The actual discovery of the great north-western peninsula of the American continent cannot be dated further back than the middle part of the eighteenth century. Its remoteness from the centres of European settlement and from the lines of trade and travel, and its inhospitable climate made Alaska one of the latest regions to yield to the advances of the explorer, surveyor and settler. At a date when the colonies on the North Atlantic coast of America numbered millions of prosperous people, already preparing to take independent rank among the nations of the world, the very existence of this enormous country was unknown. At a very early date, however, voyagers from many lands began their advances toward the far North-west, and the story of the discovery of Alaska must naturally include a brief outline of these.

As early as 1542 the Spanish adventurers Coronado and Juan Rodriguez de Cabrillo went up the Pacific coast of Mexico, and sailed for some distance along the coast of what is now the State of California. The memory of the former has been locally honored in California in the name of Coronado Beach. At this time the Spanish considered themselves sole masters of the South Sea, as the Pacific was called, and of all lands bordering upon it. But their supremacy there was soon disputed by the intrepid Sir Francis Drake. He not only ravaged their South American seaports, but, in 1579, sailed far to northward in a little schooner of two hundred tons, entered the Golden Gate, and refitted his vessel in what is now the harbor of San Francisco. Thirteen years later the Spaniards pressed still further up the coast. Apostolos Valerianos, best known as Juan de Fuca, sailed from Mexico and passed through the straits that bear his name, and discovered Puget Sound. There adventure from the south made pause for many years, still a weary distance from the Alaskan peninsula.

More than a hundred years after the voyages of Coronado, a different people, from a different direction, began to move toward the same goal. These were the Russians, who had already taken possession of the greater part of Siberia, and who were now persistently pushing on to the occupation of the whole realm between the Baltic and the Pacific. They had already gone eastward as far as the Kolyma River, and possessed the town of Nijni Kolymsk, in about 160° degrees east longitude. In 1646 they advanced still further. Isai Ignatieff, with several small vessels, sailed from the Kolyma, and effected a landing on Tchaun Bay, in the country of the Tchukchees. He found the trade in walrus ivory so profitable that his example was soon followed by others. The very next year the Cossack Simeon Deshneff, with four vessels, sailed eastward, to take possession of all the land in the name of the Russian crown. The Anadyr River, of which reports had been heard from the natives, was his goal. At the same time, Michael Stadukin led an expedition overland in the same direction. But both these enterprises failed. The year 1648, however, saw Deshneff's venture repeated. Three ships sailed for the Anadyr, commanded respectively by Simeon Deshneff, Gerasim Ankudinoff, and Feodor Alexieff. They reached Behring Strait, not knowing it was a strait, and Ankudinoff's vessel was wrecked on East Cape. He and his men were taken on the other vessels, and the expedition kept on. Deshneff made his way around Cape Navarin and Cape Olintorski to the coast of Kamtchatka. There his vessel was wrecked and he and his men made their way home overland, surveying, as they went, the Anadyr River. Again in 1652 Deshneff explored the Anadyr, in a boat, and the next year planned a trade-route, by sea, from that river to Yakutsk, on the Lena.

Many other expeditions to Kamtchatka and the western part of Behring Sea were soon thereafter made. Taras Stadukin in 1654 discovered the westernmost Kurill Islands, and sailed round Kamtchatka into Penjinsk Bay. In 1696, Lucas Simeonoff Moroscovich explored Kamtchatka by land, and during the next year the Cossack Vladimir Atlassoff followed him thither and by force of arms made the Kamtchatdales subjects of the Czar. This conquest was marked by wholesale butcheries of the helpless natives, and confiscation of their goods. The conquest of the Tchukchees was attempted in 1701, but failed, as did a second expedition against them ten years later. This latter, however, under the Cossack Peter Iliunsen Potoff, in 1711, had one highly-important result. It brought back definite reports of the narrowness of Behring Strait, of the location of the Diomedes Islands, and of the proximity of the American continent. Then, for some years, all further advance was stayed.

The next movement was undertaken by no less a personage than Peter the Great,

It was at the end of his reign and life. Two passions moved him. One was the zeal for scientific exploration and knowledge of the world; the other, the desire to extend his dominion across the Arctic borders of another continent. Accordingly in 1725 he planned a great expedition, drew up full instructions with his own hand, and delivered them to Admiral Apraxin; then died. His widow, who became Autocrat in his stead, ordered the plan fulfilled, and it was done promptly. On February 5th, 1725, the chief members of the expedition set out from St. Petersburg, their leader and commander being the illustrious Captain Vitus Behring.

The explorers made their way by slow stages to Okhotsk. There they built two ships, the "Fortuna" and the "Gabriel," and on July 20th, 1728, set sail on their adventurous voyage. On this occasion they contented themselves with traversing Behring Strait, and returned without seeing the American coast or even the Diomedes Islands. A second voyage, in 1729, was altogether fruitless, and in the spring of 1730 Behring returned to St. Petersburg without having achieved a single work of importance or won the first fraction of his later fame. But one of the objects of his expedition was presently attained by others, accidentally. The Yakutsk Cossacks, under Athanasius Shestakoff, had been for years fighting to subdue the indomitable Tchukchees, with little success. A party of them took the ship "Fortuna," abandoned by Behring, to make a war-like cruise along the Tchukchee coast. They were soon wrecked in Penjinsk Bay, and were routed in battle with the Tchukchees. But the engineer and navigator of the expedition, Michael Gwosdeff, made a boat from the wreck of the "Fortuna," and with his surviving comrades sailed to the Anadyr River. Thence they sailed to Cape Serdze, expecting there to meet a Cossack expedition from overland. In this they were disappointed. And presently a great storm arose from the eastward and drove them, helpless, before it. Right across the strait they were driven, to the American coast. Upon the latter, however, they could make no landing. The shore was inhospitable and the storm was furious. For two days they cruised along the coast, and then, the storm abating, made their way back to Asia.

Despite the failure of his first expedition, Behring was received with honors and promotion at the Russian capital, and preparations were pressed for another venture under his command. For several years he was engaged in voyages along the Siberian coast, and to Japan. But in 1741 the great achievement of his life began. His pilot, Ivan Jelagin, had gone to Avatcha with two ships, the "St. Peter" and the "St. Paul." On Niakina Bay he had founded the town of Petropaulovsk, named for the vessels. Thither went Wilhelm Steller, the Franconian naturalist, and Louis de Lisle de la Croyere. Thither, finally, went Behring, and on June 4th, 1741, sailed for America. On June 20th the two vessels were parted by a storm, and did not come together again; nor did Behring and Chirikoff, their commanders, ever meet again in this world. Chirikoff, in the "St. Paul," made quickest progress. On July 15th he reached the American coast, and anchored in Cross Sound. His mate, Dementieff, and ten armed men, in the long boat, went ashore. They did not return, and on July 21st Sidor Saveleff with other armed men went after them, in the only other boat of the "St. Paul." They did not return either. But the next day two canoes filled with savages came from the shore toward the ship, showing only too plainly what had become of the landing parties. The savages did not venture to attack the ship, but Chirikoff had no more boats in which to effect a landing. So on July 27th he weighed anchor and sailed back for Kamtchatka. He passed by numerous islands, and on October 9th re-entered the harbor of Petropaulovsk. Twenty-one of his seventy men had perished; among them Louis de Lisle de la Croyere, the French naturalist, who died of scurvy on the day of their return.

The "St. Peter," with Behring and his comrades on board, meanwhile, was driven blindly through tempest and fog toward the Alaskan coast. On Sunday, July 18th, he reached the land and disembarked. He was at the foot of some low, desolate bluff which skirted the shore for a long distance, and beyond which rose the savage splendors of Mt. St. Elias and the Arctic Alps. The spot was near what is now called Kayak Island. For six weeks Behring tarried in that neighborhood, refitting his storm-strained ship, laying aboard supplies of water and food, and making a few explorations of the coast. The two capes between which he landed he named St. Elias and Hermogenes. Here the naturalist Steller found many interesting traces of the natives. Going further north, into Prince William's Sound, Behring became confused by the number of islands and the difficulties of navigation, and abandoned the direction of the vessel to Lieutenant Waxel. They kept on, past the Kenai Peninsula, past Kadiak Island, and down the coast of the slender Alaska Peninsula, to the south-west, until they reached a group of islands which they named Shumagin, for a member of the company who died and was buried there. This was on August 29th. On September 3d a terrific storm arose, before which they were driven, helpless, far out into the North Pacific, southward to latitude 48°. Scurvy broke out among them with fatal force, and the disheartened men resolved to return to Kamtchatka.

Thenceforward for weeks they suffered almost incredible hardships. Every one was suffering from scurvy. So weakened were they by disease and famine that it took three men to hold the helm. Only a few sails were used, for the men were not able to hoist and manage more. When these were torn away by the storms, the helpless craft drifted under bare poles. The weather was a chaos of wind and fog and snow. For weeks they drifted blindly, now eastward, now westward, scarcely hoping to see land again, and utterly ignorant of the part of the ocean into which they had been borne. But on November 4th a particularly furious gale drove them ashore on an unknown coast. They were in the south-eastern part of Behring Sea, on one of the Kommandorski group of islands. The vessel was completely wrecked, and the men built huts on the shore for winter quarters. Waxel was still in command. Behring was a victim to natural stupidity, constitutional cowardice, and scurvy. All through the dreadful voyage from Prince William Sound he had remained in his cabin, shivering in abject terror. A few weeks after landing, on December 8th he died. In honor of him his men named the island Behring Island, and the group the Kommandorski, while Behring Strait and Behring Sea in their names give immortality to one of the least worthy of men. Waxel, Steller, and the others remained on Behring Island all that winter, feeding on the flesh of sea-lions and the monster Arctic manatee or sea-cow, now extinct. They collected a considerable store of furs of the sea-otter, blue fox and other animals, which they took back to Russia and thus greatly stimulated the zeal of further conquest. In the summer of 1742 they made their way to Petropaulovsky in a boat constructed from the wreck of their ship. Waxel reached St. Petersburg with the official report of the expedition in 1749.

Thenceforward the greed of gain led many Russian adventurers to the waters and shores of Behring Sea. Emilian Bassoff discovered Attoo Island, the westernmost of the Aleutian chain, in 1745, and Michael Novodtsikoff, in the same year, discovered other islands near by, and got a rich cargo of furs. Other explorers, who followed up the Aleutian chain were Ribinski, in 1748; Trapesnikoff, in 1749; Yagoff, in 1750; and Ivan Nikiforoff, who reached Unimak Island in 1757. Simon Krasilnikoff, Maxim Lazeroff and others kept up the work of discovering islands, getting furs, and massacring the natives. The Andreanoffsky Islands were discovered in 1761, and named in honor of Andrean Tolstoi, who fitted out Lazeroff's expedition. In the winter of 1761-2, Pushkareff and his men lived on the shore of False Pass. They were the first to spend a winter on the mainland of Alaska. The atrocities committed by them excited the hostility of the natives, and they were glad to get away in August, 1762. They took with them thirty natives, mostly women, as prisoners and slaves; but on the voyage home they wantonly murdered them all except two.

War to the knife thereafter prevailed among the natives and the Russians. The latter waged it with the most ferocious energy, but were by no means always victors. A whole expedition of fifty men was destroyed on Unimak Island in 1762; and a similar party met the same fate in 1763, on Ounalaska. Indeed, for years the history of Russian progress in Alaska was one of unrelieved horror, an inferno of lust, torture and death.

And now the advance of the Spanish and others from the southward was resumed. Juan Perez sailed from Monterey in 1774, and discovered Queen Charlotte Island and Nootka Sound. The next year Bruno Heceta discovered the mouth of the Oregon or Columbia River. Then the famous English navigator, James Cook, came upon the scene. In 1778 he reached Nootka Sound; saw and named Mount St. Elias; explored Cook's Inlet; stopped for a time at Ounalaska; sailed up Behring Sea, through Behring Strait, to Icy Cape; explored Norton Sound and the adjacent waters; touched again at Ounalaska; and then sailed away to the Sandwich Islands, where he was killed in February, 1779. In these few months this immortal Yorkshire man and his Connecticut and Virginia comrades had done more active work of discovery and survey than all the Russian pillagers who had frequented that part of the world for seventy-five years before.

The first permanent industrial and commercial settlement was effected by the Russians under Shelikoff on Kadiak Island in 1783. Three years later the ill-fated La Perouse visited the Alaskan coast and saw Mt. St. Elias. In 1787, two Russians, Lastochkin and Pribyloff, discovered two islands in the south-east part of Behring Sea, which have since become of enormous value. They named them St. Paul and St. George, and called them together the Suboff Islands. They are now known, however, as the Pribyloff Islands, and are famous as one of the chief homes of the fur seals.

The Russian Government, about 1788, formally laid claim to all the Alaskan lands and waters, and even to the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. At the same time the Spanish and English laid conflicting claims to the region about Nootka Sound, and in 1789 came into violent conflict there. United States expeditions were also busy with explorations in that region, but the Spaniards made no objection to their presence. Captain Gray, of the "Washington," Captain John Kendrick, of the "Columbia," Captain Metcalf, of the "Fair American," Captain Ingraham, of the "Hope," Captain Crowell, of the "Hancock," Captain Roberts, of the "Jefferson," and Captain Magee, of the "Margaret," were among the Americans conspicuous in exploration and trade, chiefly about Nootka Sound and the Straits of Juan de Fuca. Captain George Vancouver, already mentioned as a member of Cook's expedition, also spent much time in exploring the coast, from the island which bears his name northward to the Prince of Wales Islands, in the British service; and Alexander Mackenzie traveled across the continent from Canada and explored the great river which has been named for him. The surveys of Vancouver were the most thorough and accurate that had been made.

To return, however, to the Russians. In 1782, Gregory Shelikoff, of Rylsk, Siberia, a man of great ability and energy, of remarkable brutality, and of unsurpassed unscrupulousness, entered upon an important campaign for the establishment of trading posts. In this he was accompanied by his wife, Natalie Shelikoff, a woman of extraordinary ability. In 1787, the Czarina Catherine II, gave him a medal in recognition of his services; and in 1790, by an imperial ukase, that notorious but brilliant sovereign gave to a company, of which Shelikoff was the head, the practical monopoly of the Alaska fur trade. Alexander Baranoff, one of Shelikoff's subordinates, was soon made Chief Director of Affairs in the Russo-American colonies. He, like his chief, was a man of consummate executive ability, and utterly destitute of humane feelings or moral sense. In the summer of 1793 he prevailed upon the Czarina to issue another ukase, authorizing the sending of missionaries to America to convert the natives to the Orthodox Greek faith, and also the sending thither of Russian convicts to teach them agriculture. Thirty convicts were thus settled by Baranoff on the Kenai peninsula, and the Archimandrite Joasaph, elder of the Augustin friars, also went thither. Many other convicts and their families, and monkish missionaries, were in 1794 landed at Kadiak and Cape St. Elias. As soon as they were landed, Shelikoff refused to support them, and they were compelled to work for their living. In consequence the missionaries sent bitter complaints to the Czar; and these were accompanied by still more bitter complaints from the natives, who were being subjected to such brutalities as cannot be described in print. These had little effect, however. In 1795, Shelikoff died, and his wife succeeded him as president of the company. At this time the population of Kadiak was more than 3,600 adults. The next year the first Greek church was erected there, and Father Joasaph was made Bishop. In 1799 the Czar Paul chartered anew the Shelikoff company, re-organized as the Russian-American Company, for a term of twenty years. He gave it absolute control of all the American coast-lands and waters north of latitude 55°. The Company was required to survey the region, plant settlements, promote agriculture, commerce and other industries, propagate the Greek faith, and extend Russian influence and possessions as widely as possible. As for the natives, they were by the same decree made the slaves of the Company. Baranoff was made practically the supreme head, the autocrat of the entire realm, on whose word were suspended the issues of life and death.

Under this new rÉgime the old policy of cruelty and outrage toward the natives was pursued with added intensity. Generally the Russians worked their will with impunity, though sometimes the natives rose against them with vengeful might, and on several occasions the Russians were glad to flee to British and American ships for shelter. Meanwhile explorations went on. The American ship "Atahualpa" in 1802 discovered the mouth of the Stikine River. Baranoff explored the lower part of the Copper River. In 1804 Baranoff took Sitka from the natives, after a hard battle; renamed it New Archangel, gave the island on which it stood his own name, and made it thenceforth the chief station in the colony. About this time an attempt was made to plant trees on the Aleutian islands. The Imperial Chamberlain, Count Nicolas Petrovich Resanoff, founded a school at Kadiak, and effected some valuable administrative reforms, especially in the colonial courts and in the financial system. Then he went back to Russia to get the Czar's consent to his marriage with the daughter of Don Luis de Arguello, the Spanish governor of San Francisco. As soon as he was gone, Baranoff undid all his reforms. Resanoff died on his way to Russia. His betrothed never believed he was dead, and never would marry another; but waited patiently for his return until she became very old and died.

John Jacob Astor, having formed a company for the Pacific fur trade, sent a vessel to Sitka in 1809, and in 1811 an agent to St. Petersburg to negotiate with the Directory of the Russian-American Company. The negotiations were successful, and in October, 1811, were approved by the Czar, Mr. Astor was to furnish provisions and supplies at stated prices, and to take pay therefor in furs from the Company. They were to assist each other against smugglers, respect each other's hunting-grounds, and not to sell intoxicating liquors to the natives. In 1817 Baranoff, having grown old and weary of his toil, resigned the Chief Directorship of the colonies, and was succeeded by Captain Leontius Hagenmeister. He resigned within a year, and was succeeded by Lieutenant Janoffsky. At this time an Imperial Commissioner, Vasili Golofnin, was sent to investigate and report on the abuses of administration. As a result, in July, 1819, the Czar made sweeping changes in the regulations of the colonies, which effected some substantial reforms.

There were now Russian settlements on five of the Aleutian islands, four on the shores of Cook's Inlet, two on Chugach Gulf, and one at Sitka. The last named was a large and handsome place, surrounded by gardens and wheat fields. In 1821 the charter of the Company was renewed for twenty years. The profits of the enterprise, however, were now declining. Not one of Baranoff's successors had a tithe of his ability, and the result of his loss was seen in shrinking dividends. Explorations, however, were pushed vigorously. A two years' expedition surveyed the coasts of Norton Sound, Bristol Bay, and Nunivak Island. The Alexander Archipelago also was thoroughly explored. The Russian Government in 1821 issued a proclamation of sovereignty over the whole Pacific Ocean north of the 51st parallel, and forbidding vessels of other nations to approach within one hundred miles of the shores thereof, save in cases of extreme distress. Against this the United States and England vigorously protested, and with effect. In 1824 a convention was signed between the United States and Russia, by which the North Pacific was opened to American ships, and latitude 54° 40' was recognized as the southern boundary of the Russian possessions; and a similar treaty was made with England the next year.

Kotzebue Sound was explored by the English Captain Beechey in 1826. Captain Staninkovich explored much of the northern coast of Alaska in 1828. In 1830 Chernoff examined the harbor of Nuchek and the mouth of the Kaknu River; and Kolmakoff surveyed the bay and river of Kuskoquim. In this year the Company took formal possession of all the Kurile Islands. The next year Baron von Wrangell became Director of the Colonies, and an era of progress began. The colony was opened for settlement to all Russians. Fort St. Michael's, on Norton Sound, was established. Measures were taken to check the destruction of seals and other sea animals. An observatory was founded at Sitka. In 1835 Glasunoff explored the deltas of the Kuskoquim and Yukon rivers, ascending the latter stream as far as Anvik. Small-pox now broke out at Sitka, and for several years ravaged all the settlements, nearly depopulating some of them. In 1838 Malakoff went up the Yukon River to Nulato, and Kushevaroff thoroughly explored the northeastern coast as far as Point Barrow. The next year Mt. St. Elias was observed for the first time to emit smoke, but no further eruption occurred. In 1843 Lieutenant Zagoskin ascended the Yukon as far as Nowikakat, Malakoff explored the Suchitna, Gregorieff the Copper River, and Kashevaroff the shores of Behring Sea.

The second charter of the Company expired in 1841, and strong efforts were made to have it renewed at once. The Government hesitated, but finally, in 1844, renewed it on even more liberal terms than before. In the summer of 1848 the first whaling vessel passed through Behring Strait. It was the American ship "Superior," commanded by Captain Roys. The experiment was highly successful, and in the next season no less than one hundred and fifty-four American whalers followed the example, all making great catches, and the industry was thus established in those waters. English and American explorers continued to visit to northern coasts of Alaska, and surveyed almost every portion of it.

As the ending of the third charter of the Company approached, efforts were made to secure still another renewal. A complete report on the operations of the Company was made at the end of 1861. According to it, the original capital was $73,500. In 1818 it was "watered," and the shares were made $100 instead of $112.50 each. In 1844 the Company had accumulated a surplus of $337,500. At the end of 1861 the capital was $495,000, and the surplus $553,000. The original investment had paid from six to ten per cent. net annually, besides the enormous peculations of the officers and employes. Despite the earnest endeavors of the Company, however, the Czar finally refused to renew its charter, and the Company began to wind up its business. In 1864 there was a great increase of American interests in the colony. The Western Union Telegraph Company, of New York, doubting the practicability of operating a cable under the Atlantic, planned to construct a telegraph line to Europe by way of Alaska and Siberia. In this the Russian Government agreed to co-operate. A surveying expedition was accordingly sent to Alaska, and much exploring work was done at a cost of more than three million dollars. The incident, though without practical result in itself, drew so much attention to Alaska and its resources that an American syndicate was formed to purchase for itself the charter which the Czar refused to grant to the old Russian Company. This came to the ear of Mr. Seward, the American Secretary of State, and he soon concluded that it would be a good bargain for the United States to buy the whole country outright from Russia. This was done in 1867. The United States paid Russia $7,200,000 for the whole Territory of Alaska. Nearly all of this went, at St. Petersburg, to satisfy old debts and obligations incurred by Alaskan enterprises. The treaty of sale was agreed upon on March 30th; it was ratified by the United States Senate on May 28th; proclaimed by the President on June 20th; General Jefferson C. Davis was appointed to take command of Alaska on September 6th; and on October 18th the United States took formal and actual possession of the country.

This new Territory was looked upon as an Indian country and General Davis was really a military commander. His headquarters were at Sitka, where he had a garrison of about 250 men. A number of enterprising business men accompanied General Davis to Sitka, and immediately began erecting storehouses and offices, and purchasing the property of the old Russian Company. In less than a week several new stores were erected and two drinking saloons, two bowling alleys and a restaurant were in operation. All sorts and conditions of men began flocking in, including pioneers and squatters, and aspirants for political honors in the Territory. There was talk of framing a city charter, and of creating numerous lucrative offices. The usual amount of crime and disorder of a frontier settlement occurred, and soon all respectable inhabitants were compelled to lock their doors at nightfall and not venture out again until daylight. Difficulties with the Indians also soon began, and for many years the Territory was in a state of disorder and confusion, lacking any organized government.

In February, 1868, the Russians began to return home and to abandon the Territory to its new owners. In this year many serious troubles with the Indians occurred on the Yukon River, and on the first of January, 1869, there was some disturbance at Sitka itself. In April, 1869, the publication of a newspaper was begun at Sitka by a man who also followed the avocations of lawyer and tailor. This paper passed out of existence after about a year and was not revived. In 1870 the withdrawal of the military garrisons occurred, excepting those at Sitka and Wrangell. In 1874 an attempt was made to colonize Alaska with Icelanders, who were at that time leaving their own country in large numbers. Several of them visited Alaska and were pleased with the appearance of the country. An offer was made to transport thither five hundred Icelanders free of charge, but it was not accepted, and the scheme of colonization was finally abandoned. In 1878 a serious outbreak of Indians occurred at Sitka, and the inhabitants of that town were compelled to appeal for protection to the commander of an English war-ship. In 1884 a regular territorial government was established and a civil governor appointed, the military garrisons having been withdrawn.