THE people who emigrated from Norway and settled in Iceland, after Harald the Fairhaired had subdued the many independent chiefs and established the monarchy (872), for the most part belonged to the flower of the nation, and Iceland naturally became the home of the old Norse literature. Among the oldest poetical works of this literature is the so-called “Elder Edda,” also called SÆmund’s Edda, because for a long time it was believed to be the work of the Icelander SÆmund. “The Younger Edda,” also called Snorre’s Edda, because it is supposed to have been written by Snorre Sturlason (born 1178, died 1241), contains a synopsis of the old Norse religion and a treatise on the art of poetry. Fully as important as the numerous poetical works of that period was the old Norse Saga-literature.15 The most prominent work in this field is Snorre Sturlason’s “Heimskringla,” which gives the sagas of the kings of Norway from the beginning down to 1177. A continuation of the “Heimskringla,” to which several authors have contributed, among them Snorre Sturlason’s relative, Sturla Thordson, contains the history of the later kings down to Magnus Law-Mender.

The literary development above referred to ceased almost entirely toward the end of the fourteenth century, and later, during the union with Denmark, the Danish language gradually took the place of the old Norse as a book-language, and the literature became essentially Danish. Copenhagen, with its court and its university, was the literary and educational centre, where the young men of Norway went to study, and authors born in Norway became, to all intents and purposes, Danish writers. But Norway furnished some valuable contributors to this common literature. One of the very first names on the records of the Danish literature, Peder ClaussÖn (1545-1614), is that of a Norwegian, and the list further includes such illustrious names as Holberg, Tullin, Wessel, Steffens, etc.

One of the most original writers whom Norway produced and kept at home during the period of the union with Denmark was the preacher and poet, Peder Dass (1647-1708). The best known among his secular songs is “Nordlands Trompet,” a beautiful and patriotic description of the northern part of Norway.

Ludvig Holberg was born in Bergen, Norway, December 3, 1684. His father, Colonel Holberg, had risen from the ranks and distinguished himself, in 1660, at Halden. Shortly after his death the property of the family was destroyed by fire, and at the age of ten years Ludvig lost his mother. It was now decided to have him educated for the military service; but he showed a great dislike for military life, and, at his earnest request, was sent to the Bergen Latin School. In 1702 he entered the University of Copenhagen. Being destitute of means, he took a position as private tutor. As soon as he had saved a small sum he went abroad. He was first in Holland, and afterward studied for a couple of years at Oxford, where he supported himself by giving instruction in languages and music. Upon his return to Copenhagen he again took a position as private tutor and had an opportunity to travel as teacher for a young nobleman. In 1714 he received a stipend from the king, which enabled him to go abroad for several years, which he spent principally in France and Italy. In 1718 he became a regular professor at the Copenhagen University. Among Holberg’s many works the following are the most prominent: “Peder Paars,” a great comical heroic poem, containing sharp attacks on many of the follies of his time; about thirty comedies in MoliÈre’s style, and a large number of historical works. Holberg, who was ennobled in 1747, died in January 29, 1754, and was buried in SorÖ Church. His influence on the literature and on the whole intellectual life of Denmark was very great. He is often called the creator of the Danish literature.

Christian Baumann Tullin (1728-1765), a genuine poetical genius, who has been called the Father of Danish lyrical verse, was born in Christiania, and his poetry, which was mainly written in his native city, breathes a national spirit. From his day, for about thirty years, Denmark obtained the majority of her poets from Norway. The manager of the Danish national theatre, in 1771, was a Norwegian, Niels Krog-Bredal (1733-1778), who was the first to write lyrical dramas in Danish. A Norwegian, Johan Nordal Brun (1745-1816), a gifted poet, wrote tragedy in the conventional French taste of the day. It was a Norwegian, Johan Herman Wessel (1742-1785), who, by his great parody, “KjÆrlighed uden StrÖmper” (Love without Stockings), laughed this taste out of fashion. Among the writers of this period are also Claus Frimann (1746-1829), Peter Harboe Frimann (1752-1839), Claus Fasting (1746-1791), Johan Wibe (1748-1782), Edward Storm (1749-1794), C. H. Pram (1756-1821), Jonas Rein (1760-1821), and Jens Zetlitz (1761-1821), all of them Norwegians by birth.

Two notable events led to the foundation of an independent Norwegian literature: the one was the establishment of a Norwegian university at Christiania in 1811, and the other was the separation of Norway from Denmark in 1814. At first the independent Norwegian literature appeared as immature as the conditions surrounding it. The majority of the writers had received their education in Copenhagen, and were inclined to follow in the beaten track of the old literature, although trying to introduce a more national spirit. All were greatly influenced by the political feeling of the hour. There was a period when all poetry had for its subject the beauties and strength of Norway and its people, and “The Rocks of Norway,” “The Lion of Norway,” etc., sounded everywhere. Three poets, called the Trefoil, were the prominent writers of this period. Of these, Conrad Nicolai Schwach (1793-1860) was the least remarkable. Henrik A. Bjerregaard (1792-1842) was the author of “The Crowned National Song,” and of a lyric drama, “Fjeldeventyret” (The Adventure in the Mountains). The third member of the Trefoil, Mauritz Chr. Hansen (1794-1842), wrote a large number of novels and national stories, which were quite popular in their time. His poems were among the earliest publications of independent Norway.

The time about the year 1830 is reckoned as the beginning of the new Norwegian literature, and Henrik Wergeland is called its creator. Henrik Arnold Wergeland was born in 1808. His father, Nicolai Wergeland, a clergyman, was a member of the Constitutional Convention at Eidsvold. Henrik studied theology, but did not care to become a clergyman. In 1827, and the following years, he wrote a number of satirical farces under the signature “Siful Sifadda.” In 1830 appeared his lyric dramatic poem, “Skabelsen, Mennesket og Messias” (The Creation, Man and Messiah), a voluminous piece of work, in which he attempted to explain the historical life of the human race. As a political writer he was editorial assistant on the “Folkebladet” (1831-1833), and edited the opposition paper “Statsborgeren” (1835-1837). He worked with great zeal for the education of the laboring class, and from 1839 until his death edited a paper in the interest of the laborer. The prominent features of his earliest efforts in literature are an unbounded enthusiasm and a complete disregard of the laws of poetry. At an early age he had become a power in literature, and a political power as well. From 1831 to 1835 he was subjected to severe satirical attacks by the author Welhaven and others, and later his style became improved in every respect. His popularity however decreased as his poetry improved, and in 1840 he had become a great poet but had no political influence. Among his works may be named “HasselnÖdder,” “JÖden” (The Jew), “JÖdinden” (The Jewess), “Jan van Huysums Blomsterstykke” (Jan van Huysum’s Flower-piece), “Den engelske Lods” (The English Pilot), and a great number of lyric poems. The poems of his last five years are as popular to-day as ever. Wergeland died in 1845.

The enthusiastic nationalism of Henrik Wergeland and his young following brought on a conflict with the conservative element, which was not ready to accept everything as good simply because it was Norwegian. This conservative element maintained that art and culture must be developed on the basis of the old association with Denmark, which had connected Norway with the great movement of civilization throughout Europe. As the poetical leader of this “Intelligence” party, as it was called, appeared J. S. Welhaven.

Johan Sebastian Cammermeyer Welhaven was born in Bergen in 1807, entered the university in 1825, became a “Lector” in 1840, and afterward Professor of Philosophy. “His refined Æsthetic nature,” says Fr. Winkel Horn, “had been early developed, and when the war broke out between him and Wergeland he had reached a high point of intellectual culture, and thus was in every way a match for his opponent. The fight was inaugurated by a preliminary literary skirmish, which was, at the outset, limited to the university students; but it gradually assumed an increasingly bitter character, both parties growing more and more exasperated. Welhaven published a pamphlet, ‘Om Henrik Wergelands Digtekunst og Poesie,’ in which he mercilessly exposed the weak sides of his adversary’s poetry. Thereby the minds became still more excited. The ‘Intelligence’ party withdrew from the students’ union, founded a paper of their own, and thus the movement began to assume wider dimensions. In 1834 appeared Welhaven’s celebrated poem ‘Norges DÆmring,’ a series of sonnets, distinguished for their beauty of style. In them the poet scourges, without mercy, the one-sided, narrow-minded patriotism of his time, and exposes, in striking and unmistakable words, the hollowness and shortcomings of the Wergeland party. Welhaven points out, with emphasis, that he is not only going to espouse the cause of good taste, which his adversary has outraged, but that he is also about to discuss problems of general interest. He urges that a Norwegian culture and literature cannot be created out of nothing; that to promote their development it is absolutely necessary to continue the associations which have hitherto been common to both Norway and Denmark, and thus to keep in rapport with the general literature of Europe. When a solid foundation has in this manner been laid, the necessary materials for a literature would surely not be wanting, for they are found in abundance, both in the antiquities and in the popular life of Norway.” Welhaven continued his effective work as a poet and a critic. Through a series of lyrical and romantic poems, rich in contents and highly finished in style, he developed a poetical life, which had an important influence in the young Norwegian literary circles. He died in 1873.

Andreas Munch (1811-1884), an able and industrious poetical writer, took no part in the controversy between Wergeland and Welhaven, but followed his Danish models independently of either. His “Poems, Old and New,” published in 1848, were quite popular. His best work is probably “Kongedatterens Brudefart” (The Bridal Tour of the King’s Daughter), 1861.

In the period of about a dozen years following the death of Wergeland, the life, manners and characteristics of the Norwegian people were given the especial attention of the literary writers. Prominent in this period was Peter Christian AsbjÖrnsen (1812-1885), who, partly alone and partly in conjunction with Bishop JÖrgen Moe (1813-1882), published some valuable collections of Norwegian folk tales and fairy tales. Moe also published three little volumes of graceful and attractive poems. Among other writers of this period may be named Hans H. Schultze (“Fra Lofoten og SolÖr”), N. Östgaard (“En Fjeldbygd”), Harald Meltser (“Smaabilleder af Folkelivet”), M. B. Landstad (hymns), and the linguist Sophus Bugge.

The efforts to bring out the national life and characteristics of the people in the literature also led to an attempt to nationalize the language in which the literature was written. The movement was the so-called “MaalstrÆv,” and had in view the introduction of a “pure Norwegian” book-language, based upon the peasant dialects. The most prominent supporter of this movement was Ivar Aasen (1813-1898), the author of an excellent dictionary of the Norwegian language. A prominent poetical representative of this school was Aasmund Olafson Vinje (1818-1870), while Kristofer Janson (born 1841) has also written a number of stories and poems in the Landsmaal (country tongue).

A new and grand period in the Norwegian literature commenced about 1857, and the two most conspicuous names in this period—and in the whole Norwegian literature—are those of Henrik Ibsen and BjÖrnstjerne BjÖrnson.

Henrik Ibsen was born in Skien in 1828. He has written many beautiful poems; but his special field is the drama, where he is a master. His first works were nearly all historical romantic dramas. His first work, “Catilina,” printed in 1850, was scarcely noticed until years afterward, when he had become famous. In 1856 appeared the romantic drama, “Gildet paa Solhaug” (The Feast at Solhaug), followed by “Fru Inger til Oestraat,” 1857, and “HÆrmÆndene paa Helgeland” (The Warriors on Helgeland), 1858. In 1863 he wrote the historical tragedy “Kongsemnerne” (The Pretenders), in which the author showed his great literary power. Before this play was published, he had been drawn into a new channel. In 1862 he began a series of satirical and philosophical dramas with “KjÆrlighedens Komedie” (Love’s Comedy), which was succeeded by two masterpieces of a similar kind, “Brand,” in 1866, and “Peer Gynt,” in 1867. These works were written in verse; but in “De Unges Forbund” (The Young Men’s League), 1869, a political satire, he abandoned verse, and all his subsequent dramas have been written in prose. In 1873 came “Keiser og GalilÆer” (Emperor and Galilean). Since then he has published a number of social dramas which have attracted world-wide attention. We mention: “Samfundets StÖtter” (The Pillars of Society), “Et Dukkehjem” (A Doll’s House), “Gengangere” (Ghosts), “En Folkefiende” (An Enemy of the People), “Rosmerholm,” “Fruen fra Havet” (The Lady from the Sea), “Little Eyolf,” “Bymester Solnes” (Masterbuilder Solnes), “John Gabriel Borkman.”

BjÖrnstjerne BjÖrnson (born in Österdalen in 1832) is the more popular of the two giants in the Norwegian literature of to-day. His works are more national in tone. It has been said that to mention his name is to raise the Norwegian flag. His first successes were made in the field of the novel, and the first two, “SynnÖve Solbakken” (1857), and “Arne” (1858), made his name famous. These, and his other peasant stories, will always retain their popularity. He soon, however, entered the dramatic field, and has since published a great number of dramas and novels. “Halte Hulda,” 1858; “Mellem Slagene,” 1859; “Kong Sverre,” 1861; “Sigurd Slembe,” 1862; “Maria Stuart,” 1863; “De Nygifte” (The Newly-married Couple), 1865; “Kongen,” 1877; “Leonarda,” 1879; “Det ny System,” 1879; “Over Ærne,” 1883; “En Fallit,” “Det flager,” etc., and many others.

In the field of belles-lettres there is, at the present time, a number of other talented authors. Jonas Lie (born 1833) has produced a number of excellent novels. Then there are Alexander Kielland (born 1849), Magdalene Thoresen (born 1819), Arne Garborg, Gunnar Heiberg, and a number of young authors.

In the field of science, also, modern Norway has a rich literature with many prominent names, such as the historians Peter Andreas Munch (1810-1863), Rudolph Keyser (1803-1864), Johan Ernst Sars (born 1835), and O. A. Överland.