal Review” (1880).
Theatres.—[Sam: Timmins.]—Birmingham has been famous as a theatrical town for nearly a century, and especially as the “training ground” where many of the leading actors of the present century learned their art and won their first laurels. The stage was, however, rather a late creation in Birmingham, and no traces are found earlier than about 1730, when mere booths served the purpose of a “play-house,” and actors were only “rogues and vagabonds” according to law. “A shed in Temple Street” and a “stable in Castle Street,” with admission threepence each, and the small band parading the town during the day, in the absence of newspapers, to announce the performance, formed, according to Hutton, the “rise of the drama” in our town. As early as 1750 travelling circuses and theatres appeared in Coleshill Street; and in 1802 the famous Astley brought his circus to the “back of the Stork Hotel.” In 1730 a temporary building was erected in Moor Street, in 1743 another in New Street, in 1747 another in Smallbrook Street, and in 1776 a more important and permanent theatre was built in King Street—a street covered by the railway station and Stephenson Place, and the site of the theatre being now that of the front of the Exchange. This became an important theatre, and existed till late in the century in competition with the present Theatre Royal, which was founded about the same date. The few play bills which have survived, and the expenditure on the building, show that every effort was made to do justice to the drama a century ago. At this date theatres were merely tolerated, but in 1777 an application was made for a licence for the New Street Theatre to play for “four months in the year,” and this application was somewhat famous, for it was eloquently supported by Edmund Burke, who used the phrase—since so well-known and so little understood—that Birmingham was the “great Toy-shop of Europe.” The phrase, however, was not new, but was used in a book by Sir Samuel Morland a hundred years earlier to describe the shops where trinkets and small steel and iron wares were sold, and not in connection with children’s “toys.” The second reading of the Bill, to enable His Majesty the King to grant a Patent was, however, lost, but the enterprise was continued, and in 1780 the present front of the Theatre Royal was erected with a commodious theatre, well lighted by wax candles, and with “the passages warmed with stoves” as the performances were to be given in the winter as well as the summer months. It was not till 1807 that a “Patent” was secured for the Theatre which then became the Theatre Royal, and still remains under the jurisdiction of the Lord Chamberlain. In 1778 a “wooden building” was erected as an “opera house,” near the Plough and Harrow, in the Moseley Road, but this was burned down soon after. In 1792, the Theatre Royal was destroyed by fire, and again in 1820, but the front remained unharmed in these two great fires and the medallions of Shakespeare and Garrick remain as placed in 1780. In both cases the fires were believed to be incendiary and with good reason too. In 1795 the Theatre was rebuilt and re-opened by William Macready, who remained till 1810, in which year, on June 11, his future famous son, William Charles Macready, appeared as Romeo,—“a young gentleman and his first appearance on any stage.” In 1813, Macready was followed by Elliston, as lessee, and in 1819 he was succeeded by Alfred Bunn. During all this period all the great actresses, and actors, and singers, and celebrities of the time appeared on the Theatre Royal stage, and a very complete series of Play Bills has fortunately been preserved. The present lessee, Mr. M. H. Simpson, and his father have had the Theatre Royal for fifty years, and recently additions and alterations have been made, not only in the Theatre proper, but in the accessory rooms for actors and scenery which have never been surpassed for extent and convenience. The Theatre Royal was, practically, the only theatre for many years, but in 1853 a dramatic licence was granted by the magistrates for a building on the Bingley Hall site: in 1856 the “Music Hall” in Broad Street was built, but in 1862 it was converted into a theatre, and opened as the Royal Operetta House, by Mr. W. H. Swanborough. In 1866 it was bought by Mr. James Rodgers, and in 1876 was practically rebuilt, and additions and alterations are now in progress under Mr. Rodgers and his Son. In 1879 a license was granted to the Holte Theatre, in the Aston Lower Grounds; and the Grand Theatre, Corporation Street, built and managed by Mr. Andrew Melville, was opened November 14, 1883. In 1785 an Amphitheatre existed in Livery Street and was converted into a Chapel: in King Street the Theatre was also converted into a Chapel, and afterwards back again to a Public Hall; and in 1827 the Circus of James Ryan, permanently built some years later, was converted into the Circus Chapel. In short, the great progress of Birmingham in the second half of the last century was felt in every way: the Musical Festival was founded, and the drama grew rapidly as the town extended and the taste of the public improved.
THE COVENTRY INDUSTRIES.
BY W. G. FRETTON, F.S.A.
An exhaustive account of the ribbon and watch manufactures of Coventry, with technical descriptions of the various processes involved in the treatment of the raw material, in its progress of manufacture from its primitive condition to its finished state, having already appeared in the comprehensive series of articles in the midland industries, published on the occasion of the former visit of the Association in 1865, it only remains to note the changes and additions which have been made since that period in the Industries of Coventry.
Ribbon Trade.—Several causes have combined to produce a very serious decline in the manufacture of silk fabrics, the chief of them being the French commercial treaty, to which may be added change of fashion, and increased competition and more rapid production by the further development of machinery. From 1860 to 1878 the ribbon trade in Coventry and its neighbourhood, had decreased by at least one half, and the decline has been going on since that period, with exceptional experiences of spasmodic improvement, ever since. Efforts have been made in various ways to direct the textile skill of the artisans into other channels wherein their weaving abilities might be turned to their advantage, and the area of textile manufactures increased. In one of these departments may be specially noticed the manufacture of bookmarks, and other illuminated ribbons. This trade was chiefly introduced by Mr. Thomas Stevens, and has been most successfully developed by himself and other manufacturers, until their extent, beauty of design, variety of application, &c., have been marvellous. Portraits, valentines, presents suitable to the seasons, birthdays, views of noted buildings, poetical sentences, mottoes, labels, and other decorative and descriptive ornaments have been produced, which, half a century ago, it would have been deemed impossible to produce from a loom. But this has involved the construction of complicated and expensive machinery, and has raised the art of loom-making considerably. Such a trade is, after all, but limited, it is the production of a luxury, a merchandise “which none but the rich can buy.”
Trimming Trade.—Another department of textile industry which has sprung up, somewhat analogous to the Ribbon manufacture, is the Trimming trade, for which special looms have been adopted—cambric frilling, mainly introduced by Messrs. Cash; bead work, and other ornamental fabrics have also been introduced.
Cotton Spinning and Weaving.—Soon after the decline of the ribbon trade the attention of the Coventry manufacturers was drawn to the experiment of introducing the cotton spinning and weaving. A large factory with suitable annexes for carrying on a large trade was erected on the north side of the city by a company formed in 1860, the Rev. S. H. Widdrington, then vicar of St. Michael’s, taking a great interest in the project. Its operations have been attended by varied success; the distance from the centres of the cotton trade forming an obstacle to its full development, the spinning department has received most attention.
Elastic Web.—In 1859 Messrs. Dalton and Barton introduced the manufacture of elastic webs, but afterwards disposed of this department of their business to Mr. Pridmore, by whom it is still carried on at Foleshill. In 1862 a company was formed for carrying on the same kind of trade, chiefly through the instrumentality of the vicar of St. Michael’s, and known as the Coventry Elastic Weaving Company, and for nearly twenty years it conducted a large business, having branches at Red Lane, Foleshill, and in White Friars’ Lane, Coventry. Owing to a brisk competition in other weaving centres, and consequent over-production, the company dissolved a few years ago, a portion of the plant and trade being retained by Mr. J. C. Odell, one of the members of the company, and still successfully carried on. There are several firms in the city conducting similar business.
The Bradford Stuff Manufacture was introduced into Coventry in 1864, and established in a large disused factory, originally erected as a cotton mill, in Hill Street, afterwards occupied as a ribbon manufactory. The firm is known as the “Leigh” Mills Company (Limited), the present Lord-Lieutenant of the County having shown much interest in the promotion of this and other new industries in Coventry. Excellent woollen and worsted goods are made here, silk and cotton being also used in some of the varieties manufactured.
Coach Lace and Broad Stuffs for railway and other carriages, trimmings for furniture, &c., are largely manufactured by Messrs. Dalton and Barton, Messrs. Perkins and Son, and others.
Silk Dyeing is still carried on to a considerable extent by several firms, and the city maintains its old character for the permanence and brilliancy exhibited in this class of work, which is one of the ancient staples of the city.
It will be seen that while Coventry still maintains its textile productions in the weaving industry, its works are not confined to ribbons, and the manufacturers and artisans generally deserve the highest commendation for the spirit and the aptitude they have displayed in adapting themselves to the altered circumstances of the textile industry of the city, and the opening up of new branches of the weaving industry has emancipated the city from dependence on the ribbon trade alone.
Many firms are still engaged in the manufacture of ribbons, sashes, ladies’ scarfs, &c., and during the last year or two, gauzes having been in demand have been largely made.
Watch Manufacturing.—Coventry is one of the principal places in England for this branch of manufacturing industry, and at the head of the numerous firms engaged therein, Messrs. J. Rotherham and Sons hold the first and oldest position. A trade of such extent, and exhibiting so many stages of progress in its production, necessarily possesses many features of interest, and may be divided into the following, with minor divisions springing from them:—watch manufacturers, case makers, engravers, springers, engine-turners, and polishers; cap makers, dial makers, escapement, balance, pallet, roller, and lever makers; movement, motion, index, hand, and glass makers; fuzee cutters, gilders, examiners, and finishers; jewellers, keyless motion and movement makers, and motioners.
The trade has been subject to many changes and fluctuations, and is at present in a depressed state, owing largely to foreign competition, and the production of cheap watches by means of machinery. Efforts have been made by more than one of the Coventry firms to meet the latter source of competition by the introduction of machinery in the construction of various parts of the watch, and in the subdivision of labour, more especially in the class known as “going barrels” with various measures of success; but for the better class of watch, the old system bids fair to maintain its position. A project for the establishment of technical schools for special instruction in the various processes in connection with the Coventry staple trades in general, and that of Horology in particular, is still under consideration, and may lead to satisfactory results. There are about 150 manufacturers of watches in Coventry.
The Cycle Manufacture was introduced into this city about 20 years ago in conjunction with the making of sewing machines. The latter branch of trade has given place almost entirely to the former, and the reputation which the various firms engaged in the trade have succeeded in obtaining, have placed Coventry in the first rank in this new and peculiar manufacture. The Coventry Machinists’ Company (Cheylesmore) were the first to introduce this trade into this country, and it is still one of the largest of the producers. Among the rest may be mentioned the Rudge, Premier, Singer and Co., Fleet, Centaur, Meteor, Excelsior, Wellington, Victoria, and others, all of which have some speciality claiming some peculiar excellence.
Artistic Work in Metal was introduced into Coventry chiefly by the exertions and artistic taste of Mr. Skidmore over 30 years ago, and has been followed out by himself, and by various Companies in the same direction ever since. Work from the different firms established in Coventry of great excellence, may be found in many of the principal towns in the British Islands, and on the Continent, notably in Lichfield and Hereford Cathedrals, Prince Consort Memorial, Burlington House, &c. Ironfounding and agricultural implement manufacturing has also attained a high position of excellence under the firm of Matterson, Huxley, and Watson of this city.
