The Circle of Knowledge: A Classified, Simplified, Visualized Book of Answers

Life in the world is represented by the Vegetable and Animal kingdoms. Plants and animals, unlike minerals, grow from germs, and develop into individuals with definite forms and organs. After a limited existence they die, their species being perpetuated by seed or offspring. The functions of plants and animals in nature are, however, entirely unlike. Plants are rooted in the soil; animals are free to move over the land, through the water or air. The plant, moreover, transforms the lifeless, inorganic elements (earth and air) into organic matter and thus prepares food for the animal. In its quiet, steady growth it gathers a store of force which the animal uses up in action. Thus the distribution of vegetation regulates that of animal life. Besides, vegetation clothes the surface of the land with that rich mantle of verdure and flowers which is its greatest ornament.

All living things are termed organisms, and the science which takes account of them with special regard to their common characteristics is termed Biology, or Life-lore. The classification and life-history of plants are the objects of that part of biology known as Botany. That part similarly occupied with the study of animals is known as Zoology.

Throughout the entire realm of nature, in the animal world as well as in the vegetable, the development of life increases in energy, and in the variety and perfection of the types, with the increasing intensity of light and heat, from the poles to the equator.

TROPICAL LIFE

Within the tropics, under the stimulating rays of a vertical Sun, grow the most dense and varied forests, the most expanded foliage, and the largest and the most brilliant flowers. Here, also, are found the most delicious fruits, the most powerful aromatics, the greatest variety of plants capable of affording sustenance to man, and the largest number of those which contribute to the luxuries of civilized life.

In the tropical regions, also, are found the greatest variety of land animals; with the highest types, the greatest stature, the most intense activity, and the keenest intelligence exhibited in the brute creation.

WHERE THE MOST POWERFUL
ANIMALS ARE FOUND

This zone is the home of the gigantic elephant and giraffe; of the lion and the tiger, the most powerful of all the beasts of prey; and of the gorilla, chimpanzee, and ourang-outang, of all animals most resembling men.

Here, also, are the ostrich, the largest and most powerful of birds; the condor, surpassing in size all other birds of flight; and the humming-birds of South America, the smallest of the feathered tribes, unsurpassed in brilliancy of coloring, rapidity of motion, and grace of form.

In the same zone are those enormous reptiles, the crocodile and the boa-constrictor, with the hooded snakes and other serpents of most deadly venom; and insects of all sizes in indescribable profusion.

LIFE IN THE TEMPERATE ZONES

In the Warm-Temperate Zone, though the Sun never reaches the zenith, yet during the long summer his rays are almost vertical; while the winter is so mild that snow and ice are of rare occurrence.

Here the vegetable world is less prodigal in species, and less luxuriant in growth, than in the tropical regions; still, verdure is continuous throughout the year, and fruits and flowers succeed each other almost without interruption.

The animal world shows a similar, though less marked, decrease in the exuberance of life. The higher orders are less numerous, the individuals less gigantic and powerful; yet the antelopes, among the most graceful of animals, and the camel, one of the most useful, especially characterize this zone.

HOW THE LIFE OF THE TEMPERATE ZONE
DIFFERS FROM THAT OF WARMER ZONES

In the Temperate Zone, farther from the tropics, and receiving the Sun’s rays with greater obliquity, all the forms of vegetable growth are more modest than in the preceding. The forests are less dense and varied, the foliage is less luxuriant, and flowers of brilliant hues are confined to shrubs and herbaceous plants.

Though useful plants are numerous, yet scarce a species is of value in its spontaneous growth; and, above all, the long dormant season, when the trees and shrubs are bare and apparently lifeless, stamps the vegetation of this zone with an aspect of inferiority.

The animal world still shows a large number of noble species; yet there are some orders which, like the plants, are dormant during the winter; while many of the birds migrate to warmer climes. Associated with deciduous forests, boundless fertile prairies, and arid steppes—are the bear, the wolf, the lynx, the bison, and many species of elk and deer.

ORIGINAL HOME OF OUR
DOMESTIC ANIMALS

Here is the home of the horse, the ass, and many varieties of oxen, sheep, and goats,—those animals which, domesticated by man, have accompanied him to all climes, adapting themselves to all circumstances. The American turkey, the European pheasant, and the Asiatic parents of many of our domestic fowls, also belong to the temperate zone; together with a multitude of song birds, whose sober plumage, contrasting so gloomily with the brilliant colors of their neighbors of the tropics, is compensated by the sweetness of their notes. Here, also, is the home of the honey-bee, and of the silk-worm, almost the only insects directly useful to man.

LIFE IN THE COLD ZONES

In these regions, where the sun is always low, and in winter is above the horizon but a small part of the time, all nature becomes increasingly monotonous. The conifers, with their stiff forms and sombre hues, impart a dreary aspect even to the summer landscape; and, during the long winter, all life seems suspended.

The animal world, however, is more rich and varied than the vegetable.

Here we meet the great moose and the brown bear, the beaver and other rodents, in large numbers; the sable, the mink, the ermine, and a host of other animals whose fine, soft furs form one of the main resources of this inhospitable clime.

In the Arctic Zone—where the forests give place to dwarf trees, stunted or creeping shrubs, mosses, and lichens—the reindeer, the musk-ox, and the white bear are the only representatives of the larger land animals, though the smaller furry tribes are still numerous.

The sea, however, more genial in its temperature than the land, swarms with living creatures of innumerable species, among which are the largest representatives of the animal kingdom. The whale, the walrus, and the seal, inhabit the Arctic seas; with every grade of marine life, down to the animalculÆ, which are so numerous as to give their color to great areas of sea-water; and water-fowl, without number, and of many varieties, enlivens the icy shores.

CHIEF DIVISIONS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

The great divisions of the science of plant life, or botany, are: Structural Botany which treats of the gross anatomy of plants; Plant Histology, of their minute anatomy; Plant Morphology, of the forms of plants and their organs; Plant Physiology, of the functions of these organs; Systematic Botany, of the relationship and classification of plants; Geographical Botany, of the distribution of plants over the surface of the globe; Paleobotany, of the vegetable life of past ages and the successive appearance in the world of the great classes of plants, as traced in their fossil remains; and Economic Botany, which deals with the products of plants and their uses.

It is in the last division of the subject that our greatest practical interest lies, and, consequently, it is best to reverse the general order of treatment pursued by many botanists. Foremost in importance are those plants grown for food, which form the great products of agriculture, gardening and horticulture. Scarcely less important are those which yield fibers used for industrial purposes, such as cotton, flax, jute and hemp; nor must we forget those producing vegetable oils, rubber, and the large number of drugs so valuable to the science of medicine in the alleviation of suffering.

(See page 176 for scientific classification of the Vegetable or Plant Kingdom.)

AN AUTUMN HARVEST OF BEAUTY AND PLENTY

I. CEREALS, GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS

Among all the plants in the world, the first place must be given to the food-producing cereals upon which our very existence depends. The most important among these are undoubtedly wheat, barley, oats, rye, rice, Indian corn or maize, millets, sorghum and others less widely used. More than one-half the whole population of the world subsists to a great extent on rice, and the vital importance of wheat needs no demonstration. For our present purposes the use of the word “cereal” is extended to include buckwheat and other starch-yielding plants, but these are not true cereals.

HOW OUR CEREALS WERE
DEVELOPED

The cereals are members of a great family of the grasses which have been cultivated by man from time immemorial. Originally, no doubt, they were wild plants which attracted attention owing to the comparatively large quantities of foodstuffs they yielded, the ease with which they could be collected, and their edible qualities. Now, in the majority of cases, the original wild forms are no longer known, and as is common with plants cultivated in many lands and during long periods, innumerable species and varieties have been evolved as the result of selection by man of the forms which appeared desirable for one or other of their qualities.

HOW THE WORD “CEREAL”
ORIGINATED

Their very name—cereals or cerealia—indicates the great value attached to them in early historic times. These are so named after the goddess Ceres, as the Romans called her—Demeter of the Greeks—the patroness of agriculture and all the fruits of the earth.

WHERE THE CEREALS
GROW

In the temperate regions of the world wheat is the principal cereal grown, and there are many different varieties suited to varying conditions. As we go farther north, barley, oats and rye increase in importance, and although they are grown for special purposes along with wheat, it is important to note that they will thrive in countries and under conditions not suited to wheat. Starting again from the temperate zones and traveling north or south, as the case may be, we enter the warmer countries where wheat cultivation is often associated with that of rice, corn, sorghum, etc. In the tropics, however, wheat will not thrive at low elevations, but rice, corn, sorghum and various millets form the great cereal crops, their relative importance varying in different countries.

The grasses proper grow upon our meadows, pastures, fields and in the woods and are only used as food for cattle.

HOW THE BOTANIST DESCRIBES
CEREALS AND GRASSES

The roots of most kinds of grasses are persistent; the stems are hollow and knotty, and the leaves consist of sheaths and discs. Their flowers are arranged either in spikes or panicles, and are essentially the same in form as those of the herbs. In the interior there is an ovary, from which project two pistils with feathery styles. Close to the ovary are three stamens, with very long filaments and large anthers. These internal organs are generally surrounded by two tender bracts called the paleÆ, and two harder outer bracts forming the glumes. In the grasses also self-fertilization does not take place, the wind here taking the place of the insects. Consequently the anthers are suspended from long filaments, and contain a quantity of pollen. As the grasses do not need to attract insects, their flowers are small with little color, and have no scent; nor do they secrete honey. The fruit is enclosed in a husk.

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) is a cultivated hay and pasture plant, yielding per annum, without reseeding, three to six or more cuttings of hay, averaging a ton each and often much more, for an indefinite period. It is the richest forage plant known, and while old in history is comparatively new to the agriculture of North America.

Alfalfa thrives on all soils except those too wet or having too much acidity. The former calls for drainage and the latter demands lime. Besides its abundance of rich forage, the leaves of which approximate the value of wheat bran in animal rations, it is highly prized as a soil improver, as it restores and enriches the land in which it grows, and improves extraordinarily the physical character of the soil. Its roots reaching to great depths, make it drought-resistant; they also gather much nitrogen from the air, and it yields assuredly whether the season be wet or dry. It has been demonstrated the greatest fertilizing and soil renovating plant known to agriculture.

For hay it is cut whenever the first blossoms appear or when sprouts for a new growth from the root crowns are discovered, which in some regions is every month in the year. It is relished by all live stock, and is particularly valuable in dairy husbandry, affording at lowest cost important ingredients of the well balanced feeding ration. As pasturage it is excellent for hogs and horses, but ruminants, such as cattle and sheep are not safely grazed upon it, owing to its liability to cause bloat, which if not promptly treated may bring speedy death.

Alfalfa requires a carefully prepared seedbed, with a thoroughly fine, smooth surface, as the seeds are small. From fifteen to twenty pounds of seed per acre are generally sown, although often much more, or less, either with drills or broadcast, preferably in early fall and without a nurse crop. Where the winters are long or severe from two to ten tons of hay per acre in a season, and from two to seven bushels of seed.

Blue-Grass (Poa pratensis), frequently designated Kentucky Blue Grass, is a perennial, and the most highly prized pasture grass, but is not a profitable hay plant. Its growth has a wider range than timothy. It is sown in autumn or spring, the former being preferable, as it can endure cold better than heat, and thrives rather best when partially shaded. One approved way is to sow the seed on snow, where the ground is free from weeds. It is broadcasted at the rate of about one bushel of seed in the chaff to the acre. Blue-grass is an extremely aggressive and persistent plant voluntarily spreading among and displacing others where it has not been sown. Its taking possession of and thriving on land that has not been cultivated is not uncommon. The seed weighs fourteen pounds to the bushel.

English Blue-Grass or Meadow Fescue (Fescuta elatior) is a valuable and hardy grass either for mowing or pasture. It thrives on soils not too dry, and being long lived, is especially valuable for permanent pastures. It is sown either in the spring or fall, by drilling or broadcasting from one to three pecks per acre if for seed, and three pecks to an acre if for pasture. It is harvested and handled much the same as wheat. Kansas produces nearly seventy-five per cent of the seed raised in America and ninety per cent of the total for the United States is exported, Germany being the largest taker. This grass is very nutritious and grazing animals are fond of it. A bushel of seed weighs twenty-two pounds, and the yield of seed per acre is from five to fifteen bushels.

Brome-grass (Bromus inermis) is a vigorous, hardy perennial pasture and hay plant, with strong, creeping rootstocks, and is valuable for dry regions. It is not adapted to a rotation, as its sod becomes too matted and tough for comfortable cultivation. Owing to this tendency, after three or four years of hay cropping its better use is for pasture. It yields luxuriantly, is rich in flesh-forming elements, and much relished by farm animals. It is sown broadcast, in spring or fall, eighteen to twenty pounds of seed to the acre. The seed is chaffy and weighs but fourteen pounds per bushel.

Barley is grown chiefly in the states of Minnesota, California, Wisconsin, North and South Dakota, in the order named, these states raising seventy-five per cent of the output grown in the United States. It is used as food for live stock, and as an article of commerce is in demand principally for the making of malt in brewing beer, but in California and other western states, where Indian corn does not flourish, barley is used as a substitute grain for horses and mules. About two bushels to the acre are sown in the spring, with [125] a drill or a broadcast seeder. It is admirably adapted as a nurse crop, as it stands up well and does not shade the ground so much as many other plants.

Barley for malting should be cut before fully ripe and put in well-capped shocks to cure; the price paid is largely governed by the color acquired in curing, which should be bright. A bushel weighs forty-eight pounds, and the yield is from twenty-five to forty bushels per acre.

Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) is a grain of minor importance, its flour being used as human food, mostly in the form of griddle cakes. The plant is esteemed for plowing under in summer, to supply humus, and its blossoms for the honey bee. Most of it is grown in New York and Pennsylvania, and it does well in soils too poor for most other crops. It is sensitive to frost, and used as a sort of catch crop, sown generally about the beginning of July, broadcast. Forty bushels, weighing forty-eight pounds per bushel, is a maximum yield.

Clover (Trifolium pratense). In the states east of the Missouri river red clover is highly esteemed. It has much the same qualities as alfalfa, except it is a biennial, enduring but two years without re-seeding and at best gives two cuttings of hay per year, aggregating two to three tons. It is from the second cutting that seed is usually saved. Four quarts of seed is a common quantity to sow per acre. Red clover makes excellent hay, except for horses. Its seed, like that of alfalfa, weighs sixty pounds per bushel, and its yield is from one to five bushels per acre.

White Clover (Trifolium repens) is a very useful pasture and honey plant, but is not used for hay. It spreads rapidly, and is widely used for sowing with other pasture grasses.

Alsike Clover (Trifolium hybridum) is largely sown on lands not well adapted to red clover, where land is either too wet or too dry for the latter, and it does not require so sweet a soil.

THE COSTLIEST EARS OF CORN IN THE WORLD

The champion ten ears of corn shown in the illustration average ten and one-half inches in length and seven and three-quarters in circumference, each ear carrying twenty rows of kernels, the depth of the kernels being three fourths of an inch, and the average weight of each ear was twenty ounces. They were sold at the rate of $2,345 per bushel or $335 for the ten ears. The champion single ear of corn was sold at the Omaha National Corn Show for $85.

Corn (Zea mays). Indian corn, or maize is a product native to America, an annual, and is the most important member of the grass family. It is America’s foremost cereal, with a wider adaptability than any other, and is grown in every state and territory. The temperate climate of the Central States is most favorable to it, and Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, Indiana, Kansas and Ohio are the leading states in its planting. The bulk of the world’s production of maize is grown in this country, although it is an important crop in Hungary, Italy, Egypt, South Africa, and other parts of the world.

Economic Uses.—Corn is of primary importance as a food for live stock, enormous quantities being used to fatten cattle and swine.

The manufacture of starch and other products from corn is an industry of increasing magnitude. The chief starch derivatives are dextrine and glucose or grape sugar (used in brewing beer and as a substitute for true sugar).

Corn oil may be called a by-product in starch manufacture, yet the annual value of corn oil is greater than that of cornstarch produced in the United States. It is used in soap and paints. Vulcanized by heating with sulphur, it forms a widely used adulterant and substitute for rubber.

Among the dozens of useful products made from corn are corn meal, corn grits, hominy, breakfast foods, beer, whisky, alcohol, cologne spirits, cornstarch, dextrine, glucose, grape sugar, corn sirup, corn oil, soap, rubber substitute and cattle foods.

A special variety of corn is raised to make cob pipes. Compressed corn pith is packed between the double hulls of warships. Corn husks are used in mattresses and paper is made in very limited amount from the leaves and stalks. Large amounts of popcorn, plain and candied, are eaten in the United States.

Methods of Cultivation.—Owing to its widespread growing, the methods of corn culture vary greatly, and no rigid rules can be laid down for all conditions. For maximum results the cornfield must be rich in humus, its soil finely pulverized, mellow and well drained. Many successful growers in the so-called corn states find these conditions best assured by plowing deeply in the fall, turning under liberal quantities of organic matter such as stable and barnyard manure and leaving the subsoil upturned to benefit from the action of the elements during winter, following with the disk harrow or other like implement in the spring. Planting is done when the soil is thoroughly warmed and when danger of frost is past.

There are two methods of planting commonly practiced, one by drilling or dropping the seed [126] (three or four grains) in hills with a machine drawn by horses and completing two rows at once. The other is planting with an implement known as a lister, dropping and covering one grain in a place in the bottom of a furrow, at intervals of eight to twelve inches. The latter method is quite extensively followed in the more western of the corn states, such as Kansas, Oklahoma and Nebraska. The lister is a plow and planter combined, with moldboards at once turning the soil to the right and left, opening a furrow, dropping and covering the seed at the same time, economizing labor, time and expense. Corn is planted about two inches deep, and if in hills or rows generally three and one-half feet apart each way. A bushel of fifty-six pounds of seed suffices for planting nearly eight acres. For soiling, forage or ensiling it is planted more thickly.

Cultivation, with horse-drawn cultivators, cleaning one row at a time, and by some implements two rows, repeated three or four times in a season, is given to kill weeds, aid in the retention of moisture, and aerate the soil. This begins in many instances before the plants appear, and often in the earlier stages is done with a harrow and later by using the cultivator, upon which the operator usually rides.

Harvesting, done after the grains have become hardened is by cutting the stalks from the hills where grown, by hand or machinery, and standing them in large shocks to be husked later, or, husking the ears directly from the stalks without cutting or shocking. No machine equal to human hands has yet been invented for husking corn. The yield ranges from twenty-five to one hundred bushels of sixty pounds, shelled, or seventy pounds unshelled, per acre. The stalks and husks, whether harvested or not are used as food for live stock, and somewhat in manufactures.

Emmer. See Spelt.

Johnson Grass (Sorghum halapense) is a coarse perennial, most extensively grown in the South or the Gulf States, for hay. It spreads so persistently and is so difficult to eradicate that its growing is frowned upon by most of the best authorities. One bushel of seed, or thirty-five pounds per acre is about the quantity sown. It is propagated by roots also. Never plant Johnson grass with the expectation of destroying it.

Millet (Panicum miliaceum) is a native of the East Indies, and is about three feet high; each panicle contains five to six hundred grains. Hungarian grass is one of the most common grown for hay and grain. In the United States they are principally grown for forage. It is a general rule to sow after corn planting has been done but they may be safely sown considerably later, as a catch crop when the regular hay crop is short or a probable failure. Millets are excellent for ensilage, and a succession of cuttings for that purpose or for soiling can be easily secured by sowing at intervals of two or three weeks from early May to late July. The seed is sown broadcast or with grain drills, mostly broadcast, at the rate of two to three pecks per acre, for hay and somewhat less for seed. The hay is harvested and handled after the manner of other hay crops, and the seed crop as that of other small grains. Well drained, rich, warm, loam soils are preferable for millet, and it does not prosper on thin or poor land. A crop of millet leaves the soil where it grew in a delightful condition of tilth. Its yield of seed is from twenty to forty bushels per acre.

Oats (Avena sativa) have a broad panicle; the individual ears are two-rowed, with and without beards. Another much-cultivated species are the bearded oats (A. orientalis). The greater portion of the oats crop of the United States is grown in the north central states, more than one-half in the six states of Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Nebraska and Ohio, ranking in order named. Russia is also a large producer and it is cultivated throughout the temperate parts of the civilized world. The yield per acre ranges from twenty-five to one hundred bushels, weighing thirty-two pounds. Oats thrives best in cool weather with abundant moisture, and in the principal oats territory should be sown as early as possible in the spring—earlier than any other spring grain. The ground for oats should be plowed, but it is not uncommon to merely disk harrow the land before sowing. If the latter, about four bushels is sown to the acre, broadcast or drilled, but on well prepared ground ten to twelve pecks of clean, graded seed is sufficient. In the main the oats crop is harvested, stacked and threshed as other small grains.

Oats is used chiefly for horse feed, and in lesser amounts for making oatmeal and breakfast foods.

The manufacture of oatmeal is of relatively small importance since the more nourishing products of wheat are increasingly used.

Orchard Grass (Dactylis glomerata) is a hardy, nutritious perennial, growing two to five feet high, that does well in either shade or sunshine. It flourishes in nearly every state between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains, and is profitably grown in all the states east of the Mississippi River lying between thirty-five degrees and forty-seven degrees north latitude, but is partial to a rich soil. Two to three bushels of seed are sown to the acre, from about the middle of March to the middle of April. It provides either hay or pasturage, and is prized for the latter, as “it comes early and stays late.”

Rape (Brassica napus) is a valuable farm crop, supplies an abundance of succulent green food in a short time, for soiling or pasture, especially for sheep and swine, being ready to use ordinarily six weeks after sowing, and is prized chiefly as a catch crop. Three pounds of seed per acre sown in rows thirty inches apart is customary, and the favorite is the Dwarf Essex.

Redtop, or Herd’s Grass (Agrostis alba) is a meadow grass and also one of the best pasture plants. It prospers on land where blue-grass, timothy and clover are not thrifty. It is most at home in a moist soil, flourishing in swampy places unfit for almost any other useful grass, and it also has ability to withstand severe drought. On thin soil it makes excellent pasture, but yields lightly of hay. It may be sown in the fall or spring, alone, or with a nurse crop. For meadow, it is best sown alone, using one bushel of seed in the chaff, or half as much if winnowed. A bushel of recleaned seed weighs thirty-five pounds.

Rice (Oryza sativa) is grown in nearly all the warmer countries of the earth, and forms the daily food of many millions of people. It is estimated that one-third of the people of the world live principally on rice.

There are two general varieties—the mountain rice and the marsh rice, the latter being the most cultivated. It is usually grown in swampy land or else on irrigated fields. In most countries rice is grown in the most primitive fashion. Immense irrigating plants and modern agricultural machinery make possible the large production in parts of the United States.

It is the chief crop in southeastern Asia, from India through Indo-China, a great part of China, southern Japan and many islands of the Pacific. Rice of excellent quality is raised in Texas, Louisiana and South Carolina, and an amount about equal to the production of this country is imported from eastern Asia.

Economic Uses.—Rough rice or paddy (rice in the hull) is first hulled by machinery and then the grains are polished or whitened. The rice [127] polish, which consists of the powdered outer coats, is a very nourishing cattle food. SakÉ, the national drink of Japan, is a weak alcoholic liquor brewed from rice. Rice straw is of enormous use in Asia, being employed for hundreds of purposes, some of them as unexpected as the making of bags, ropes and sandals. Rough rice and clean rice are the common commercial articles.

Rye (Secale cereale) is cultivated in all northern countries. The stalk grows up to six feet, and the ears are double-rowed with a long beard. The grain is dark green and very mealy, and furnishes a good bread. It is cultivated in the cold climates of northern Europe, especially in Russia. Only small amounts are grown in the United States.

The leading rye states, in order of yields, are Pennsylvania, Michigan, Wisconsin, New York and Minnesota, which together raised nearly two-thirds of the crop.

It is usually sown at the same time as winter wheat, or earlier, one and a half to two bushels of seed per acre, and its habits and treatment are essentially the same. Its yield per acre is from twenty to fifty bushels, weighing fifty-six pounds. It is noted for its ability to thrive and yield fairly on soils too poor for the more important cereals. Rye is used for breadmaking, live stock food, and in the manufacture of malt and alcoholic beverages. It is the chief breadstuff in parts of Russia, Scandinavia and Germany. It also furnishes valuable pasturage late in the fall and early spring, for which it is extensively sown where early tame grasses do not prosper. Its straw is in considerable demand for various uses, such as the making of paper, filling horse collars, for packing and otherwise.

Sugar-Cane (Saccharum officinarium), a tree-like grass, grows nine to fifteen feet high, and contains in its pith a sweet sap, from which our raw sugar is obtained. The sugar-cane is a native of the East Indies, but it is now grown in India, Cuba, Hawaii, Java, Brazil, Mauritius, Louisiana and other parts of the tropics and subtropics. India’s large production is consumed locally and enters little into export trade. Louisiana produces all made in the United States, except ten thousand to fifteen thousand tons, annually, from Texas. Cane for molasses and sirup is grown more or less in all of the Gulf Coast states.

Method of Cultivation.—It requires a fertile soil, rich in humus. Sandy and clay loams are both good, but alluvial soils are best. In preparing for sugar cane the soil is thrown up by plows in beds six to seven feet wide. In planting, furrows are opened, and in these the cane stalks, one, two or three are laid side by side, covering by plows. It is cultivated largely after the manner of corn, care being taken to leave the rows well ridged up by the last cultivation, to facilitate drainage. The quantity of cane required for planting an acre ranges from four to six tons. Two and sometimes three crops or cuttings are had from one planting. Yields of forty to forty-five tons of stripped cane per acre are not uncommon, although half those quantities are considered creditable averages for large plantations.

Manufacture.—After harvesting, sugar cane is carried (usually by rail) promptly to the mill, where the juice is pressed out. Modern mills have nine rollers, arranged in three sets. The trash, or bagasse, is almost dry when it leaves the last rollers and is used as fuel to run the mill. The juice is boiled down, generally in vacuum pans heated by steam, and the sugar crystals which form are separated from the molasses in centrifugals.

Products.—Raw cane sugar, brown to yellowish in color, produced by evaporation of the juice in open pans (muscovados), and crystals from vacuum pans are both important commercially. White sugar, granulated, loaf and pulverized, as commonly sold, is more nearly chemically pure than most other articles of commerce. Molasses, from cane juice boiled in open pans, is palatable for human food, and, like all cane molasses, is fermented and distilled to make rum.

Sorghum is a cultivated grass of many varieties (Panicum, Setaria, Andropogon, etc.) Guinea corn, kaffir corn, broom corn and other names are employed to distinguish the different kinds. They may, however, be divided into two classes: the saccharine or sweet sorghums and the non-saccharine. The sweet sorghums are grown for making sirup, but principally for forage and hay, and yield heavily, from five to fifteen tons per acre. The seed being somewhat bitter is not entirely relished by animals, but it finds a ready market for seeding purposes. For hay about a bushel of seed is sown to the acre, and for fodder and seed about ten pounds per acre is planted in rows and cultivated.

Kaffir Corn is by far the most valuable of the non-saccharine sorghums. Its grain, of which it yields from thirty to sixty bushels per acre, has a feeding value approximating that of Indian corn, and its forage after the seed heads have been removed is valuable feed for live stock.

Milo is one of the non-saccharine sorghums especially adapted to dry regions, and the most successful summer grain crop for the southern half of the plains country. It does not rank with the sweet sorghums and Kaffir corn as forage, being principally valued for its seed, which makes a satisfactory substitute for Indian corn.

Jerusalem Corn is also a non-saccharine sorghum. It is cultivated mostly in the cooler climates of the dry regions. It will mature in a short season, and is quite productive of seed, but its fodder yield is light.

Broom-Corn, a non-saccharine sorghum, is grown only for its brush for making brooms. It is a hardy plant, withstanding dry weather well, and is grown chiefly in Oklahoma, Illinois and Kansas. There are two varieties—the Standard and Dwarf, the former growing taller and producing the longer brush.

In adaptability sorghums cover about as wide a range of soils and climate as corn, and are noted for their drought-resisting powers. Kaffir corn is especially adapted to hot, dry and semi-arid portions of the West, where corn is uncertain, and there it is regarded with increasing appreciation.

In some places the juice of sorghum is boiled down to make sirup or sugar. Common brooms are made of the tops of the Broom-corn.

Spelt (Triticum Spelta) is chiefly cultivated in south Germany, but is also grown in a small way in some of our northwestern states. It is sown in both fall and spring, dealt with the same as other wheats, and some authorities recommend it as a very hardy drought-resistant grain for semi-arid regions. About seven pecks of seed are sown to the acre, and the yield is from twenty-five to sixty bushels per acre. The small ears are arranged on a brittle stalk, and consist of three or four blooms, of which, as a rule, only two are fruitful. Spelt is, generally, not bearded. The corn furnishes a white bread. When unripe, it is manufactured into a soup, which is highly esteemed.

Timothy (Phleum pratense) is a popular and most widely used hay plant in America, and also extensively seeded with other grasses for pasture, prospering best in moist loams. It yields the year following its sowing, grows from one and a half to four feet high, and twelve to fifteen pounds of seed are sown per acre. The chief timothy region is the northern half of the United [128] States, east of the 100th meridian, where it is usually sown in the fall with winter wheat, or in the spring with oats. Forty-five pounds of seed make a bushel.

Wheat (Triticum vulgare), does not grow as high as the rye, but has a thicker stalk and thicker ears, which are composed of several small ears. In each little ear there are generally four seeds. There are, as a rule, no beards; but, on the other hand, there is often a short spur at the top of the ears. It grows in temperate climates, the largest crops being raised in United States (especially in Minnesota, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota and Kansas); Central Europe (Russia, France, Austria-Hungary and Italy); India, Argentina, Canada and Australia. The area of wheat production is steadily increasing and wheat raising has become an important industry in newly developed countries, such as parts of British America, West Australia and Manchuria.

Cultivation.—The soil conditions in the Middle West are most favorable for giving quality. Its rich prairies contain large amounts of decaying vegetable matter, and because of the lime and alkaline substances in these soils, the elements of plant food are readily available, particularly the nitrogen in the soil, that contributes so largely to the glutinous character of the wheat.

Wheat is more than ordinarily adapted to machine farming and the invention of the successful reaper was largely responsible for the rapid increase of wheat acreage in America. In many parts of the wheat region immense plows drawn by traction engines and turning six to twelve and more furrows are employed. In other portions where operations are large many fields are plowed only once in two or three years. For various reasons, among which may be mentioned the control of weeds and the conserving of moisture in the soil, early plowing for winter wheat is preferable, and where the rainfall is scant very satisfactory conditions are obtained by stirring the surface soil with disc harrows only.

The average quantity of seed sown per acre is between four and five pecks, varying with the quality, the locality, method and time of seeding and the whim of the sower. The yield ranges from ten to sixty bushels per acre, the bushel weighing sixty pounds.

Wheat is mostly sown with drills, the old method of sowing broadcast having been mostly abandoned. By drilling a more even distribution and covering of the seed, and a better stand and yield of grain may be confidently expected.

In harvesting small areas the self-binding reaping machine is popular. This cuts the standing grain and binds it in sheaves of convenient size which are stood in shocks of three or four dozen bundles each, whence it is either threshed direct or put in stacks for threshing at a more convenient season. On larger areas and especially where the wheat is quite ripe, the header is commonly and widely used. This clips off the heads of grain, and elevates them into large receptacles called barges, set on wagons, leaving the straw standing. Usually when headed the grain is put directly into stacks, and threshed at convenience.

Economic Products.—Its commercial varieties, hard, soft, red, white, etc., differ in percentage of starch and gluten.

The whole grain is ground into graham flour, made into breakfast foods and used in brewing.

From parts of the grain are prepared whole wheat flour, white flour, middlings, bran, wheat grits, wheat starch, macaroni, spaghetti, etc.

Wheatflour may be said to be the standard foodstuff of modern civilized man.

Macaroni is made from special varieties of hard, glutinous wheat.

Wheat straw is plaited into braids (Leghorn, etc.) for hat making, and is used like the straw from other grains for packing material and as bedding for animals.

Straw braids come largely from Italy, China and Japan.

The principal countries exporting wheat are United States, Russia, Argentina, Canada, Roumania, India and Australia.

II. KITCHEN VEGETABLES

Among the commercial products of the world, vegetables are a most important item, and their value as foodstuffs needs no emphasizing. The inhabitants of the world could subsist without animal-flesh, could scarcely subsist entirely on cereals, but they most certainly could not subsist without vegetables. Practically every nation, savage and civilized alike, cultivates a few plants for use as vegetables. The vegetables we know and prize most are one and all the result of long cultivation, the origin of most being lost in antiquity. The world has been ransacked, and for the vegetables cultivated in America nearly every country under the sun has been laid under contribution.

Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis). The common Asparagus is a native of Great Britain, Russia and Poland. It is one of the oldest as well as one of the most delicious of our garden vegetables. It was cultivated in the time of Cato the Elder, 200 B. C.; and Pliny mentions a sort that grew in his time near Ravenna, of which three heads would weigh a pound. As many of our best gardeners contend, adaptation of soil, together with thorough cultivation, alone explains the difference in this vegetable, as offered in our markets or seen in our gardens.

Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is cultivated in many countries for the sake of its seed and husks. By cultivation many varieties have been produced, of which the following are the best known: Broad Bean, an important article of food in Europe and western Asia, and valuable forage plant, grown in gardens and as a field crop. All species of the bean have a very high food value; are relatively cheap in price, but much less easily digested than cereals. Lima Bean, widely cultivated in tropical Africa, sparingly in temperate regions. Production in the United States most extensive in California. Navy or Kidney Bean, extensively grown in the United States, over one hundred and fifty varieties of which are in cultivation as a garden vegetable, “string beans,” fodder and for food. The closely related “frijole” is universally grown in Mexico and Spanish American countries where it ranks next to maize as a staple food. Soy Bean, the common bean of China and Japan is grown in immense quantities. Various preparations form a part of the daily food. It is now grown in Europe and southern and southwestern United States as forage and soiling crop.

NEWEST VEGETABLES GROWN IN AMERICAN GARDENS


UDO—This fine salad vegetable comes from Japan, is similar to asparagus, and much easier to grow. It has a fresh taste like lettuce with an agreeable flavor. There are numerous ways of serving it, but it is possibly best simply boiled and seasoned like asparagus. It will grow in any soil suitable for asparagus.	THE CHAYOTE, or Vegetable Pear, is large, green and pear-shaped, with a texture somewhat like a squash, and a flavor more delicate than a cucumber. It is grown on lowlands near the coast, in a moderately warm climate. Its keeping qualities are remarkable, making it an excellent winter vegetable. Both roots and stalks are also edible.

THE BUR ARTICHOKE, long imported from France, may now be successfully grown in this country. It is used like the cauliflower in many ways but commands a higher price. The scalelike leaves make a delicious salad when pulled apart after boiling, and may be served on lettuce with either mayonnaise or French dressing.	THE PETSAI, or Odorless Cabbage, is much superior to the ordinary cabbage, and is wholly without disagreeable odor. It does not closely resemble cabbage in appearance; it is rather tall than squatty, and the leaves cluster around the stalk compactly. It requires cultivation similar to cabbage but is not transplanted. It is served after the fashion of cabbage.

Brussels Sprouts, or Bud-bearing Cabbage (B. oleracea bullata minor) originated in Belgium, and has been cultivated around Brussels from time immemorial, although it is only within the last fifty years that it has become generally known in this country. It is so named on account of its peculiar habit, producing a bud-like cluster of leaves in the axil of each leaf from the base to the top of the stem. These buds or sprouts are the parts of the plant that are eaten, and are highly esteemed for their delicate flavor and wholesome quality. Brussels sprouts is one of the hardiest of green winter vegetables. As a rule, the shorter-stemmed strains have the largest and most compact sprouts, and are consequently the most favored. As regards cultivation, the plant, like all of the cabbage tribe, requires deep, rich soil to bring it to fullest perfection.

Cabbage (Brassica oleraceÆ) is found in a wild state in various parts of Europe and in southern England, always on maritime cliffs. It is a biennial, with fleshy lobed leaves covered with a glaucous bloom; altogether so different in form and appearance from the cabbage of our gardens that few would believe it could possibly have been the parent of so varied a progeny as are comprised in the Savoy, Brussels Sprouts, Cauliflower, Broccoli and other numerous varieties. Over one hundred fifty varieties are enumerated. The common or cultivated cabbage is well known, and from a very early period has been a favorite culinary vegetable in almost daily use throughout the civilized world.

Carrot (Daucus) of which there are about twenty species are mostly natives of the Mediterranean countries. The common carrot is a biennial plant and is universally cultivated for the sake of its root. In all varieties of the wild plant this is slender, woody and of a very strong flavor; and that of the cultivated variety is much thicker and more fleshy, much milder in its flavor and qualities. Its color is generally red, but sometimes orange or yellowish white.

Cauliflower (B. oleracea botrytis cauliflora) is of great antiquity, but its origin is unknown, although it is usually ascribed to Italy. To the English and Dutch gardeners we are chiefly indebted for the perfection it has attained. Heads of immense size are now grown for the market. It is by no means uncommon to see a head perfectly sound and smooth, fully ten inches in diameter, and, contrary to the usual rule, size is not obtained at the expense of quality, the larger, if differing at all, being more tender and delicious. The varieties of the Cauliflower are numerous.

Celery (Apium graveolens). The plant is hardy, and is largely cultivated in the United States, Canada and Europe. In cultivation, however, abundant nutrition has greatly mollified its properties, and two principal forms have arisen. The first sort is the common celery, where the familiar long blanched succulent stalks are produced by transplanting the seedlings into richly manured trenches, which are filled up as the plants grow, and finally raised into ridges over which little more than the tops of the leaves appear; and a supply is thus insured throughout the whole winter. The other form is the turnip-rooted celery, or celeriac.

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus). The common cucumber is distinguished by heart-shaped leaves, which are rough with hairs approaching to bristles, and oblong fruit. It is a native of the middle and south of Asia, and has been cultivated from the earliest times. Its fruit forms an important article of food in its native regions, the south of Europe, etc., and an esteemed delicacy in colder countries, where it is produced by the aid of artificial heat. Many varieties are in cultivation, with fruit from four inches to two feet long, rough, smooth, etc.

Vegetable Marrow (Cucurbita ovifera) is closely allied to the cucumber, and is supposed to have been originally brought from Persia. Like the cucumber it is a tender annual, but succeeds out of doors in summer in this country.

Many other members of the cucumber family are cultivated as esculents, notably in the warmer parts of the world. Of these the chief are Pumpkins, Melon Pumpkin, Water Melon, Chocho, Bottle Gourd, Squash.

Egg-plant (Solanum melongena). The egg-like fruit known as egg-apple, etc., is a favorite article of food in the East Indies, and has thence been introduced to most warm countries. It varies in size from that of a hen’s egg to that of a swan’s egg, in color from white or yellow to violet. Egg-plants are much grown in the United States, where “Jew’s-apple” is one of the names for the fruit.

Kale, or Borecole (B. oleracea acephala) is distinguished by its leaves being beautifully cut and curled, of a green or purple color, or variegated with red, green, and yellow, never closing so as to form a heart, nor producing edible flower heads like a Cauliflower. Its leaves and tender shoots are not only edible but form one of the most useful green vegetables.

Lentils (Ervum Lens), a slender plant supposed to be native of Western Asia, Greece and Italy. The Lentil was introduced into Egypt as a cultivated plant at an early date, and from this center spread east and west. It is a weak, straggling plant, rarely exceeding eighteen inches high, often much more dwarfed, having pinnate leaves terminating in tendrils. The flowers are white, lilac, or pale blue, small and formed like those of a pea. There are three varieties of lentil recognized in the countries in which it is cultivated: the small brown, which is the lightest flavored and the best esteemed for soups and haricots; the yellow variety, which is slightly larger; and the lentil of Provence, France, which has seeds as large as a small pea, but is better appreciated as fodder for cattle than for food for man.

Lettuce (Lactuca sativa). The garden lettuce is supposed to be a native of the East Indies, but is not known to exist anywhere in a wild state, and from remote antiquity has been cultivated as an esculent and particularly as a salad. It has a leafy stem, oblong leaves, a spreading, flat-topped panicle, with yellow flowers, and a fruit without margin. It is now generally cultivated in all parts of the world where the climate admits of it.

Melon (Cucumis melo), a plant of the same genus with the cucumber, much cultivated for its fruit. The melon is an annual, with trailing or climbing stems, lateral tendrils, rounded, angular leaves, small, yellow flowers and large round or somewhat ovate fruit. The varieties in cultivation are very numerous, some of them distinguished by a thick and warty rind, some by a rind cracked in a net-like manner, some by ribs and furrows, some by a perfectly smooth and thin rind; they differ also in the color of the flesh of the fruit, which is green, red, yellow, etc.; and in the size of the fruit, which varies from three or four inches to a foot or more in diameter. They are widely cultivated in the United States, ranking fifth in acreage among vegetables. New Jersey leads in production, growing about one-seventh of entire crop. Cultivation under irrigation is highly developed in Colorado. They are often called cantaloupe in the markets.

Mushroom. See Cryptogams.

Okra or Gumbo (Hibiscus esculentus) is a generally used food plant most commonly employed in soups in the East and West Indies and also in the southern United States. It was anciently grown in tropical Africa and Egypt, and is now [131] diffused in tropical countries and in the southern United States.

Onion (Allium Cepa) is extensively cultivated throughout the world, and is grown in every state in the United States, New York and Ohio leading in production. Bermuda and Spanish varieties are now grown in California. It was cultivated by the ancient Egyptians; also by the Greeks and Romans. Many other important vegetables are allied to the onion, viz.: Leek, Shallot, Onion, Chives and Garlic. All of these are highly esteemed in cookery.

Parsnip (Pastinaca), an annual, biennial, or perennial herb, with carrot-like, often fleshy root and pinnate leaves. The parsnip has long been cultivated for the sake of its root, which in cultivation has greatly increased in size and become more fleshy. The flavor is disliked by some, as well as the too great sweetness, but highly relished by others; and the root of the parsnip is more nutritious than that of the carrot. The crop is also on many soils of larger quantity; and although the parsnip delights in a very open, rich soil, it will succeed in clayey soils far too stiff for the carrot.

Pea (Pisum sativum) has been cultivated from very remote times. The pea plant is covered with a delicate, glaucous bloom, and its white or pale violet flowers are familiar to all. The pods are pendulous, smooth, deep green and variable in size and may contain any number up to thirteen (rarely more) peas. The peas when ripe are also variable, some being white and round, others blue and wrinkled, and a few large, irregular, and dull green. They are cultivated in Europe, Asia and the United States. Chiefly used as green vegetable, but also for fodder. Ranks seventh in acreage among minor vegetables in the United States.

Peppers or Capsicums or Chillies (Capsicum annum and C. frutescens) are widely cultivated in the warmer parts of both hemispheres. The fruits vary considerably in shape and size, and when green are cooked and eaten as a vegetable.

Potato (Solanum tuberosum) is the greatest of vegetable gifts to man. Its cabbage-like stalks have a height of from eighteen to twenty inches; its leaves are solitary and pennate; its large pentagonal blossoms are white, reddish or violet; its fruit is a green berry. Attached to its underground runners are those bulbs which serve as food to many millions of people, and from which starch, sago, sugar of grapes and brandy are prepared.

The potato stands second only to corn as the most important contribution of America to the food plants of the world. PreËminently the most important vegetable grown in Europe and America. The world crop is enormous, exceeding five billion bushels; in bulk surpassing by about one-half the world crop of wheat, corn or oats. Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, France, the United States and Great Britain are the chief producers in order named. Germany grows one-third of the world crop, Russia one-fifth. In the United States they are grown in every state and territory; also in Hawaii and Alaska.

Their cultivation was even ancient in Peru. It was widely diffused from Chile to Colombia at time of Spanish discovery, but there were no evidences of culture in Mexico or by North American Indians. It was introduced into what is now North Carolina and Virginia late in the sixteenth century; taken to Europe first by the Spaniards early in the sixteenth century and to England by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1585. Sweet Potatoes are the thickened roots of Ipomoea Batatas, a climbing plant. This plant is extensively cultivated in most tropical countries, although not known in a wild state. The root contains much starch and saccharine matter. They are second only to the potato in the United States, being widely grown in the South—Georgia, North Carolina, Alabama, South Carolina and Tennessee producing over half of the total crop, which in acreage and value is about one-fifth that of the potato.

Radish (Raphanus sativus) is a well-known plant, the root of which is a valuable salad; it has been cultivated from a remote period. It is now possible to have a supply the whole year round. Crisp, tender radishes with delicate flavor are only obtained by quick growth on rich, moist soil. The earliest crops are grown in frames on hotbeds, the crop being ready about five weeks from sowing. The earliest sowing outdoors can be made from December to February in sheltered sunny positions, the beds being covered with a thick layer of litter. There are round, oval and long-rooted varieties.

Tomato or Love-apple (Lycopersicum esculentum). The fruit of this plant is fleshy, usually red or yellow, divided into two, three or more cells containing numerous seeds imbedded in pulp. The tomato is one of a genus of several species, all natives of South America, chiefly on the Peruvian side. In the warmer countries of the United States, Europe and other countries in which the summer is warm and prolonged, it has long been cultivated for the excellent qualities of the fruit as an article of diet. The tomato is extensively grown as a field crop for canneries in the United States, and in the North is one of the chief winter-forcing crops. It is exceeded in acreage only by the watermelon and sweet corn among the minor vegetables. In the United States the crop exceeds thirty million bushels, nearly half of which is grown in Maryland and New Jersey.

Turnip (Brassica rapa). Although the turnip is of great value for feeding stock, it is not very nutritious, no less than nine to ninety-six parts of its weight actually consisting of water. One of the best early varieties is purple top strap leaf. Early flat Dutch is also good. The Swedish turnip, or ruta baga, which was introduced into cultivation from the north of Europe more recently than the common turnip, and has proved of very great value to the farmer, is regarded by some botanists as a variety of the same species, and by some as a variety of B. napus, but more generally as a variety of B. campestris, a species common in cornfields and sides of ditches in Britain and the north of Europe.

Watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris). The most popular melon in cultivation, is extensively grown in warm climates throughout the world, but most abundantly in southern Russia and the southern United States. It leads all minor vegetables in acreage, being surpassed only by the major vegetables, potato and sweet potato. Texas, Georgia, North Carolina and Missouri are the chief growers in the order named. Very anciently it was cultivated by Egyptians.

Yam (Dioscorea alata). Yams, the tubers of various species of Dioscorea, are cultivated in nearly all tropical countries. Yam tubers abound in farinaceous matter and often reach a large size. They resemble but are inferior to the sweet potato.

PLANTING TABLE FOR GARDEN VEGETABLES

Time given is for latitude of New York. Each one hundred miles north or south will make a difference of from five to seven days in the season. The distances given here indicate the distance apart the plants should stand after thinning. The seed should be sown much nearer together. Class A. These plants may be started early (in the greenhouse or hotbed, in early spring, or outdoors in the seedbed later), and afterwards transplanted to their permanent location. Class B. These crops usually occupy the ground for the entire season. Class C. These are quick maturing crops which, for a constant supply, should be planted at several different times in “succession”—a week or two weeks apart. Class D. These are crops which often may be cleared off in time to permit planting another quickly maturing crop, usually of some early variety. Class E. These crops are supplementary to those in Class D and may be used to obtain a second crop out of the ground from which early crops have been cleared.

Name and Variety	Time to Plant	Class	How to Plant and Care for
Asparagus (Plant).	April.	B	Plant 4 inches deep, at distance of 1 foot; in rows 3 feet apart; heavily manured, spreading the roots out evenly. Do not cut for use until second spring. Keep bed clean; cut off tops in the fall. Transplant third spring.
Asparagus (Seed).	April-May.	B	Seed 2 to 4 inches apart, in rows 15 inches apart; 1 inch deep.
Beans, Bush Lima. Burpee Improved.	March 15, under glass. May 1, outside.	B	Tender. Set out in May. Plant 2 inches deep in rows 2 feet apart.
Beans, Pole Lima. King of Garden.	May 15, outside. Ready in 10 weeks.	B	Tender. Plant 2 inches deep in hills 4 feet apart. Pinch off at 6 feet high. 1 pint of seed to 50 hills.
Beans, String. Bountiful. Hodson Wax. Bountiful. Hodson Wax. Bountiful. Hodson Wax. Bountiful.	April 15, outside. May 1, outside. May 15, outside. June 1, outside. June 15, outside. July 1, outside. July 15, outside. Ready in 6 weeks.	C	Tender. Plant 2 inches deep in rows 2 feet apart, 6 inches apart in row. 1 pint of seed to 75-foot row.
Beets. Eclipse. Crimson Globe.	March 1, under glass. April 15, outside. May 15, outside. June 15, outside. July 15, outside. Ready in 9 weeks.	A-D B-E	Transplant outside in April. Hardy. Plant 1 inch deep in rows 2 feet apart, 6 inches apart in row. Soak seed over night. 1 ounce of seed to 50 feet. Winter in sand or pits.
Brussels Sprouts. L. I. Half Dwarf.	March 15, under glass. May 1, under glass. Ready in 20 weeks.	A-E	Plant ¹/₂ inch deep in rows 2 feet apart, 1 foot apart in row. 1 ounce of seed to 1500 plants. Hang in cellar for winter.
Cabbage. Copenhagen Market. Drumhead Savoy.	March 1, under glass. March 1, under glass. May 1, under glass. Transplant to garden. Ready in 18 weeks.	A-C	Hardy. Plant ¹/₂ inch deep in rows 3 feet apart, 2 feet apart in row. Manure well. 1 ounce of seed to 2500 plants. Winter in pits upside down.
Carrot. Half-long Danvers.	April 1, outside. June 1, outside. Ready in 15 weeks.	C-B	Hardy. Plant ¹/₂ inch deep in rows 1¹/₂ feet apart, 6 inches apart in row. 1 ounce of seed to 100 feet. Winter in sand or pits.
Cauliflower. Dwarf Erfurt.	March 1, under glass. April 1, under glass. May 1, under glass. Transplant to garden.	A-C-E	Hardy. Plant ¹/₂ inch deep in rows 3 feet apart, 2 feet apart in row. 1 ounce seed to 2500 plants. Manure well.
Chard. Lucullus.	April 15, outside. Ready in 8 weeks.	...	Hardy. Plant 1 inch deep in rows 2 feet apart, 1 foot apart in row. 1 ounce of seed to 50 feet.
Celery. Golden Self-blanching. Fin de Siecle.	March 1, under glass. April 15, under glass. Ready in 18 weeks.	A-E	Hardy. Set out in May. Barely cover. Rows 3 feet apart, ¹/₂ feet apart in row. Rich, moist soil. Transplant twice. 1 ounce of seed to 3000 plants. In August bank up to blanch. Winter in pits.
Corn. Golden Bantam. Evergreen. Country Gentleman. Mexican. Country Gentleman.	April 1, under glass. April 15, outside. May 1, outside. May 1, outside. May 15, outside. June 1, outside. June 1, outside. June 15, outside. July 15, outside. Ready: Early 9 weeks. Ready: Late 11 weeks.	B-E	Tender. Set out in May. Plant 2 inches deep in rows 4 feet apart, 2 feet apart in row. Manure and remove suckers. 1 quart of seed to 200 hills.
Cucumber. Cool and Crisp.	March 15, under glass. May 1, outside. June 1, outside. July 1, outside. Ready in 9 weeks.	A-B	Tender. Set out in May. Plant 1 inch deep, 4 feet apart. 1 ounce of seed to 50 hills.
Endive.[133] Green Curled.	July 1. Ready in 8 weeks.	A-E	Hardy. Plant in rows 2 feet apart, 1 foot apart in row. 1 ounce of seed to 100-foot row. Transplant to dark cellar to blanch for winter.
Eggplant. Black Beauty.	March 1, under glass, with good heat. Transplant to garden. Ready in 15 weeks.	A-B	Very tender. Plant ¹/₂ inch deep in rows 3 feet apart, 2 feet apart in row. Rich and moist soil. 1 ounce of seed to 1000 plants. Store dry for late fall use.
Kale. Dwarf Scotch. Siberian.	May 15, under glass. Transplant to garden like cabbage. July 1, outside. Ready in 20 weeks.	E	Hardy. Plant ¹/₂ inch deep in rows 2 feet apart, 1 foot apart in row. 1 ounce of seed to 200 feet. Mulch for winter.
Lettuce. May King.	March 1, under glass. March 15, under glass. Outside every 2 weeks to Sept. 1. Ready in 6 weeks.	C	Hardy. Plant ¹/₄ inch deep in rows 1¹/₂ feet apart. Rich soil. 1 ounce of seed to 3000 plants. Shade and water in summer.
Muskmelon. Emerald Gem. Osage. Early Hackensack.	May 1, outside. May 1, outside. May 1, outside. Ready in 6 weeks.	A-B	Plant 1 inch deep in hills four feet apart. Pinch off ends of shoots. Make special soil of sand and manure. 1 ounce of seed to 50 hills.
Watermelon. Cole’s Early. Halbert Honey. Cole’s Early. Halbert Honey.	May 1, outside. May 1, outside.	B	Tender. Plant 1 inch deep in hills 6 feet apart. Make special soil of sand and manure. Pinch off ends of shoots. 1 ounce of seed to 30 hills.
Onion. Yellow Danvers. Prizetakers.	April 1, plant sets. Seeds April 15, outside. Seeds April 15, outside. Ready in 18 weeks from seed.	A-B	Hardy. Plant seeds ¹/₂ inch deep; sets 2 inches deep in rows 2 feet apart. 1 ounce of seed to 150 feet. Dig and dry for winter. 1 quart sets to 100 feet.
Parsley. Triple Curled.	April 15, outside. Ready in 8 weeks.	B	Hardy. Plant ¹/₂ inch deep in rows 2 feet apart, 6 inches apart in row. Soak seeds over night. Seeds are slow to start. 1 ounce of seed to 150-foot row.
Parsnip. Hollow Crown.	April 15, outside. Ready in 15 weeks.	B	Hardy. Plant ¹/₂ inch deep in rows 1¹/₂ feet apart. Seeds start slowly. 1 ounce seed to 200 feet. Winter in place or in pits. Improved by frost.
Peas. Thomas Laxton. Juno. Telephone.	April 15, outside. May 1, outside. May 1, outside. May 15, outside. June 1, outside. June 15, outside. July 1, outside. July 15, outside. Ready in 8 weeks.	B-E	Hardy. Plant early varieties 4 inches deep and late varieties 3 inches deep. Early in double rows and late in rows 3 feet apart. Moist soil. 1 quart of seed to 150 feet.
Pepper. Chinese Giant.	March 1, under glass. Set out in May. Ready in 20 weeks.	A	Very tender. Plant ¹/₂ inch deep in rows 2 feet apart. Start in good heat. Hang in cellar for winter.
Potatoes. Noroton Beauty. Gold Coin.	April 1 (early). May 1 (early). May 15 (main crop). Ready in 12 weeks.	B	Plant early varieties 2 inches deep, and late varieties 5 inches deep in rows 3 feet apart. 1 peck to 100-foot row. 8 or 10 bushels to acre. Sprout before planting.
Pumpkin. Winter Luxury.	May 15, outside. Ready in 15 weeks.	B	Tender. Plant 6 feet apart. Manure. 1 ounce of seed to 50 hills. Winter warm and dry.
Radish. French Breakfast.	March 7, under glass and every 2 weeks. Ready in 4 weeks.	C	Hardy. Plant ¹/₂ inch deep. 1 ounce of seed to 100 feet. Soil light and rich.
Rhubarb (Plant).	April.	B	Set out root-clumps at distance of 2 to 3 feet, in rows 3 to 4 feet apart. Give them dressing of bone meal and soda in the spring.
Salsify. Mammoth Sandwich Island.	April 15, outside. Ready in 18 weeks.	B	Hardy. Plant ¹/₄ inch deep in rows 2 feet apart. 1 ounce of seed to 100 feet. Winter in place or in pits.
Spinach. Victoria. New Zealand.	April 1, outside. April 15, outside. May 1, outside. May 1, outside. June 1, outside. Sept. 1, outside. Ready in 5 weeks.	A-B-E	Hardy. Plant 1 inch deep in rows 1¹/₂ feet apart. 1 ounce of seed to 200 feet. Very rich soil. Winter under straw cover.
Squash.[134] Crookneck. Delicata. Early Golden Custard. Crookneck. Hubbard.	March 15, under glass. May 15, outside. May 15, outside. May 15, outside. Ready in 7 weeks. May 15, outside. Ready in 15 weeks.	B	Tender. Plant 1 inch deep, 4 feet apart. Hubbard 6 feet apart. Winter warm and dry. 1 ounce of seed for 25 hills. For Hubbard make special soil of sand and manure.
Tomato. Earliana. Crimson Cushion.	March 1, under glass. April 1, under glass. Set out in May. Ready in 18 weeks.	B-A	Tender. Plant ¹/₂ inch deep in rows 3 feet apart, 3 feet apart in row. Keep hotbed cool. Pinch off side shoots. 1 ounce of seed to 2000 plants. Hang in cellar for early winter.
Turnip. Early Milan White.	April 17, outside. June 15, outside. Ready in 9 weeks.	C	Hardy. Plant ¹/₂ inch deep in rows 1¹/₂ feet apart. 1 ounce of seed to 200 feet. Winter in pits.

PLANTING TABLE FOR GARDEN VEGETABLES—Continued
Especially Adapted to Southern United States

Name and Variety	Time to Plant	Class	How to Plant and Care for
Artichoke, Jerusalem.	March 1, outside. Ready in 6 to 8 months.	...	Hardy Perennial. Plant tubers 6 inches deep in rows 5 feet apart, 2 feet apart in row. Light soil and sun. 2 quarts of tubers to 100 feet. Fine for soup or boiled and creamed, or salad or pickles.
Asparagus. Palmetto.	December, outside. Ready in February or March.	B	Hardy. Plant 2-year roots 8 inches deep in rows 2 feet apart, 1 foot apart in row. Rich and moist mulch with manure all summer, salt well.
Beans. Valentine or Refugee or Golden Wax.	Cold-frames or green- house. September 1 and every two weeks there- after. Ready in 6 weeks.	B-C	Tender. Plant seeds 2 inches deep in rows 1¹/₂ feet apart, 4 inches apart in row. Not too rich soil. 1 quart for 150 feet.
Beets. Eclipse or Crimson Globe.	Sept. 1, outside. Oct. 1, outside. Ready in 9 weeks.	A-D B-E	Hardy. Plant 1 inch deep in rows 1¹/₂ feet apart. Thin to 4 inches apart. Deep soil, no fresh manure. 1 ounce to 50 feet. Soak seed over night.
Chard. Lucullus.	Sept. 15, cold-frame.	...	Almost hardy. Grow like beets. Use outside leaves, leaving crown to grow. Use for greens, or leaf stalks like asparagus.
Brussels Sprouts.	Seed-bed August 1. Transplant outside September 15. Ready in 4 months.	A-E	Hardy. Plant seeds ¹/₂ inch deep in rows 2 feet apart, 1¹/₂ feet apart in row. Cultivate like cabbage. 1 packet of seed enough.
Cabbage. Wakefield or Savoy or Winningstadt.	Seed-bed August 15. Transplant outside September. Ready in 4 months.	A-C-E	Hardy. Plant seeds ¹/₂ inch deep. Plant rows 3 feet apart; 1¹/₂ feet apart in rows. Moist, manure and cultivate well. 1 packet of seed enough. Set plants deep.
Carrots. Half Long or Long Orange.	Aug. 15, outside. Oct. 1, outside. Ready 12 to 15 weeks.	C-B	Hardy. Plant ¹/₂ inch deep in rows 1¹/₂ feet apart, 4 inches apart in row. 1 ounce for 200 feet. Seed slow to start.
Cauliflower. Early Snowball or Dwarf Erfurt.	Seed-bed September 1. Transplant to cold- frames October 1. Ready in 4 months.	A-C-E	Almost hardy. Plant seed ¹/₂ inch deep in rows 2 feet apart, 1¹/₂ feet apart in row. Moist, rich and manure. 1 packet of seed enough. Blanch heads by tying up.
Collards.	Cultivate like cabbage.	...	A non-heading cabbage not equal to it in quality.
Cucumber. English Telegraph.	Sept. 15, greenhouse. Oct. 15, greenhouse. Nov. 15, greenhouse. Dec. 15, greenhouse. Day heat, 85°. Night heat, 65°. Ready in 6 to 8 weeks.	A-B	Tender. Plant 1 inch deep, 5 feet apart. 1 ounce for 50 hills. Moist, rich soil. Pinch out main stem when 2 feet long. Pinch outside branches at 6 or 8 feet. Leave only 3 side branches to a plant and only half the fruit. Do not fertilize blossoms.
Cress, Water.	Outside in water. September 1. Ready in 3 months.	...	Hardy. Sow in quiet pool near running water. Start seed on mud, then flood 3 inches deep. 1 packet of seed enough.
Endive. Green curled or Self-blanching.	Sept. 1, outside. Nov. 1, outside or in cold-frames. Ready in 3 months.	A-E	Hardy. Plant ¹/₂ inch deep in rows 1¹/₂ feet apart. Thin to 10 inches apart in row. Light, rich soil, deep. 1 ounce for 100 feet. Can transplant like lettuce. Tie up heads for blanching 2 weeks before use.
Eggplant.[135] Round Purple.	Aug. 15, greenhouse. Dry heat, day, 90°. Dry heat, night, 65°. Ready in 4 or 5 months.	A-B	Very tender. Plant ¹/₂ inch deep, 2 feet apart. Rich and moist soil. 1 packet enough. Blossoms should be fertilized by hand.
Kale. Dwarf Scotch or Tall Scotch.	Aug. 15, seed-bed. Sept. 15, set outside. Sept. 15, start some. October, set outside. Ready in 3 or 4 months.	E	Hardy. Plant ¹/₂ inch deep in rows 1¹/₂ feet apart, 1 foot apart in row. Deep sand and mold. 1 ounce to 200 feet. When top is cut off for use, side shoots will start.
Kohlrabi. Early Vienna.	October 1, outside. Ready in 2 to 3 months.	C	Hardy. Plant ¹/₂ inch deep in rows 1¹/₂ feet apart, 6 inches apart in row. 1 ounce for 150 feet. Grow and use like turnip.
Lettuce. May King or California Butter or Boston Market.	Seed-bed September 15 and every 2 weeks after. Transplant into cold- frames.	C	Almost hardy. ¹/₄ inch deep, 6 inches apart each way. Light, rich soil. 1 ounce for 2000 plants.
Muskmelon. English: Sutton’s Ar. Sutton’s Emerald Gem.	August 15, greenhouse. Dry heat, day 90°. Dry heat, night, 70°. Ready in 4 to 5 months. Sets ready 2 months.	A-B	Tender. Plant 1 inch deep in hills 5 feet apart. Manure. Light soil. 1 ounce for 50 hills. Blossoms to be fertilized by hand. Pinch off tip of vine when first blossoms come.
Onions. Prizetaker or Multiplier or Globe.	July 1, outside, seed. Sept. 1, outside, sets. Ready in 4 to 5 months.	A-B	Hardy. Plant seed ¹/₂ inch deep, sets 2 inches deep in rows 1¹/₂ feet apart. Moist, rich soil and sun. 1 ounce of seed for 150 feet. 1 quart of sets for 100 feet.
Parsley.	September 1, outside. Soak seeds over night. Ready in 2 months.	B	Hardy. Plant ¹/₄ inch deep in rows 1¹/₂ feet apart. 1 packet seed enough. Seeds slow to start.
Parsnip. Hollow Crown.	September 1, outside.	B	Hardy. Plant ¹/₂ inch deep in rows 1¹/₂ feet apart, 3 inches apart in row. Seeds slow to start. Rich, deep soil. 1 ounce for 200 feet.
Peanuts. Virginia or Georgia.	April 1, outside.	...	Plant 3 inches deep in hills 2 feet apart. Light, deep soil. Shell before planting.
Peas. Nott’s Excelsior. Gradus or Tom Thumb. Extra Early (smooth varieties). Marrow Fat.	In cold-frames. September 15 and every 2 weeks. Ready in 2 to 3 months. Outside same dates (always an uncertain crop). Outside, December 1 (more hardy, less quality).	B-E	Almost hardy. Plant 4 inches deep in rows 2 feet apart. Moist, not too rich. Soak over night. 1 pint to 100 feet.
Pepper. Sweet Spanish or Sweet Mountain.	August 1, greenhouse. Moist heat, day, 90°. Moist heat, night, 70°. Ready in 4 months.	B	Tender. Plant seeds ¹/₂ inch deep, 2 feet apart. 1 packet of seed enough. Need not fertilize blossoms.
Potato. Irish Cobbler or other earlies.	August 1, outside. For new potatoes all winter. Ready in 3 months.	B	Hardy. Plant whole in rows 3 feet apart, 1 foot apart in row. Moist, light, rich soil. 8 bushels per acre.
Potato, Sweet. Yellow Yam or Georgia Yam.	Bed thickly in March. Transplant the sprouts outside May 1. Ready in 6 months.	...	Very deep sand. Rows 3 feet apart, 2 feet apart in row. 3 pounds to 100-foot row. Dig as wanted through the winter.
Radish. French Breakfast or Scarlet Turnip.	Oct. 1, outside. Oct. 15, outside. Nov. 1, outside. Cold-frames November 1 and every 10 days. Ready in 6 weeks.	C	Hardy. Plant ¹/₂ inch deep in rows 8 inches apart. 1 ounce to 100-foot row.
Salsify. Sandwich Island.	Outside, August 1 and September. (A difficult crop in the South). Ready in 5 months.	B	Hardy. Plant ¹/₄ inch deep in rows 1¹/₂ feet apart, 4 inches apart in row. Water freely.
Spinach. Viroflay. New Zealand.	Sept. 1, outside. Oct. 1, outside. Nov. 1, outside. (doubtful crop). Sept. 1, cold-frame. (A sure abundant product all winter).	A-B-E	Almost hardy. Plant 1 inch deep in rows 1¹/₂ feet apart, 3 inches apart in row. 1 ounce for 150 feet.
Strawberries.[136] Lady Thompson or Hefflin or Hoffman.	Transplant every year in October. Ready in February or March.	...	Hardy. Rows 2 feet apart, 1 foot apart in rows. Rich, sandy loam. Mulch in summer. No stable manure. Confine to single crowns.
Tomato. Beauty or Perfection.	Aug. 15, greenhouse. Sept. 15, greenhouse. Oct. 15, greenhouse. Ready in 4 months.	B-A	Tender. Plant ¹/₂ inch deep, 1¹/₂ feet apart. 1 packet of seed enough. Pinch out tips at desired height. Pinch out all side shoots. Fertilize blossoms by hand.
Turnip. Early Milan.	October 1, outside. Ready in 2 to 3 months.	C	Hardy. Plant ¹/₂ inch deep in rows 1¹/₂ feet apart, 3 inches apart in row. 1 ounce for 200 feet. Moist and rich soil.

III. THE FRUIT TREES

The fruit trees are cultivated for the sake of their fruit. They bear either kernel fruit, when their seed kernels are enclosed in cores of parchment-like formation; or stone fruit, when the seed kernel is enclosed in a hard shell, which is in its turn enclosed in some succulent pulp; or shell fruit, when the fleshy interior is enclosed in a hard shell.

Almond, a small tree belonging to the rose family, native to northwest Africa. The flowers are solitary and generally pink, and appear before the lance-shaped leaves. The fruit is egg-shaped, downy externally, with a tough, fibrous covering and a wrinkled stone. It has long been widely cultivated, and many varieties exist, differing in the hardness of the stone and in the flavor of the seed. Sweet Almonds include the large thin-shelled Jordan (from the French jardin), the Valencia almond, imported as a dessert fruit from Malaga, the smaller Barbary and Italian forms, and the California product. The Bitter Almond yields an essential oil, employed in confectionery, but dangerous from sometimes containing prussic acid.

Apple (Pyrus Malus), grows wild in forests, but it is found artificially improved everywhere in gardens and orchards. Its bark is generally smooth; its wood somewhat soft; its leaves oval-shaped and about double the length of their stalks; its blossoms are white with reddish margins. Fruit horticulture has produced many species of apples in the course of time, and they are now the most important fruit of the temperate zone, area of production, consumption, and variety of product being considered, ranking with the grape, olive, orange, lemon and banana, among the six leading fruits of the world. North America is preËminently the leading apple growing region. In the United States, New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio produce about one-third of the total crop.

The cultivation of the apple is prehistoric. Abundantly used by Lake Dwellers of the Stone Age in Italy and Switzerland.

CACAO FRUIT OR PODS

Each pod contains some sixty seeds, arranged in five or eight rows (mostly five); the seeds are white when they are fresh, but brown and covered with a fragile skin or shell when dried. These seeds, which are not unlike beans or almonds, are imbedded in a mass of mucilaginous pulp, of a sweet but acid taste. The seeds only require to be extracted, cured and dried, to become the cacao-beans of commerce.

Apricot (Prunus Armeniaca). The tree attains a height of thirteen to sixteen feet, and shows its blossoms in the months of March and April. Its smooth leaves are oval, doubly serrated; and its white blossoms have a tinge of red. Its globular, velvet-like, downy fruits are a favorite dish for dessert.

Apricots are extensively grown in north India, Persia, south Europe and Egypt. Although grown in New York, the crop is only commercially important in California and Oregon, whence large quantities of the fresh and dried fruit are shipped to the eastern states and abroad.

HOW THE COCOA BEANS ARE DRIED AND ROASTED

Small crops of beans are spread out on the ground, or on a tray, or on a piece of matting, and dried in the sun. In other cases, artificial heat is used in specially constructed and equipped drying-houses.

The beans are roasted, similar to coffee, in large iron drums to increase the aroma, make them more soluable in water, and improve their flavor. After being ground, and mixed with sugar, the product becomes chocolate—and is used in many ways.

Cultivation in China antedates 2000 B.C. It was introduced into Europe at the time of Alexander the Great, about 325 B.C.

Bread-fruit (Artocarpus incisa), grows upon the islands of the Pacific Ocean, and has also been transplanted to those parts of America which lie in the Torrid Zone. It attains a very great height, and bears fruits weighing from three to four pounds. The latter are cut into slices, and after being dried and roasted are used as food. These fruits, when pounded and mixed with milk of the cocoanut, form a dough, which is either consumed raw or baked into bread. All parts of this tree are useful; its yellow wood is used for the construction of houses, from its fibres articles of clothing are made, and its sap is used for making birdlime. Its large leaves serve as tablecloths and napkins, and its blossoms when dried are an excellent tinder. The bread-fruit tree is therefore much cultivated.

Butternut (Juglans cinerea), a North American species of walnut. Its dark yellow wood takes a fine polish, and is used in cabinet work; the bark yields a brown dye, and the brown-husked, rugged nuts contain oil, and are very pleasant in flavor.

Cacao (Theobroma cacao), a small tree, native to Mexico, Central America and the north of South America, is cultivated also in Brazil, Guiana, Trinidad and Grenada. It has large, oblong, pointed, entire leaves and clusters of flowers with rose-colored calyx and yellowish petals. The fruit is yellow, from six to ten inches long, and from three to five broad, oblong, blunt, with ten longitudinal ridges externally, and five chambers, containing ten or twenty seeds each, internally. The thick, tough rind is almost woody. The seeds are dried, roasted, bruised, and winnowed, so as to remove their testa from the cocoa-nibs or cotyledons. These contain more than fifty per cent of fat or cocoa-butter, part of which is generally removed in the process of “preparing” cocoa. It is used in making chocolate “creams.” Cocoa is also a valuable article of food; contains a gently stimulating alkaloid, theobromine, a fragrant essential oil and a red coloring matter. Sugar and vanilla or other flavoring are added in the preparation of chocolate.

Cherry (Prunus avium), is a stately tree of from twenty-five to forty-five feet in height. It has a pyramidal crown; its smooth bark splits crosswise; its leaves are elliptical, and covered with down on their lower sides; its blossoms are snowy white and its fruits sweet and of different colors. The latter furnish an agreeable nourishment, whether consumed raw, boiled, or preserved. Cherry-brandy is also made from them. The Cherry is cultivated in temperate regions of Europe, Asia, and the United States, and included among the fifteen leading fruits of the world. Ranks about eighth among fruits of the United States. Pennsylvania and California lead in production.

It was grown before the Christian Era in western Asia and southern Europe, and is mentioned in Vergil’s Georgics.

Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), is largely grown in Ceylon. The bark is stripped off two-year-old shoots in May and November and dried in the sun, undergoing a slight fermentation. It rolls up into quills, the thinnest being the best. Cinnamon contains a fragrant essential oil and has long been valued as a spice. It has also some medicinal value as a cordial and stomachic. It is also cultivated for bark in Brazil, West Indies, Egypt, and Java, but cultivation is now declining in favor of coffee.

Clove (Eugenia caryophyllata), a small evergreen spice tree, native of the Moluccas. The fruits are imported as mother cloves, and the stalks are used to adulterate the spice when ground. The whole plant is aromatic from the presence of the essential oil of cloves, which occurs to the extent of sixteen to eighteen per cent in the flower-buds. The dried flower buds are the cloves of commerce. Cultivated on many tropical islands and coasts, chiefly in the Moluccas, Sumatra, Java, Mauritius, Zanzibar, Jamaica, and French Guiana. The oil of cloves is widely used in flavoring and perfumery and also in medicine.

Cocoa-nut (Cocos nucifera), a small genus of palms. The cocoa-nut palm is apparently a native of the Indian Archipelago, but has been dispersed throughout the tropics from early times, flourishing especially near the sea. It has a cylindric stem reaching two feet in diameter, and from sixty to one hundred feet in height; a crown of pinnate leaves, each eighteen to twenty feet long, with a sheathing and fibrous base, succeeded by bunches of from ten to twenty fruits. These are about a foot long, six or eight inches across, three-sided, with a stony shell and one seed filling its cavity. The seed contains a fleshy kernel and a milky liquid. No tree of the tropics has so many uses, every part of it being employed, and in southern India furnishing several of the chief necessaries of life. The wood of the outer part of the stem is used, under the name of Porcupine wood, for inlaying; the leaves for thatch, mats, hats, etc.; the fibrous part under the name of coir, for cordage, etc.; the shell for bottles, cups, spoons, and when properly burned, for excellent charcoal and lamp-black. The solid white kernel contains thirty-six per cent of oil known as copra oil, from which, by pressure, the solid stearine used for candles is separated from the liquid lamp-oil. The “milk,” when fresh, is an agreeable drink; and from the sap sugar is obtained, and, by fermentation, toddy, from which vinegar and by distillation, arrack are prepared. It is extensively cultivated on the coasts of India, the East and West India Islands, and Brazil, and recently in Florida.

Coffee Tree (Coffea Arabica), originally a native of Africa attains a height of twenty-five to thirty feet. It is generally, however, kept at a much inferior height, in order to facilitate the collection of the fruit. Its leaves are evergreen; its blossoms white and fragrant. The fruit is a red berry about the size of a cherry, which contains two kernels, lying closely side by side: the coffee beans. These coffee beans are used everywhere for the preparation of that coffee which has become an indispensable beverage for many millions of people. Commercially it is of great importance, being largely grown in Brazil, Mexico, Central America, West Indies, Arabia, Java, Sumatra, Ceylon, India, and Hawaii. Brazil leads with a production of over one-half of the world’s crop. In the United States the consumption greatly exceeds that of tea.

Beginning of its cultivation is uncertain, but not ancient. It was introduced for cultivation in South America by the Dutch in 1718.

Date or Date-Palm (Phoenix dactylifera), a tree sixty to eighty feet high, with large pinnate leaves, cultivated in immense quantities in north Africa, western Asia and southern Europe. The stem is covered with leaf scars, and the flowers each have three sepals and three petals. The wood of the stem is used in building; huts are built of its leaves; the petioles are made into baskets and the fibre surrounding their bases into ropes and coarse cloth; the young leaf-bud or “cabbage” is sometimes eaten as a vegetable, or, if tapped, it yields a sugary sap which may be fermented; and even the seeds are ground into meal for camels. In central Arabia and some parts of north Africa the fruit forms the staple food of the inhabitants, camels, horses, and dogs. It is the chief source of wealth in Arabia. It was very anciently cultivated in Egypt and Babylonia and is the palm of the Bible.

SCENES IN THE PRODUCTION OF THE COFFEE BERRY


THE COFFEE PLANT IN FLOWER	FROM FLOWER TO RIPE “CHERRIES”

METHOD OF DRYING COFFEE ON WOODEN TRAYS IN THE OPEN AIR, AS STILL PRACTICED IN ARABIA AND OTHER ORIENTAL COUNTRIES

WOMEN OF JAVA HULLING COFFEE

The “cherries” when gathered contain two seeds, or coffee beans. The coverings are removed from the seeds by “hulling.”

SIZING, OR SORTING THE COFFEE BEANS FOR THE MARKET BY PASSING THEM THROUGH SIEVES MESHES

Fig (Ficus Carica). The common fig is a native of the East. It is a low deciduous tree or shrub (fifteen to twenty-five feet), with large, deeply-lobed leaves, which are rough above and downy beneath. The branches are clothed with short hairs, and the bark is greenish. The fruit is produced singly in the axils of the leaves, is pear-shaped, and has a very short stalk; the color in some varieties is bluish-black; in others, red, purple, yellow, green or white. The fig is extensively cultivated in subtropical countries, particularly in Spain, Italy, and southern France, in Europe, and in southwestern Asia. It is also grown in the Gulf States and in California. All dried figs in the United States are produced in California. Commercial figs come largely from Asiatic Turkey, though Smyrna figs are now established in California.

Grape-fruit or Shaddock (Citrus decumanus), a tree, which, like the other species of the same genus, is a native of the East Indies, and has long been cultivated in the south of Europe. It is readily distinguished by its large leaves and broad-winged leaf-stalk; it has very large white flowers, and the fruit is also very large, sometimes weighing ten or even fourteen pounds, roundish, pale yellow; the rind thick, white, and spongy within, bitter; the pulp greenish and watery, subacid and subaromatic. It is a pleasant, cooling fruit, and much used for preserves. Finer and smaller than the shaddock proper is the Pomelo (also called Pummelo, and grape-fruit) a variety rather larger than an orange which bears its fruit in clusters. It was anciently cultivated and much prized fruit in India, China, East Indies and Pacific Islands. Now successfully established in Florida and California, and rapidly becoming popular table fruit in the United States.

Lemon (Citrus Limonum), a small tree or shrub closely related to the orange, apparently truly indigenous in the north of India, carried to Palestine and Egypt by the Arabs, and to Italy by the Crusaders, and now naturalized in the West Indies and elsewhere. The fruit is oval, and ends in a nipple-like point; the rind is thin, smooth, and not readily separable; and the juice is acid. There are numerous varieties, including the citron, bergamot, lime, and sweet lime. Cultivation in the United States is limited mostly to Southern California.

Lime (Citrus acida), is a variety of orange with small flowers, and small, very acid, fruit, varying in form but ending, like the lemon, in a nipple-like boss. It is said to have been anciently cultivated in India, from whence it has been widely diffused in tropical countries. It is widely imported in temperate regions, but sparingly used, being much less popular than the lemon. Now successfully grown in Florida, which produces a small crop.

Mango (Mangifera indica), a small tree indigenous to tropical Asia, but now cultivated throughout the tropics. It has scattered, entire leaves and small pink or yellow flowers. Though its glossy leaves make it valuable for shade, it is chiefly valued for its fruit, which varies considerably in size and flavor. In an unripe state it is used in pickles; but in India is largely eaten when ripe as a dessert fruit. The seeds, bark and resin have some medicinal value, apparently as astringents, and the wood, though soft, is used as timber.

MatÉ or Paraguay Tea (Ilex paraguayensis), a species of holly growing in Paraguay and south Brazil, which furnishes the chief non-alcoholic drink of South America. Though used immemorially by the Indians, the tree was first cultivated by the Jesuits. The dried leaves are packed in scrons or raw hides containing about two hundred pounds each. The infusion is prepared in a calabash or matÉ, usually silver-mounted, boiling water and sugar, with milk or lemon-juice, being added to the leaves (yerba), and the beverage taken very hot through a metal or reed tube or bombilla with a strainer at one end. MatÉ contains 1.85 per cent of caffein, acting as a restorative, much as tea does; but, being bitter, the taste for it has to be acquired.

Mulberry (Morus), allied to the nettle, hemp, and elm families. The Black Mulberry, mainly cultivated for its fruit, is perhaps a native of Armenia, but was early introduced into Greece, where its leaves are still used for feeding silkworms. The Asiatic species, or the White Mulberry, of which there are numerous varieties, mostly with white fruit, is that mainly cultivated in Japan, China, India and Italy for the silkworm. The fibrous inner bark of the Paper Mulberry is made into paper by the Chinese and Japanese, and into tapa cloth in the South Sea Islands. The so-called fruit is formed from a whole cluster of flowers which become fleshy, turn color and sweeten while they enlarge until they meet those of the other flowers, enclosing the true fruits, small dry capsules. Extensively grown for market near large cities in Europe and the United States.

Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans), an evergreen tree native to the East Indies, and now in cultivation in the East and West Indies and Brazil. The fruit is pear-shaped and about two inches across. The seed has a thin, hard shell enclosing the nutmeg, which is mottled in appearance. The largest and roundest nutmegs are the best, and though generally about one hundred and ten to the pound, they may be as few as sixty-eight. Nutmegs contain about twenty-five per cent of nutmeg butter or oil of mace, a vegetable fat now considerably employed in soap-making.

Olive (Olea europÆa), a very valuable small tree, seldom more than thirty feet high, of slow growth, but sometimes exceeding twenty feet in girth and seven centuries in age. The wild olive has squarish, spinous branches; opposite evergreen, leathery, shortly-stalked leaves, hoary on their under surface, and small white flowers. The cultivated olive (var. sativa) differs in its rounder branches which have no spines, longer leaves and larger fruit. For pickling, the fruits are gathered unripe, soaked in an alkaline lye, and then bottled in brine. For oil, the ripe fruit, which usually yields sixty to seventy per cent, is squeezed, yielding virgin oil, and the marc or cake is wetted and re-pressed, and the kernels crushed and boiled to yield a second and third quality. The tree grows best on light or calcareous soils near the sea, and the value attached to its oil as an article of food in countries where butter can with difficulty be preserved made the tree from early times the symbol of peace and good-will. It is extensively cultivated in Mediterranean Europe, Syria, South Africa, Australia and California.

Orange (Citrus Aurantium), small evergreen trees, probably a native of southern China and Burma, but grows wild and spinous in Indian jungles. The scattered glossy leaves are remarkable for their double articulation, having one joint at each end of the winged leaf-stalk. The fragrant white or pinkish flowers have five sepals, five petals, and branched stamens. The fruit has a leathery rind, containing large spindle-shaped cells filled with watery juice. As the fruit takes some months to ripen, it occurs on the tree at the same time as the next year’s blossoms. There are two chief varieties or sub-species, the sweet or China orange, and the bitter, bigarade or Seville orange, but the Mandarin and Tangerine oranges are sometimes ranked as a distinct species. The principal orange-growing sections [142] of the United States are Florida, Louisiana and California.

The Mandarin Orange or Clove Orange has fruit much broader than long, with a rind very loosely attached to the flesh, and small leaves; the Tangerine Orange is apparently derived from the mandarin. It is grown in Florida. The Jaffa Orange has now a great reputation. The Majorca Orange is seedless. The Kum-quat from China and Japan, is little bigger than a gooseberry, and grows well in Australia. The Navel Orange, nearly seedless, is a favorite variety with California growers.

Orange trees are often extremely fruitful, so that a tree twenty feet high and occupying a space of little more than twelve feet in diameter sometimes yields from three thousand to four thousand oranges in a year. One tree in Florida has often borne ten thousand oranges in a single season. The orange tree attains an age of at least one hundred to one hundred and fifty years. Young trees are less productive than old ones, and the fruit is also less juicy, has a thicker rind, and more numerous seeds.

Palms were called by LinnÆus “the princess of the vegetable kingdom,” and comprising over one thousand species, chiefly natives of the tropics. They have mostly cylindric, unbranched stems, bearing a tuft of large, often gigantic, leathery leaves at the top, the leaves being torn into segments. The leaves are sometimes spattered, and in most cases have a fibrous sheathing base to the leaf-stalk. The terminal leaf-bud is the “cabbage” which, in some species, is eaten. The fruit varies very much, with a hard seed, as in the date; drupaceous, as in the cocoa-nut; or covered with woody reflexed scales, as in the sago palm. The use of palms are innumerable. Beams, veneers, canes, thatch, fibre for cordage and matting, fans, hats, bowls, spoons, sago, sugar, wine, spirits, food, oil and wax are only some among the number. See also Date, Betel-nut, Cocoa-nut.

Peach (Amygdalus persica), probably a native of China. The nectarine is merely a smooth-fruited variety, differing, however, in flavor. The stone in both is coarsely furrowed. The flowers which appear before the leaves, are of a delicate pink. The fruit in the peach has a separable wooly skin. Though deliciously flavored and refreshing, since it contains eighty-five per cent of water and eight per cent of pectose and gum, it does not contain much nutriment. Peaches grow extensively in Europe and Asia and second only to the apple as an orchard fruit in the United States. California, Michigan, Georgia and Texas lead in production.

Pear (Pyrus communis), is a tree belonging to the same genus as the apple. It grows from thirty to seventy feet high, with a pyramidal outline; branches spinous in the wild state; leaves scattered and somewhat leathery; flowers in clusters; fruit with a fleshily-enlarged stalk, core near the apex and parchment-like, and black seeds. Gritty particles, due to groups of wood-cells, occur in the flesh. They are widely cultivated in temperate regions, but chiefly in France and the United States. Ranks fourth among American orchard fruits, being preceded by the apple, peach and plum. Chiefly grown in California, New York and Michigan.

Pecan (C. illinoensis), is a large, slender tree reaching a maximum height of one hundred and seventy feet and a diameter of six feet. It grows in moist soil, especially along streams, from Indiana to Iowa and Missouri, south to Kentucky and Texas. It is cultivated in the Southern States for its sweet, edible nut, which forms an important article of commerce.

Persimmon, the Virginian date-plum (Dios pyros virginiana), a moderately-sized tree of the United States, belonging to the ebony tribe, the round orange fruit of which, though austere, becomes edible when affected by frost. They are fermented into a beer and distilled for spirit in the Southern States. The bark has medicinal properties.

Plum (Prunus domestica), a small fruit-tree, native to Asia Minor and the Caucasus, and naturalized in most temperate parts of the world. The Damson or Damascus variety was grown by the Romans from very early times. Large quantities of many varieties, both home and foreign are grown, which are eaten raw, in tarts, and in preserves, or, when dried as prunes. Extensive cultivation is carried on throughout temperate regions. Third most important orchard fruit in the United States, exceeding eight million bushels, California growing two-thirds. All prunes produced in the United States grown in the Pacific States; first prune orchard planted at San Jose, California, in 1870.

Pomegranate (Punica Granatum), long valued in hot countries for the refreshing pulp of its fruit. It is a tree, fifteen to twenty-five feet in height, native to West Asia and North Africa. It has opposite, simple, entire leaves, and the flower has five scarlet or white petals. The fruit has a tough, leathery gold-colored, but partly reddened, exterior and numerous seeds each surrounded by a reddish pulp. This varies in flavor in the numerous cultivated varieties. The rind is rich in tannin, and is employed in tanning Morocco leather.

Walnut (Juglans regia), or Common Walnut is a native of Persia and the Himalayas, but has long been cultivated in all parts of the south of Europe. It is a tree of sixty to ninety feet, with large spreading branches. The leaves have two to four pairs of leaflets, and a terminal one. The ripe fruit is one of the best of nuts. It yields a bland fixed oil, which, under the names of walnut oil and nut oil, is much used by painters as a drying oil. The timber of the walnut is of great value, and is much used by cabinet-makers. The wood of the roots is beautifully veined. Both the root and the husks of the walnut yield a dye, which is used for staining light-colored woods brown. Very similar to the common walnut, but more valuable, is the Black Walnut of North America, found in most parts of the United States, except the most northern. See also Butternut.

IV. FRUIT-BEARING SHRUBS AND PLANTS

The trees previously mentioned are woody plants with only one stem, which begin to form branches at some distance from the ground. The shrubs, on the contrary, are woody plants in which the stem forms branches close to the ground, or even underground.

Banana (Musa sapientium), a handsome plant, long cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical countries for its fruit. The sheathing bases of the large, oblong leaves form a false stem twenty to thirty feet high. The spikes of irregular flowers are succeeded by a branch of one hundred to two hundred fruits, weighing together from fifty to eighty pounds. The long, berry-like fruits, as they ripen, convert nearly all their starch into sugar and pectose, and form a valuable [143] article of food, the staple food in many tropical countries, producing forty-four times the weight of food per acre yielded by the potato. It is produced in enormous quantities in the West Indies and Brazil, and shipped in constantly increasing volume to the United States and Europe. Beginning with a few hundred bunches in 1870, consumption in the United States has increased to upwards of five million dollars worth annually. Banana flour is becoming a staple article of food.

Its cultivation antedates historical records in India. Pliny mentions that the Greeks under Alexander the Great saw it in India.

The banana plant is the most wonderfully productive fruit in the world. It is a native of Asia, but most of our bananas come from the New World. Here the plant is full grown and the bananas ripe. From the time the suckers are planted to the gathering of the fruit is less than a year, so rapidly does the plant come to maturity.

Blueberry. See Huckleberry.

Cassava (Manihot utilissima), the bitter cassava, and M. Aipi, the sweet cassava, are both natives of tropical America. Both are shrubby plants, the former with yellow poisonous roots and seven-lobed leaves, the latter with reddish wholesome roots and five-lobed leaves. The coarsely-grated roots are baked into cassava cakes, from which the intoxicating drink piwarrie is prepared. The juice of the poisonous kind is rendered harmless by boiling, and is then the delicious sauce known as cassareep. If allowed to settle, it deposits a large quantity of starch, known as Brazilian arrowroot when simply sun-dried, or as tapioca when partly converted into dextrine by roasting on hot plates. It was long cultivated in Brazil, and, after Spanish discovery, extended to Africa and Asia.

Cranberry (Oxycoccus), a small evergreen shrub, that grows in bogs and marshy grounds, and is a small wiry shrub with creeping, thread-like branches, and small oval leaves rolled back at the edges. The berries are an excellent antiscorbutic, and hence furnish an excellent addition to sea stores. The American cranberry (O. macrocarpa) is larger and more upright with bigger leaves and berries. Large quantities are exported to Europe and other varieties are also imported into Britain and Germany from Russia and other parts of northern Europe.

Currant (Ribes rubrum), is an important shrub, bearing red, black and white fruit. Its branches are not prickly; its leaves have three to five lobes, greenish-yellow blossoms and the berries [144] hang in clusters like grapes. It is often planted in gardens for the sake of its fruit, but is also found in a wild state. Black currants are extensively grown in Continental Europe, Scotland and Canada; sparingly in the United States. In France the liqueur de cassis is made from the fruit. Red currants are very widely grown in Europe and the United States, chiefly for jellies. New York and Michigan lead in production.

The method of gathering bananas is practically the same wherever they are grown, and here we see the bunches being brought to the railway. Bananas need a great deal of water. They will only grow in a warm, damp atmosphere and if much rain does not fall they must be supplied with water artificially. This is done by having canals between the rows of plants.

Elder (Sambucus) has thorny branches, elliptical, serrated leaves and single, white blossoms which grow in such numbers that they sometimes resemble snow. Its fruit is black and blue. It grows from three to six feet high in copses, hedges and forests. Few of the species are considered of much value though S. Canadensis is used to make a domestic wine and jelly. The most ornamental of the species is S. pubens, which has large, loose panicles of bright scarlet berries. This species is occasionally found in moist high grounds from New York southward. It is very abundant and beautiful on the slopes of the Alleghany Mountains.

Gooseberry (Ribes Grossularia) has branches covered with spines, brown-reddish blossoms and berries of green, yellow or reddish color, which stand singly on the young shoots. It is frequently planted in gardens, and has many varieties. It is highly prized in northwestern Europe; not cultivated in southern Europe, and reaches highest perfection in England. In the United States, while widely grown, is of minor importance, ranking sixth among small fruits, being preceded by the strawberry, raspberry, blackberry, cranberry and currant.

Grape (Vitis Labrusca) has a climbing, knotty trunk, which sometimes attains a length of thirty to fifty feet; its leaves have from three to five lobes, and are coarsely serrated; its small, fragrant, greenish blossoms stand in panicles. The fruit of many varieties of vine, which have been produced by cultivation in the course of thousands of years is very different in color, size and flavor. It is either consumed raw and dried, or manufactured into wine.

In the United States the first vineyard was planted by Lord Delaware in 1610, but not extensively grown until after the introduction of the Concord grape during the last century. While the Concord, Catawba, Isabella, Hartford [145] and most of the cultivated varieties originated from the wild northern fox or plum grape, Vitis Labrusca, the Clinton grape was derived from the wild species, Vitis riparia, and most of the American wine grapes from the native summer grape, Vitis aestivalis.

Since 1860 grape culture has made remarkable progress, the last census showing a crop exceeding eight million dollars in value. New York produces one-third of the American grape crop and is followed by Ohio, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Missouri and Kansas, in order named. Notwithstanding the extensive culture of the European grape in the Pacific States, the American grape constitutes three-fifths in value of all grape products of the United States. Millions of young vines have been shipped to Europe to be top grafted with the European vine.

The grape shares leading rank with the apple among the world fruits. Chief products: raisins, currants and wine of great commercial importance. Raisin production largest in Spain, but important in southwestern Asia, Australia and California. Currants are small, seedless raisins, mostly grown in Greece (name derived from Corinth). Wine is made throughout the world, total production estimated at four billion gallons, France, Italy and Spain contributing about three-fourths of this enormous amount. The European grape products of California—wine, raisins and table grapes,—amount in value to two-fifths of all grape products of the United States.

Remotely ancient in Egypt. Used by Lake Dwellers of the Bronze Age in Italy. Cultivated by the Phoenicians, Hebrews, Greeks and Romans. Introduced into China 120 B. C.

Huckleberry. The popular name of the genus Gaylussacia, of which there are several species. The Dwarf huckleberry, the Blue huckleberry and the Black huckleberry are common throughout the United States, the latter being the huckleberry of the Northern States. In New England the name is commonly restricted to the black berry species in distinction from the blue berry. The shrubs range in height from about three feet to twelve feet high. In New England canning huckleberries is an extensive if not exceedingly profitable industry. The crop is first picked by hand and afterwards with a “blueberry rake.” The Indians long ago gathered the fruit and dried it for use during wintertime.

Pepper Plant (Piper nigrum) is found all over the Torrid Zone. Its berries stand to the number of twenty to thirty on one spike; at first they are green, then they turn red, and finally black. The black pepper is prepared from the unripe fruit, the white from the ripe fruit, which loses its black shell by being put into salt water (sea water). Pepper is now the most commonly and widely used spice. It is extensively cultivated in East and West Indies, Siam and Malay Peninsula, whence millions of pounds are exported.

Cayenne pepper, or chili is much grown in tropical Africa and America, but less generally used than black pepper.

Pistacia is a small tree, about twenty feet high, and native to Persia and Syria, but now cultivated in all parts of southern Europe and northern Africa. Flowers in racemes, fruit ovate and about the size of an olive. Pistachio nuts are much esteemed; but readily become rancid. Oil is expressed from them for culinary and other uses.

A PINE-APPLE PLANTATION IN FLORIDA

Pine-apple (Ananassa sativa) is highly esteemed and much cultivated for its fruit. It has a number of long, serrated or smooth-edged, sharp-pointed, rigid leaves, springing from the root, in the midst of which a short flower-stem is thrown up, bearing a single spike of flowers, and therefore a single fruit. From the summit of the fruit springs a crown or tuft of small leaves; capable of becoming a new plant; the pine-apple, in cultivation, being propagated entirely by crowns and suckers, as, in a state of high cultivation, perfect seed is almost never produced. The pine-apple is a native of tropical America, and is found wild in sandy maritime districts in certain parts of South America, but has been very much changed by cultivation. It is extensively grown in Florida, and in the West Indies for shipment to northern markets and to Europe. Increasing outdoor plantations have also been developed in the Azores, the Hawaiian Islands, northern Africa, Queensland, and the Bahamas. Florida supports upward of fourteen million plants. Great care is requisite in the cultivation of the pine-apple, which without it is generally fibrous and coarse, with little sweetness or flavor, and with it one of the most delicate and richly flavored of fruits.

WHERE TEA GROWS AND IS CULTIVATED

A TEA PLANTATION IN THE BEAUTIFUL HILL COUNTRY OF CEYLON

The most productive tea gardens are at an elevation of about one thousand feet, the land at this altitude being generally of an undulating character, well watered, and the climate sufficiently humid to encourage leaf-production.

The plants are ready for plucking when three years old, at which time they send out numerous leaf-shoots, known as “flush.” The plucking season begins in September and lasts until June of the following year, during which period each bush is plucked about sixteen times.

For producing superior fruit in winter the Smooth Cayenne and Black Jamaica are two of the best and most reliable, and the Queen is the most highly esteemed for summer fruiting. The Spanish is the variety commonly grown in Florida. A spirituous liquor (Pine-Apple Rum) is made from the pine-apple in some warm countries.

Raspberry (Rubus IdÆus), the most valued of all the species of Rubus. The wild raspberry has scarlet fruit and is found in thickets and woods throughout the whole of Europe and northern Asia. It was early introduced into the United States, but those now grown originated in native American varieties. The black raspberry, is largely grown in New York and Ohio as a commercial industry. The red variety is widely grown in the United States, but production is small compared to that of the black raspberry. Among the more promising varieties of the blacks are Gregg, Ohio and Kansas. Cuthbert is one of the best of the red varieties. The raspberry has long been in cultivation for its fruit. The root is creeping, perennial; the stems only biennial, bearing fruit in the second year, woody, but with very large pith. The raspberry is the leading bush fruit of the United States and second only to the strawberry among small fruits. New York, Michigan, Ohio and Pennsylvania, ranking in the order named, grow over one-half of the total crop, which exceeds seventy-five million quarts. The berries are consumed raw or in a preserved state, or are manufactured into raspberry juice, wine and cordial.

Tea (Camellia theifera) is a plant of which there are two well-known varieties: (1) Assam tea; and (2) China tea. The Assam variety, known as “indigenous” tea, is a tree of vigorous growth attaining a height of thirty to forty feet with a leaf from eight to ten inches in length. The China variety is a comparatively stunted shrub, growing to a height of twelve to fifteen feet, with a rounder leaf about three and one-half inches in length, and calyx covered with soft, short hairs. These two varieties have resulted in a hybrid which combines the hardy character of the China with the other features of the indigenous, now largely cultivated on the hills of India and Ceylon, and known as “hybrid-Assam.” The hybrids vary much in productiveness.

The tea-plant will flourish in all parts of the tropical and subtropical zones where the rainfall is over sixty inches and evenly distributed throughout the year. In Ceylon it grows from sea-level to an altitude of seven thousand feet.

The tea-plant is not particular as to soil, but it succeeds best on new forest-land containing plenty of humus. As is the case with cacao, coffee and other economic plants, tea grown on rich, alluvial soil is stronger than tea grown on poorer land, though the latter is often of more delicate flavor.

Chinese teas may be classified thus: Monings, or black leaf teas are grown in the north of China, and shipped from Hankow and Shanghai. Green teas are shipped from Shanghai and consist of Gunpowder, Imperial, Hyson, Young Hyson and Twankay. Kaisows or Red-leafs are grown farther south and are shipped from Foo Chow.

The United States and Canada consume nearly all the tea exported from Japan, all of which is of light character, consisting mostly of Oolongs and greens. Tea has been grown with success in South Carolina and experimentally elsewhere in the United States.

Manufacture.—The first process is to spread the green leaf thinly on hessian trays in the withering house, where it is exposed to a free current of air—a very important operation, which takes from twelve to forty-eight hours. When the leaf is tough and flaccid, like an old kid glove, it is ready for rolling. The old or Chinese system of rolling was by hand. Now this process is performed by machinery, and in India and Ceylon tea is not manipulated after plucking. The rolled leaf is now ready for fermentation, an operation requiring close attention. It is placed in drawers or on tables and covered. The state of the weather hastens or retards the process; in hot, dry weather the leaf will be sufficiently fermented or oxidized in twenty minutes, in cold wet weather it may take hours. Whenever the leaf assumes a bright copper color it must be fired; over-fermentation is a fatal error.

The difference between black and green teas is simply this: if the tea is fired immediately after rolling it is green tea; if it is fermented it becomes black tea. After firing the manufacture is complete, and the tea is what is known as “unassorted,” which contains all the different grades into which tea is usually separated. Sorting by hand sieves is still done in small factories, but in large factories machinery is used.

V. FLOWERS AND OTHER ORNAMENTAL PLANTS

We cultivate in our gardens plants of all kinds, which give us great pleasure on account of their lovely blossoms or their agreeable odors. They are no longer luxuries, but have become necessities of life; and never have they become so extensively grown and widely appreciated as now. There are plants suited for sunny and shaded aspects and for various positions, from the mossy dell to high and dry situations in the country; from the area to the housetop in the town. Only knowledge is wanted for making the best selections for different purposes and sites, with information on culture for the uninitiated to achieve satisfactory results.

Plants and flowers grown in gardens are embraced in three groups: 1. Annuals, 2. Biennials, and 3. Perennials, the last-named being divided into two sections: (a) herbaceous, with soft or succulent stems that die in the winter; and (b) shrubby perennials with woody stems that survive the winter.

Annuals are those flowers which are born, grow, flower, ripen seeds, and die within a year. They never push growths a second season after flowering, because the roots die as well as the tops and branches. The common scarlet Poppy is a typical example.

Biennials are those plants which are raised from seeds in the spring or early summer and require the whole season to make their growth preparatory to flowering the next year, dying after ripening seeds.

Perennials differ from the above in living more than two years. All plants, such as hardy border flowers, that die down and spring up again from the root-stock year after year are perennials—herbaceous. Roses and other flowering shrubs are also perennials, but not herbaceous. Orchids. One of the best examples of herbaceous perennials is that of the Orchids, the most popular of which are the Odontoglossums and the Cattleyas.

Florist’s Flowers. This term has been applied to a number of plants which under cultivation and by selection or hybridization have produced from seed varieties of improved form, habit or color. The plants included under this title are constantly being added to, and great impetus given to the cultivation of hardy flowers and plants in recent years. The following are representative of this class:

Begonia. Named in honor of M. Begon, a French patron of botany. All the species of Begonia are interesting and beautiful winter ornaments of the hot-house or green-house, of the simplest culture in any rich soil if allowed an abundant supply of water. There are several tuberous-rooted species and varieties. They have large, showy flowers, and succeed well in a moist, shady border. The tubers should be kept warm and dry during the winter. They are readily propagated by cuttings, seeds, or division of tubers.

Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus) is an almost hardy herbaceous perennial plant, a native of southern Europe. The Greeks and Romans used it for making chaplets whence it was called “coronation.” It is a favorite exhibition flower, of many varieties, forms and colors; but the red, white, pink and yellow predominate. Carnations are among the plants which can be grown in the atmosphere of cities, but they are intolerant of shade. Propagation is usually effected by the process of layering, but cutting, seeds, and divisions are also employed.

Cattleya. What the rose and carnation are among garden plants, the Cattleya is among Orchids, preËminently beautiful. Not a species but possesses claims of the strongest nature on the culturist’s attention, either for its delicate loveliness or the rich and vivid coloring of its large and handsome flowers. They are natives of the temperate parts of South America, and in cultivation are found to succeed in a lower temperature than is necessary for the majority of plants of the same order. The plants grow vigorously, and consequently flower in perfection. The colors of the flowers run through all the shades of white, rose, rosy-lilac, crimson and carmine, nor is even yellow absent.

Dahlia. This, through constant improvement, has become one of the indispensable flowers. It derived its name from the Swedish botanist Dahl. Dahlias are known as show, fancy, pompon, single and cactus. They vary from the single type, not unlike a daisy, with broad rays, to the tiny, tightly-quilled, formal “pompon,” and to the “cactus-flowered,” resembling a chrysanthemum; and their lines are equally varied. Yellow, lilac, white and the deepest maroon, are found in innumerable combinations. It is necessary to lift the roots in late autumn, and, having ripened them in a shed, to store them for the winter in a cool, dry place, where the temperature will not fall below thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit. In the spring, the separate tubers may be planted in deep, rich soil; or the roots may be placed in February in a hot-bed, and when the young shoots which form are about three and a half inches long, they may be separated, together with a small piece of the tuber, and potted in small pots, which should be placed in the hot-bed until the young plants are ready to be hardened, preparatory to being planted outdoors.

Geranium. Our native species, called “crane’s bill,” from the beak-like appearance of the fruit, have palmately lobed or cleft leaves. The flowers have unusually bright-colored petals. The plants commonly cultivated in gardens and greenhouses under the name of Geraniums are species of Pelargonium. There are about one hundred and twenty-five species, mostly natives of the Cape of Good Hope, prized on account of the brilliant colors, of the flowers and the shape and markings of the leaves.

The most popular method of propagating is by cuttings, which can be rooted in pots or boxes of light soil placed in a greenhouse, or even a cottage window, at any time from spring to autumn, provided the soil is not kept very moist. Good loam is the best potting material, and beyond a little sand it needs no addition. Firm potting is a point to be well observed. Avoid coddling.

Gloxinia is the florists’ name for plants belonging to the genus Sinningia, tropical American plants. They have beautiful, many-colored, funnel-shaped flowers and velvety leaves. Seeds should be sown in February; and if the young plants are carefully potted, they flower the first year. They require the temperature of a warm greenhouse during the summer months; but as the leaves die away in autumn, the roots may be stored in a dry place, merely protected from cold. They like a sandy soil, containing abundance of leaf-mould and heat.

Lily (Lilium) in its many forms is one of the noblest and must beautiful of all bulbous plants. About forty-five species are natives of the north temperate zone, many of which are prized for the size and beauty of the flowers. The White Lily (L. candidum), a native of the Levant, with large white flowers, has long been in cultivation in gardens. The European Orange Lily (L. bulbiferum), with large, orange-colored flowers, is a well-known and very showy ornament in flower gardens. The Tiger Lily (L. tigrinum) has a stout stem two to five feet high with beautiful orange-colored flowers, spotted with purple. It is a native of China but has escaped from cultivation in many parts of the United States.

PROUD COLOR BEAUTIES OF THE LAND OF FLOWERS

1. ANTIRRHINUM. 2. THE ODONTOGLOSSUM. 3. POPPIES. 4. GLOXINIA. 5. CORNFLOWERS. 6. NASTURTIUMS. 7. THE CATTLEYA FOBIA. 8. FOXGLOVE.

Nasturtium, the generic name of a plant of the cruciferÆ or mustard family, and the common name of the widely different genus tropÆolum. The best known of these is TropÆolum tricolorum, one of the most generally cultivated annuals. It has tuberous roots, and such very weak and slender stems, that it is found necessary always to train them over a wire frame, as they are quite unable to support themselves. The stem climbs six or eight feet; the flowers vary from yellow to orange, scarlet and crimson. The unexpanded flower buds, and the young fruit while still tender, are pickled in vinegar. The dwarf varieties of this form bushy, rounded tufts about a foot high, and are used for bedding; some of them have flowers of exceedingly rich colors.

Odontoglossum. Unquestionably the most popular genus of Orchids. Very many of the species have been introduced into the green-house, and are greatly prized by cultivators for their magnificent flowers, which are remarkable both for their size and the beauty of their colors. Many of the species have pure white flowers, variously mottled; and some have a powerful odor of violets. With but few exceptions, they require to be grown in a moderately cool house. They are propagated by division, and grown like the other varieties of Orchids.

Tulip (Tulipa). A genus of upward of eighty species of hardy bulbous plants. Between forty and fifty species are known, mostly natives of the warmer parts of Asia. The most famous of all florists’ flowers is the garden tulip (T. gesneriana), which is from eighteen inches to two feet high, with a smooth stem, bearing one erect, large flower. The tulip is still most sedulously cultivated in Holland, especially at Haarlem, whence bulbs are largely exported; but attention is almost exclusively devoted to the cheaper varieties, which are used in hundreds of thousands for the purposes of decoration in gardens and rooms throughout winter and spring. Tulips are propagated by offset bulbs, and new varieties are raised from seed. Another species of tulip cultivated in gardens is the sweet-scented tulip, or Van Thol tulip (T. suaveolens), which has yellow or red flowers, inferior to those of the common garden tulip in beauty, but prized for their fragrance, and for appearing more early in the season.

ROSES AND ROSE CULTURE

Roses are perhaps the most universally admired of all flowers, and few respond so well to the care of the cultivator. The earlier they are planted in the autumn (October 15th to November 15th) the better they will grow. Spring planting is fairly successful, provided the roots are kept moist when out of the ground. Time, April 15th to May 15th.

Roses enjoy deeply worked and fertile soil, and may be grown in specially prepared beds, or as borders. An open position, with a south or southeast exposure is preferable. Pruning should be done toward the end of March. When especially large blooms are desired, only one should be borne on each stem, the remainder of the buds being removed.

DESIRABLE VARIETIES FOR THE ROSE GARDEN

Hybrid Perpetuals.—These produce handsome blooms in varied colors in the summer followed by a more or less bountiful supply in the autumn. Hardiest of the garden roses.

Varieties:

Frau Karl Druschki.—An ideal white rose.
Jacqueminot (Jack Rose).—Brilliant scarlet.
Paul Neyron.—Dark rose; largest of all.
Magna Charta.—Bright pink; a favorite.
George Arends.—Splendid soft pink.

Hybrid Teas.—These possess the freedom of growth of the foregoing with much of the delicacy of flowers for which Tea-scented Roses are admired. The most satisfactory for the general garden.

Varieties:

Robert Huey.—One of the largest bright reds.
The Lyon.—Deep coral pink verging on yellow.
White Killarney.—One of the best pure whites.
La France.—Clear, satiny pink.
Burbank.—Rich pink.
Richmond.—Brilliant crimson.

Tea and Noisettes.—Loveliness with profuseness are combined in this section. Much tenderer than the Hybrid Teas; sweet scented. The Noisette is an excellent climber for walls.

Varieties:

The Bride.—Pure white.
Perle des Jardins.—Beautiful rich yellow.
Papa Goutier.—Dark crimson.
William Allen Richardson.—Deep orange-yellow flowers.
Garland.—Semi-double, blush and white.
Longworth Rambler.—Splendid autumn climber; flowers, semi-double and crimson.

Hardy Climbers.—Popular and showy.

Varieties:

American Pillar.—Large, single, pink flowers.
Excelsa.—Finest of crimson ramblers.
Hiawatha.—Single, brilliant crimson.
Dorothy Perkins.—Soft shell-pink, fragrant.
Lady Gay.—Delicate cerise-pink which change to creamy white.
Wichmoss.—A “Moss” rose, light bluish-pink, fragrant.

Hybrid Briers.—Hardy semi-climbing roses.

Varieties:

Lord Penzance.—Beautiful contrasting shades.
Refulgence.—Dazzling scarlet, in clusters.
Juliet.—Rosy red with reverse petals of old gold.

The “Baby Ramblers.”—Dwarf, “perpetual bloomers.”

Varieties:

Phyllis.—Beautiful pink.
Jessie.—Bright cherry-red, white center.
Orleans.—Brilliant red, white center.
Snowball.—White, free flowering.

Japanese and Chinese.—

Varieties:

Blairii (China).—Vigorous climber for sunny walls; flowers, blush and rose.
Rugosa (Japanese).—No pruning is needed; flowers, white, rose and violet.

GUIDE FOR THE BEST ANNUAL FLOWERS

Common and Botanical Name; Hints on Cultivation	Color, Height and Time in Bloom	Kind of Soil and Light Required
Blooming in May
Pansies (Viola tricolor), generally wintered in frames, but protected with leaves often survive the winter outdoors.	Various; 7 inches; 8 weeks.	Rich, light; partial shade.
Trailing Catchfly (Silene pendula).—For succession from May 15th to July 15th sow outdoors September 1st, and again in early spring.	Pink, white; 12 inches; 4 weeks.	Light, rich loam; sun.
Cornflower (Centaurea Cyanus).—With moisture and frequent picking will bloom longer.	Blue; 24 inches; 10 weeks.	Light; sun.
Calliopsis (Coreopsis tinctoria).—Calliopsis elegans is one of the best browns among flowers.	Yellow and brown; 24 inches; 12 weeks.	Light; sun.
Blooming in June
Giant Spider Plant (Cleome spinosa).—Usually planted in the front of shrubbery.	Rosy purple; 36 inches; 4 weeks.	Light; sun.
Ageratum (Ageratum conyzoides).—Sow seed under glass in March. For edging.	Blue; 8 inches; 16 weeks.	Rich, light; sun or half shade.
Annual Phlox (Phlox Drummondi).—Remove fading flowers daily.	Various; 12 inches; 12 weeks.	Rich, moist; sun.
Monkey Flower (Mimulus luteus).—Spotted petals. Flowers somewhat resemble a snapdragon.	Various; 36 inches; 6 weeks.	Rich, moist; shade.
Three-colored Gilia (Gilia tricolor).—A profuse bloomer. Sow seeds where plants are to grow by May 1st, and it will bloom in late June.	Various; 24 inches; 8 weeks.	Any good; sun.
Shirley Poppy (Papaver Rhoeas).—A form of the common corn poppy. Sow seeds in the poppy bed in early September or April.	Various; 24 inches; 2 weeks.	Good, moisture; sun.
Sweet Pea (Lathyrus odoratus).—Manure and moisture cause abundance of blossoms. Sow seed March 20th near New York. Cut flowers daily.	Various; 72 inches; 8 weeks.	Heavy, rich loam; sun.
Candytuft (Iberis umbellata).—Sow early where plants are to stand.	Various; 8 inches; 4 weeks.	Good; sun.
Petunia (Petunia hybrida).—Grow somewhat apart from low plants because straggling.	White, pink; 12 inches; 16 weeks	Good; sun.
Western Wallflower (Erysimum asperum).—For May bloom sow in September, for June flowers sow in April.	Orange; 18 inches; 4 weeks.	Dry; sun.
Antirrhinum or Snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus).—Sow in hotbed in February for June bloom.	Various; 24 inches; 12 weeks.	Rich, moist sun.
Blooming in July
Lavatera (Lavatera tri).—Sow early May where plants are to grow.	Pink, white; 24 inches; 5 weeks.	Light, rich; sun.
Clarkia neriifolia (Clarkia elegans).—Clarkia pulchella is also useful for edging beds.	White, lilac, pink; 24 inches; 6 weeks.	Light, rich; sun or half shade.
Large-flowered Godetia (Œnothera Whitneyi).—The large-flowered species. Some with spotted throats.	White, lilac, pink; 12 inches; 6 weeks.	Good; sun.
Early Cosmos (Cosmos binnatus).—Very rich soil makes it bloom too late.	White, pink, crimson; 48 inches; 8 weeks.	Light; sun.
Sweet Alyssum (Alyssum maritimum).—Blooms till frost. Trim back moderately when flowers fade.	White; 8 inches; 14 weeks.	Light; sun.
Nicotiana affinis (Nicotiana alata).—Very fragrant at night. Plants usually started in cold frame.	White; 36 inches; 12 weeks.	Light; sun or part shade.
Sander’s Nicotiana (Nicotiana SanderÆ).—More satisfactory as a greenhouse plant, steadily improving.	Various; 36 inches; 12 weeks.	Light, rich; sun or part shade.
Arctotis grandis (Arctotis grandis).—Petals white above, lilac beneath. Blue-centered daisy.	White and lilac; 18 inches; 14 weeks.	Light, rich; sun.
Stock, Gilliflower (Matthiola incana, var. annua).—For July bloom sow February in greenhouse or hotbed.	Various; 18 inches; 12 weeks.	Deep, rich; sun.
Annual Larkspur (Delphinium Ajacis).—Sow seeds in September outdoors to have flowers July 1st.	Various; 18 inches; 8 weeks.	Good, light; sun.
Bedding Lobelia (Lobelia Erinus).—Blooms till frost in partial shade if watered.	Blue; 10 inches; 12 weeks.	Light, rich, moist; half shade.
Wishbone Flower (Torenia Fournieri).—Set five inches apart in two or three lines.	Blue; 8 inches; 12 weeks.	Light, rich, moist; half shade.
Phacelia congesta (Phacelia congesta)—An interesting little plant for border edge.	Blue; 12 inches; 6 weeks.	Light, rich; sun.
African Marigold (Tagetes erecta).—Colors range from deep orange to sulphur yellow.	Yellow; 36 inches; 16 weeks.	Rich; sun.
California Poppy (Eschscholzia Californica).—Sow early in border edge. Avoid transplanting.	Yellow; 15 inches; 16 weeks.	Rich; sun.
Giant Tulip (Hunnemannia fumariÆfolia).—Bushy in habit. Sow seeds in May outdoors.	Yellow, red; 24 inches; 8 weeks.	Rich; sun.
Annual Gaillardia (Gaillardia pulchella).—Best kinds belong to var. picta. Profuse bloomer.[151]	Crimson, red, yellow; 24 inches; 14 weeks.	Rich, light; sun.
Salvia or Scarlet Sage (Salvia splendens).—Don’t place near pink flowers. Start indoors in March.	Red; 36 inches; 14 weeks.	Good; sun or half shade.
Youth and Old Age (Zinnia elegans).—Rather stiff, but splendid for mass effects in garden.	Various; 36 inches; 14 weeks.	Rich; sun.
Rose Moss (Portulaca grandiflora).—Sow outdoors June 1st. It self-sows freely.	Various; 6 inches; 14 weeks.	Light, sun.
Balsam (Impatiens Balsamina).—Balsamina hortensis strain is best. Pinch plants once.	Various; 24 inches; 6 weeks.	Light, rich, moist; sun.
Painted Tongue (Salpiglossis nuala).—Beautiful venation. Best started under glass.	Various; 18 inches; 8 weeks.	Rich, light; sun.
Verbena.—Sow indoors in February to get earliest bloom.	Various; 12 inches; 10 weeks.	Rich, light, moist; sun.
Blooming in August
Three-Colored Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum carinatum).—Sometimes called “painted daisy.”	Various; 24 inches; 8 weeks.	Rich, light; sun.
Mourning Bride (Scabiosa atropurpurea).—Sown in April for early August bloom.	Various; 24 inches; 8 weeks.	Rich, light; sun.
China Asters (Callistephus Chinensis).—Dig in wood ashes around roots to prevent diseases.	Various; 24 inches; 6 weeks.	Rich, light; sun.
Everlasting (Helichrysum bracteatum).—This shade is by far the most desirable.	Deep red; 36 inches; 8 weeks.	Light, rich; sun.
Didiscus (Trachymene cÆrulea).—Sow Didiscus cÆruleus under glass in April.	Light blue; 24 inches; 8 weeks.	Rich, light; sun.
Blooming in September
China Aster (Callistephus hortensis).—Dig in wood ashes to prevent aster disease.	Various; 24 inches; 4 weeks.	Light, rich; sun.
Cosmos (Cosmos bipinnatus).—Dig around it and jolt it in midsummer.	Pink, white and red; 6 inches; 2 weeks.	Fairly good; sun.
Blooming in October
Autumn Crocus (Colchicum autumnale).—They begin to bloom in September.	Purple, white, pink; 4 inches; 4 weeks.	Rich, light; sun.
Datsch’s Aster (Aster Datschi).—Latest aster of its color in trade.	White; 36 inches; 3 weeks.	Good, deep; sun.
Himalayan Aster (Aster trinervis).—Latest aster of its color in trade.	Violet-purple; 30 inches; 3 weeks.	Good, deep; sun.
Tea Rose (Rosa Chinensis).—Last bloom of the monthly or tea rose.	Various; 24 inches; 2 weeks.	Rich, deep; sun.
Perennial Larkspur (Delphinium sp.).—Cut back larkspur after annual bloom.	Blue; 24 inches; 2 weeks.	Deep, rich; sun.
Everbloom Torch Lily (Kniphofia Pfitzerii).—Store roots of Tritoma Pfitzerii in cellar over winter.	Orange-scarlet; 36 inches; 6 weeks.	Rich, deep; sun.
Blooming in November
Pompon Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum Indicum).—Buttons one-half inch across or flowers one inch across.	Various; 36 inches; 4 weeks.	Rich, loam; sun.

GUIDE FOR THE BEST PERENNIAL FLOWERS

Common and Botanical Name; Hints on Cultivation	Color, Height and Time in Bloom	Kind of Soil and Light Required
Blooming in March
Anemone or Hepatica (Hepatica triloba).—For wild garden or rock garden. Evergreen.	Blue, lilac, pink, white; 5 inches; 3 weeks.	Rich, drained loam; shade.
Blooming in April
Bluebell (Mertensia Virginica).—Leave undisturbed for years. Foliage dies in summer.	Blue; 16 inches; 3 weeks.	Rich loam; sun.
Shooting Star (Dodecatheon Meadia).—Its English name is very descriptive.	Pink; 8 inches; 3 weeks.	Good; partial shade.
Wild Sweet William (Phlox divaricata).—The tallest of the early phloxes.	Blue; 16 inches; 4 weeks.	Rich; sun or shade.
Sweet Violet (Viola adorata).—Blooms again in autumn.	Blue; 8 inches; 6 weeks.	Heavy rich; sun or shade.
Rock Cress (Arabis albida).—For edgings, carpeting bare spots, covering banks, etc.	White; 4 inches; 3 weeks.	Any; sun.
Large-Leaved Saxifrage (Saxifraga sp.).—The different species known to the trade as Saxifraga Megasea generally appear in early April.	White, blue, pink; 12 inches; 2 weeks.	Any; partial shade.
Moss Pink (Phlox subulata).—Spreads rapidly. Moss-like foliage. Carpets ground.[152]	Pink; 6 inches; 4 weeks.	Good; full sun.
English Primrose (Primula vulgaris).—Some moisture is necessary to produce fine blossoms.	Yellow; 9 inches; 3 weeks.	Light rich; full sun.
Leopard’s Bane (Doronicum plantagineum, var. excelsum).—Showiest early flower of the daisy family. Flowers sometimes four inches across. Give scattering bloom all season.	Yellow; 10 inches; 4 weeks.	Any; sun or semi-shade.
Poppy Mallow (Callirhoe involucrata).—Hardy. May bloom again in late summer.	Red, purple; 9 inches; 8 weeks.	Good sun.
Blooming in May
Spiderwort (Tradescantia Virginiana).—For mixed borders, wild garden or front of shrubbery.	Violet, blue; 24 inches; 12 weeks.	Good; sun or half shade.
Many-Leaved Lupine (Lupinus polyphyllus).—Easily raised from seed. Soil must not dry quickly.	Blue, white; 36 inches; 4 weeks.	Rich, heavy; sun or shade.
Common Columbine (Aquilegia vulgaris).—Also grow A. chrysantha (yellow), and A. Canadensis (red).	Violet, white; 36 inches; 5 weeks.	Rich; sun or shade.
German Iris (Iris Germanica).—Plant rhizomes flat, cover half their depth. Best transplanted after bloom. Keep from contact with manure.	Various; 24 inches; 3 weeks.	Good; sun.
Scotch Pink (Dianthus plumarius).—Evergreen. Don’t cover with litter in winter.	White, pink; 10 inches; 2 weeks.	Good; sun.
Garden Heliotrope (Valeriana officinalis).—Sweet spicy fragrance; rapid spreader; an old favorite.	White; 36 inches; 3 weeks.	Good; sun or half shade.
Yellow Larkspur (Delphinium nudicaule).—Grows wild near streams in northern California, a pretty, early variety for the garden.	Yellow; 12 inches; 10 weeks.	Deep, rich, sandy loam; sun.
Brown and Yellow Corn Flower (Lepachys columnaris, var. pulcherrima).—Grown as an annual for bedding. Start indoors in March; it will bloom June to September.	Brown and yellow; 24 inches; 12 weeks.	Any good; sun.
Lily-of-the-Valley (Convallaria majalis).—Divide every four or five years if crowded. Plant six or seven pips in a bunch.	White; 8 inches; 3 weeks.	Good, heavy; partial shade.
Bachelor’s Button (Ranunculus acris, var. flore pleno).—Easiest to raise of the yellow buttons.	Yellow; 18 inches; 5 weeks.	Good, moist; partial shade.
Cowslip (Primula officinalis).—Small flowers well above leaves. Water during drought.	Yellow; 8 inches; 3 weeks.	Moist, deep, light; part shade.
Lemon Lily (Hemerocallis flava).—This sweet scented flower is the best Hemerocallis.	Yellow; 18 inches; 4 weeks.	Good; sun or partial shade.
Early Peony (PÆonia officinalis).—This European species is the parent of the early peonies; blooms fortnight before the Chinese peonies.	Red, white; 6 inches; 8 weeks.	Rich, heavy; sun.
Carolina Phlox (Phlox ovata).—A rich color for the front of a bed.	Rosy red; 8 inches; 4 weeks.	Good, light; sun.
Bleeding Heart (Dicentra spectabilis).—Commonly planted in fall. Sold by bulb dealers also.	Rosy red; 18 inches; 4 weeks.	Rich, light; sun.
Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum coccineum).—Pyrethrum roseum dies from too much moisture in clay soil. Wilts if too dry.	Pink, white; 24 inches; 5 weeks.	Rich, deep, light; sun.
English Daisy (Bellis perennis).—Best to winter in cold frames. Water freely while growing.	Pink, white; 6 inches; 8 weeks.	Rich, rather heavy; sun.
Siberian Primrose (Primula cortusoides).—One of the latest primroses. Flowers one inch across.	Pink; 12 inches; 5 weeks.	Dry, rich; sun.
Blooming in June
Perennial Larkspur (Delphinium formosum).—D. Zalil is yellow, two feet. D. elatum is blue, six feet. D. Chinensis is a dwarf kind, two feet.	Blue; 24 inches; 6 weeks.	Rich, well-drained, heavy; sun.
Canterbury Bells (Campanula Medium).—Biennial, needs winter protection. Var. calycanthema best.	Blue, white, pink; 24 inches; 5 weeks.	Rich, not too light; sun.
Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea).—Short-lived perennial but self-sows. Highest type is var. gloxiniÆflora, best sown in August; wintered in cold frames.	Purple; 36 inches; 5 weeks.	Light, good, moist; sun; shade.
Beard-Tongue (Pentstemon diffusus).—Tall slender spikes of light purplish blue flower.	Blue; 24 inches; 3 weeks.	Good soil; partial shade.
Japanese Iris (Iris lÆvigata).—Largest flowered iris. Needs more moisture.	Various; 48 inches; 4 weeks.	Rich, moist; sun.
Siberian Columbine (Aquilegia Sibirica).—Give columbine seeds light soil; plants rather heavy soil.	Light blue; 24 inches; 4 weeks.	Rich, dry; sun or half shade.
False Indigo (Baptisia australis).—Resembles the lupine.	Blue; 36 inches; 3 weeks.	Good; sun.
Douglas’ Clematis (Clematis Douglasi).—Bell-shaped flowers darker within than without.	Blue; 24 inches; 3 weeks.	Rich, light loam; sun.
Jacob’s Ladder (Polemonium cÆruleum).—Likes moisture. An old-time flower.[153]	Blue, white; 24 inches; 4 weeks.	Rich, deep loam; sun.
Amsonia (Amsonia TabernÆmontana).—Subshrub with willow-like leaves. Grows well in shrubbery.	Blue; 24 inches; 4 weeks.	Good; sun.
Goat’s Beard (Aruncus astilboides).—Feathery-spiked flowers. Fine cut foliage.	White; 24 inches; 3 weeks.	Good; sun.
Pearl Achillea (Achillea Ptarmica, var. Pearl).—Fence in roots with a square of boards.	White; 24 inches; 12 weeks.	Rich; sun.
Phlox Miss Lingard (Phlox maculata, var. Miss Lingard).—Healthiest and best variety of common early perennial garden phlox.	White; 18 inches; 6 weeks.	Rich; sun.
Gas Plant (Dictamnus Fraxinella).—Will also grow in partial shade. Very long-lived.	White, pink; 24 inches.	Rich, heavy; sun.
Hardy Yucca (Yucca flaccida).—“Yucca filamentosa” of nurserymen, not of botanists. Transplant only in early spring. Makes new plants every year by suckers.	White; 60 inches; 4 weeks.	Rich, light loam; sun.
Golden Marguerite (Anthemis tinctoria).—Divide every year. Var. Kelwayi best.	Yellow; 12 inches; 10 weeks.	Good; sun.
Perennial Coreopsis (Coreopsis lanceolata).—Don’t let it go to seed.	Yellow; 18 inches; 10 weeks.	Good; sun.
Woolly Yarrow (Achillea tomentosa).—Carpets the ground in early June.	Yellow; 8 inches; 4 weeks.	Dry, rich; sun.
Perennial Gaillardia (Gaillardia aristata).—The yellow with maroon disk is perhaps the best. Blooms steadily till frost if fading flowers are cut.	Yellow; 12 inches; 16 weeks.	Good, light; sun.
Thin-Leaved Coneflower (Rudbeckia triloba).—Biennial, but blooms first year and self-sows.	Yellow; 36 inches; 5 weeks.	Rich, moist; sun.
Wild Indigo (Baptisia tinctoria).—Baptisia australis, blue, is showier.	Yellow; 24 inches; 4 weeks.	Good; sun.
German Catchfly (Lychnis Viscaria).—Beautiful, old-fashioned, long-lived in congenial situation.	Deep red; 9 inches; 3 weeks.	Good, light; sun.
Late or Chinese Peony (PÆonia Chinensis).—Flowers best in rather heavy soil, with moisture in spring and summer. Single varieties are exquisite.	Crimson, white, pink; 30 inches; 3 weeks.	Very rich, deep; sun.
Oriental Poppy (Papaver orientale).—The variety bracteatum—deep red—is the best.	Red; 36 inches; 2 weeks.	Rich; sun.
Sweet William (Dianthus barbatus).—Biennial but self-sows.	Various; 12 inches; 5 weeks.	Light, rich; sun.
Japanese Pinks (Dianthus Chinensis, var. Heddewigi).—Best treated as annual. Start indoors.	Various; 9 inches; 12 weeks.	Light, rich; sun.
Coral Bells (Heuchera sanguinea).—Graceful racemes of delicate flowers. Blooms all summer.	Crimson; 18 inches; 12 weeks.	Good; sun or half-shade.
Fire Pink (Silene Virginica).—It cannot stand much moisture.	Crimson; 18 inches; 8 weeks.	Good; sun or half shade.
Blooming in July
Fremont’s Clematis (Clematis Fremonti).—A western bush clematis for the hardy border.	Bluish purple; 24 inches; 3 weeks.	Deep, rich; sun.
Beard-Tongue (Pentstemon ovatus).—Short-lived but very free blooming while it lasts.	Blue; 36 inches; 3 weeks.	Moist; sun.
True Monkshood (Aconitum Napellus).—This plant lives longer in partial shade.	Blue; 48 inches; 3 weeks.	Rich; partial shade.
Japanese Bellflower (Platycodon grandiflorum).—Largest easily grown flower of the bellflower family.	Blue, white; 18 inches; 4 weeks.	Light loam; sun.
Double Feverfew (Chrysanthemum Parthenium).—Gives many white buttons.	White; 18 inches; 12 weeks.	Rich; sun.
False Chamomile (Boltonia asteroides).—Like a wild aster. Very profuse of bloom.	White, violet; 60 inches; 4 weeks.	Any good; sun.
Bugbane (Cimicifuga racemosa).—For shrubbery back of border, or wild garden.	White; 60 inches; 4 weeks.	Good; partial shade.
Meadow Rue (Thalictrum polygamum).—For wild garden or shrubbery. Fern-like foliage.	White; 60 inches; 4 weeks.	Moist; sun.
Perennial Phlox (Phlox paniculata).—See also Phlox maculata in June.	White, pink, red, blue; 36 inches; 4 weeks.	Rich, moist; sun.
Hollyhock (AlthÆa rosea).—Dig dry Bordeaux about crowns in spring; spray under side of leaves weekly with ammoniacal copper carbonate.	White, pink, red; 72 inches; 4 weeks.	Deep, rich, heavy; sun.
Double Perennial Sunflower (Helianthus decapetalus, var. multiflorus).—Divide every two years. Flowers deteriorate.	Yellow; 60 inches; 6 weeks.	Any good; sun.
Shining-Leaved Coneflower (Rudbeckia nitida).—Plenty of moisture suits it best.	Yellow; 24 inches; 4 weeks.	Any good; sun.
Golden Glow (Rudbeckia laciniata, fl. pf.).—Wonderfully prolific. Divide annually. Getting common.	Yellow; 72 inches; 3 weeks.	Any good; sun.
Pitcher’s Sunflower (Heliopsis lÆvis).—Earlier than sunflowers, smaller. Var. Pitcheriana best.	Yellow; 6 weeks.	Good, dry; sun.
Gay Feather (Liatris pycnostachya).—Very striking. Plant in groups of five or more.[154]	Pink; 48 inches; 3 weeks.	Good; sun.
Purple Coneflower (Echinacea purpurea).—Rather coarse but effective flowers. Sometimes four feet high.	Pinkish; 24 inches; 6 weeks.	Good: deep: sun.
Bee Balm (Monarda didyma).—Rapid spreading. Place next to white phlox.	Red; 36 inches; 8 weeks.	Good; sun.
Blooming in August
Long-Leaved Veronica (Veronica longifolia).—The best is var. subsesilis.	Blue; 36 inches; 3 weeks.	Deep, rich; sun.
Stoke’s Aster (Stokesia cyanea).—Hardy near Boston. An unusually fine shade of blue.	Blue; 18 inches; 4 weeks.	Well drained, light, rich; sun.
Mist Flower (Conoclinium coelestinum).—Easily grown. Light blue color.	Blue; 18 inches; 4 weeks.	Any good; sun.
Joe-Pye Weed (Eupatorium purpureum).—For back of broad border, or shrubbery.	Purple; 96 inches; 4 weeks.	Any good; sun.
Arkansas Ironweed (Vernonia Arkansana).—Flowers by August 1st. For shrubbery or wild garden.	Purple; 96 inches; 6 weeks.	Rich, deep; sun.
New York Ironweed (Vernonia Noveboracensis).—Bushy. May be placed near V. Arkansana.	Purple; 60 inches; 6 weeks.	Rich, deep; sun.
Lyon’s Turtlehead (Chelone Lyonii).—Resembles pentstemons. Don’t allow to suffer from drought.	Purplish; 24 inches; 4 weeks.	Rich; partial shade.
Baby’s Breath (Gypsophila paniculata).—Beautiful misty white flower. Effective in bouquets.	White; 24 inches; 3 weeks.	Rich, light; sun.
Marshmallow (Hibiscus Moscheutos).—They have deep crimson or purple eyes.	Rose, white; 60 inches; 3 weeks.	Rich; sun.
Showy Coneflower (Rudbeckia speciosa).—Moisture will increase the size of the flower.	Yellow; 24 inches; 6 weeks.	Good; sun or half shade.
Showy Sunflower (Helianthus lÆtiflorus).—Spread too rapidly for a crowded border.	Yellow; 72 inches; 6 weeks.	Good; sun.
Long-headed Coneflower (Lepachys columnaris).—Resembles black-eyed Susan.	Yellow; 24 inches; 6 weeks.	Good; sun.
Canadian Goldenrods (Solidago Canadensis).—Goldenrods all welcome in the wild garden.	Yellow; 48 inches; 5 weeks.	Any good; sun.
Yarrow, Milfoil (Achillea Millefolium).—Pink kind is var. roseum. Sink boards around it.	Pinkish; 24 inches; 8 weeks.	Any good dry; sun.
Butterfly Weed (Asclepias tuberosa).—Has big woody root. Transplant young seedlings.	Orange; 24 inches; 5 weeks.	Good, dry; sun.
Cardinal Flower (Lobelia cardinalis).—Does well in garden soil. Water freely.	Red; 36 inches; 5 weeks.	Deep, moist; partial shade.
Showy Stonecrop (Sedum spectabile).—Give good drainage. Best of the tall stonecrops.	Pink; 18 inches; 6 weeks.	Good, rich; sun.
False Chamomile (Boltonia latisquama).—Satisfactory for back of border. Spreads considerably.	Pinkish; 60 inches; 5 weeks.	Rich, deep; sun.
Blooming in September
Fischer’s Aconite (Aconitum Fischeri).—Early frost does not harm this beautiful flower.	Blue; 60 inches; 4 weeks.	Rich, deep, partial shade.
Blazing Star (Liatris graminifolia).—A singular and strikingly beautiful flower.	Rosy, purple; 36 inches; 3 weeks.	Rich, good; sun.
Tartarian Aster (Aster Tataricus).—Tallest of all asters. Many other good blue kinds.	Blue; 72 inches; 3 weeks.	Any good; sun.
New England Aster (Aster NovÆ AngliÆ).—The rose variety is better.	Purple; 48 inches; 3 weeks.	Any good; sun.
Giant Daisy (Chrysanthemum uliginosum).—Spreads rapidly. For back of borders. Rather heavy soil.	White; 60 inches; 3 weeks.	Rich, moist; sun.
Graceful Sunflower (Helianthus orgyalis).—One of the best hardy sunflowers. Blooms late.	Yellow; 96 inches; 4 weeks.	Any good; sun.
Maximilian’s Sunflower (Helianthus Maximiliana).—Another graceful sunflower.	Yellow; 72 inches; 5 weeks.	Any good; sun.
Sneezeweed (Helenium autumnale).—Begins to bloom in August, sometimes in July.	Yellow; 60 inches; 8 weeks.	Any good; sun.

DESIRABLE ANNUAL VINES

Common and Botanical Name; Hints on Cultivation	Color, Height and Time in Bloom	Kind of Soil and Light Required
Hyacinth Bean (Dolichos Lablab).—Sensitive to frost. Makes good screen. Plant one foot apart.	Purple; 15 feet; 4 weeks.	Rich, light; sun.
Cup and Saucer Vine (CobÆa scandens).—Rapid climber. Set plants six inches apart.	Purplish, white; 15 feet; 6 weeks.	Rich, light; sun.
Allegheny Vine (Adlumia cirrhosa).—For covering bushes. Set eight inches apart.	Pinkish; 10 feet; 3 weeks.	Moist, rich; shade.
Ivy-Leaved Gourd (Coccinea cordifolia).—Coccinea Indica is grown for its scarlet fruit.[155]	White; 10 feet; 4 weeks.	Light, rich; sun.
Canary-Bird Vine (TropÆolum Canariense).—Not showy, but quick growing. Set eight inches apart.	Canary yellow; 15 feet; 3 weeks.	Light, rich; sun.
Balloon Vine (Cardiospermum Halicabum).—Seed vessels like balloons. Set plants ten inches apart.	White; 10 feet; 3 weeks.	Light, rich; sun.
Balsam Pear (Momordica Charantia).—Plant seeds outdoors after last frost, else under glass earlier.	Yellow; 10 feet; 3 weeks.	Light, rich; sun.
Climbing Nasturtium (TropÆolum majus).—For close screen plant ten inches apart.	Yellow or red; 10 feet; 8 weeks.	Light, rich; sun.
Cypress Vine (Ipomoea Quamoclit).—Star-shaped flowers. Finely cut leaves.	Scarlet; 15 feet; 3 weeks.	Light, rich; sun.
Scarlet Runner Bean (Phaseolus multiflorus).—Tender perennial with tuberous roots.	Red, white; 18 feet; 4 weeks.	Light, rich; sun.
Maurandia (Maurandia Barclaina).—Showy leaves and trumpet-shaped flowers.	White, blue; 10 feet; 2 weeks.	Light, rich; sun.

FLOWERING SHRUBS AND HEDGE PLANTS

Names and Descriptions	Height in Feet	Flowering Time	Cultivation and Use
Spirea (Spiraea Van Houtter).—The most showy of the spireas; flowers in umbels two inches across. Handsome foliage all summer.	6	June	Plant in a conspicuous place with ample room. Cut out flowering wood in summer. Thrives anywhere.
Spirea (Spiraea, Anthony Waterer).—The only shrub of its season. Flowers crimson red produced successively for six weeks. Good for edging.	3	July	Prune off old flower heads as soon as withered to induce good second crop.
Mock Orange (Philadelphus coronarius).—Most fragrant white large flowered shrub. Valuable for tall screen. Flowers one and one-half inches across.	12	June	Old wood should be cut out from time to time, otherwise the tree gets very ragged.
Althea or Rose of Sharon (Hibiscus Syriacus).—The only tall shrub of late summer. Very hardy; leafs late. White or rose flowers.	12	August	Good for hedges and screens. Must be planted very early in the autumn.
Hydrangea (Hydrangea paniculata, var. grandiflora).—Most showy of all summer shrubs. White flowers, shading into pink and persisting all winter.	6 to 15	July-August	Prune very completely in winter for quantity of flowers next year.
Golden Bell (Forsythia suspensa).—The most showy, early-flowering shrub. Yellow flowers before the leaves. Branches arch over and root at tips.	5 to 8	April-May	Plant against a dark background, such as evergreens, or a hillside to set off flowers.
Japan Quince (Cydonia Japonica)_.—Earliest bright scarlet flowered shrub. Useful also as a hedge. Plant as specimen. Slow growing.	4 to 8	May	Very subject to San Jose scale. Don’t plant near orchards unless systematically sprayed. Stands close pruning.
Lilac (Syringa vulgaris).—Very fragrant lilac, white or purple flowers. Grows anywhere, even in partial shade.	8 to 15	May-June	Spray with potassium sulphide for mildew in August, September. Do not permit suckers to develop. Prune for form only.
Japanese Snowball (Viburnum plicatum).—Largest showy white balls of bloom, better habit than the common snowball and not so subject to plant louse.	6 to 8	May-June	Prune as little as possible. Should be planted on lawn as a specimen, or trained on wall of house.
Tartarian Honeysuckle (Lonicera Tatarica).—Most fragrant of all the early summer shrubs, especially at dusk. Flowers pink; several varieties red or white.	8 to 10	May-June	Plant in shrubbery where its presence is made known by the odor. Valuable as a low screen on seaside.
Weigela (Diervilla florida).—Showiest shrub of midsummer. Flowers pink, white, red. Best flowering shrub under big trees.	6 to 8	June	Can be planted where other shrubs fail. Free from insects and disease. Cut out old wood to the ground.
Wistaria or Wisteria (W. Frutescens).—Handsome hardy, slow-growing, climbing shrub. Flowers in elegant lilac-colored racemes, slightly scented.	8 to 15	All Summer	Adapted for screen or trellis.
California Privet (Ligustrum ovalifolium).—Fastest growing. Stands salt spray. Good soil binder. Stands severest pruning and can be trained high or low.	6 to 8	...	Set six inches deeper than in the nursery and cut back to six inches or less.
Regel’s Privet (Ligustrum Ibota, var. Regelianum).—Low growing, denser habit with spreading, drooping branches clothed with white tassels.[156]	2 to 6	June	Useful as a border hedge to plantations and along roadways. Should not be planted as a protection.
Osage Orange (Maclura pomifera).—Grows in any soil. Makes a dense defensive hedge as far north as Massachusetts. Flowers white.	3 to 15	May	Unless regularly trimmed, the top branches will spread. Will exhaust soil on each side for some feet.
Japanese Barberry (Berberis Thunbergii).—Foliage down to the ground. Dense compact growth of small spiny branches making effective hedge in winter.	4	June	Does not need pruning. Red berries all winter, and foliage red until Christmas. Do not plant in wheat districts.
Honey Locust (Gleditschia triacanthos).—The thorniest of all. “Bull strong, horse high and pig tight.” Perfectly hardy. Fast and vigorous grower. Suckers.	3 to 15	May	Plant thickly and prune severely. Mice girdle in winter. Spring trimmings must be burned. Needs strict control.
Buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica).—The best strong hedge, as dense and tight as honey locust but not so high. Thorny. Never ragged. Moderate grower.	6 to 10	...	Spray with kerosene emulsion for hop louse. Old hedges that are out of condition are easily recovered by cutting back.
Trifoliate Orange (Citrus trifoliatus).—Best medium height hedge for the South where it is evergreen. Deciduous in the North. Foliage yellow in fall.	...	...	Not reliably hardy north of Philadelphia. White flowers followed by small yellow fruits make it ornamental also.
Tamarix (Tamarix Gallica).—Unexcelled for saline and alkaline soils, growing on the salt water’s edge where nothing else will.	5 to 10	...	Flowers feathery pink on old wood; on new wood in var. Narbonnensis. Foliage small.
Japanese Briar (Rosa rugosa).—The only rose suitable for a hedge. White, pink and red flowers.	5 to 8	All Summer	Suited for boundary or screen.

BEST LAWN GRASSES FOR ALL PURPOSES

Common and Botanical Name	Region of Use	Lbs. per bushel cleaned seed	Sow per acre bushels alone		Conditions and Uses
Rhode Island Bent (Agrostis canina).	On sandy seasides.	15	13		For close, fine turf. Color very green.
Creeping Bent (Agrostis alba, var. stolonifera).	Low lying inland and dry valleys of the East.	15	3		Rapid growing, forms a strong turf, that is improved by heavy rolling or tramping.
Red Top, Fancy Red Top (Agrostis alba, var. vulgaris).	From Tennessee north.	14 35	4 5-6		Stands hot weather and hard usage. Fills in well with blue grass.
Beach (Ammophila arenaria, A. arundinacea).	On railway cuttings and embankments on the sea coast.	15	3	¹/₂	Dry, loose soils. Holds drifting sands and banks.
Biennial Sweet Vernal (Anthoxanthum odoratum).	Useful only to lend fragrance to the lawn when cut.	Used only in mixture two pounds to the acre.			Starts early in spring, and makes new root-leaves all the year after cutting.
Bermuda (Capriola Dactylon).	Is killed by frost; valueless north of Virginia. A weed in blue grass lawns where it dies early.	15		¹/₂	Can be used for binding banks. The best lawn grass for the South from Virginia to Florida. Withstands heat and drought. Thrives on poorest soils.
Crested Dog’s Tail (Cynosurus cristatus).	Valuable for shady places and under trees. Also for terraces on deep soil.	30	1		Same color as Kentucky blue and so mixes well with that. A good bottom grass. Not recommended alone. Prefers rich, moist soil.
Various Leaved Fescue (Festuca heterophylla).	Northern States and on cold, wet soils.	15	1	¹/₂	Does best in cold, moist soils, rich in humus and potash.
Sheep’s Fescue (Festuca ovina).	Useful in mixtures for the Northwest and for lands on poorest sands.	16	2		This is a “bunch” or “stool” grass with very fine foliage and dense dwarf growth for any uplands.
Slender Fescue (Festuca ovina var. tenuifolia).	Dry slopes on lawns or on dry, high situations.	22	1	¹/₂	Finer leaf than sheep’s fescue and stools like that. Recommended only in special situations.
Italian Rye (Lolium Italicum).	Very thickly or in mixture as far south as Jacksonville, Fla.	22	2	¹/₂	Very rapid growing and valuable for short, quick effects. Is practically an annual.
Pacey’s or English Rye (Lolium perenne var. tenue).[157]	For quick effects in the Middle and Eastern States.	28	2		Makes good verdure in four weeks. Dies out in two or three years.
Canada Blue (Poa compressa).	Throughout the East and North including Canada on dry sand or clay.	14	3		Flatter, more wiry stem than the Kentucky grass, also bluer color. Used in the very cheap mixtures as a substitute.
Wood Meadow (Poa memoralis).	Best grass for very shady places in woodland parks.	19	1	¹/₂	Very hardy and early, resisting heat, too.
Kentucky Blue (Poa pratensis).	Best lawn grass north of Washington and west to the Allegheny range.	14	3		Starts early, lasts till frost, fine texture, rich green color, smooth, even growth. Three years to establish. Dislikes some soils.
Rough Stalked Meadow (Poa trivialis).	More shaded portions of lawns or north side of buildings.	26	4-5		Does not do well on dry land. Forms a fine turf and dense mat.
St. Augustine (Stenotaphrum secundatum, S. Americanum).	Florida and the West Indian Islands.	26	4-5		Coarse and upright leaf, but keeps green when even Bermuda grass burns out.

VI. WILD FLOWERS AND FLOWERLESS PLANTS

The beauty and inspiration of wild flowers, which lovers of Nature constantly bring to our attention, should by no means, be passed by. There are few, indeed, whose joy in living is not more than a little deepened by contact with the woods and meadows, perfumed with the scent of wild-growing flowers and blossoms, and made beautiful to the eye by a riot of colors both soothing and delightful. They are to be found under forest trees, in bushes and hedges, amidst grasses in meadows, on highways and declivities, and on rubbish heaps and in water; they crowd together, as though unwilling to be hidden from view.

Among the leading representatives of these plants, grouped according to the localities in which they are found, are sure to be the following.

FLOWERS THAT GROW IN
THE WOODS

A prime favorite among the flowers of spring is the Trailing Arbutus (Epigaea repens), a trailing plant of the Heath family, with branches six to fifteen feet long and evergreen leaves, called Mayflower in New England and Ground Laurel in the Southern States. It grows in sandy or rocky soils, especially in the shade of evergreen trees, from Canada to Texas. It is prized for its early blooming, and delicate flowers, now gathered in considerable quantities for city flower markets. In the early spring also the Lungwort (Pulmonaria officinalis) delights us with its violet and blue flowers; as does also the Liverwort (Hepatica triloba), the three-lobed leaves of which live through the winter. That familiar little favorite, the sweet-scented Lily of the Valley (Convallaria majalis), raises its tender string of blooms surrounded by two large leaves in May. This is followed by the sweet-scented Woodruff (Asperula odorata). In some districts the fresh leaves of the woodruff are used for making May wine; when dried they emit an agreeable scent, and are therefore frequently laid in wardrobes. Its leaves are stellate, and its small blossoms are arranged in umbels. It grows from nine to twelve inches high. Other plants found in the woods are the Forget-me-not (Myosotis silvatica), and the Centaury (ErythrÆa Centaurium). The rose-red blossoms of the latter are arranged in clusters, and its leaves have medicinal properties. Late in the year towards autumn the common Ling or heather (Calluna vulgaris) opens its red blooms. The leaves are small, and arranged in four rows along the stem. The young heather contains a rich honey, and is consequently much sought after by all kinds of insects.

WILD FLOWERS AMONG THE
HEDGES AND BUSHES

In March and April, in concealed spots, the sweet-scented Violet blows (Viola odorata), filling the air with its sweet fragrance every morning. The Anemone (Anemone nemerosa) raises its white flower, tinged with red, from the midst of three large green leaves. The Wood-sorrel (Oxalis acetosella), sends out from its root graceful trifoliate leaves and white blooms traversed by violet veins. In the hedges and bushes, also, we meet with the Arum (Arum maculatum), the common wake-robin or lords and ladies. On closely observing this plant, we shall find rather deep in the earth a tuberous root as large as a walnut, from which spring three or four long-stalked, bright leaves. Between the leaves a smooth stem arises six to nine inches high, which bears at its upper end the blossoms, surrounded by a greenish sheath. The arum has acrid properties, but its corm yields Portland sago or arrowroot. In the vicinity of this plant we also find the Valerian (Valeriana officinalis), the root of which possesses healing properties. It contains an oil, which is used as a remedy for cramp.

THE FLOWERS OF THE
OPEN MEADOWS

The uniform green which covers the meadows all the year round is agreeably relieved by a large [158] number of plants with colored flowers. Here blooms the sky-blue Gentian (Gentiana verna), which delights both the eye and the heart. There the beautiful blue bells of the Campanula (Campanula Rapunculus) raise their heads, together with the violet flowers of the Scabious (Scabiosa pratensis), and the numerous bloom-whorls of the meadow Sage (Salvia pratensis). Between these can be seen the red and white heads of the meadow and white Clover (Trifolia pratensis and T. repens); and from a distance we can recognize the small Daisy (Bellis perennis), the similar but larger Dog Daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum), the yellow Meadow Sweet (Tragopogon pratensis), and the Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale). In these the fructification is carried out by insects; but, as the single flowers are so small that they would be overlooked by the insects, Nature has arranged many of them in the form of a small chalice or cup, which can be seen from afar, especially in those cases where the radiating petals are different in color from the sepals, like those in the dog daisies. Many meadow plants grow with their stalks and blooms high over their neighbors, as though they were the lords of the meadows.

In these the flowers are very small; but as they are united in large numbers in flat umbals, they show up well. On the dry ridges blooms the Plantain (Plantago), which has good healing properties; and the wild Thyme (Thymus Serpylum), a graceful plant, which is sometimes made into tea, and is frequently placed in children’s baths. The shape of its blooms shows it to be a member of the family of the labiate flowers, to which belongs also the meadow sage.

FLOWERS OF THE WOODED
PASTURES

Another large natural family of plants, the milkworts, have a pretty representative in the meadows in the Cuckoo-flower (Cardamine pratensis). Its leaves are pennate, and the lilac-colored flowers contain four large and two short stamens; the fruit is a pod. Upon woody pastures we also often find the Orchis (Orchis Morio). From the two oval tubers a stem arises enclosed in sheath-like leaves. At the top of the stem are the curiously formed flowers, which are fructified by insects in a very peculiar and striking manner. The somewhat unattractive Sour-Sorrel (Rumex Acetosa), Fig. 13, is well known, and its soft stem and juicy leaves are sometimes eaten by children. The leaves are arrow-shaped; the small flowers are reddish in color.

WILD FLOWERS ON HIGHWAYS
AND WASTE LAND

Here we meet, besides old acquaintances from the meadows, the Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris) and the Chickweed (Stellaria media), both valued as birds’ food, and common everywhere; the Shepard’s Pouch (Capsella Bursa pastoris), easily recognized by its almost three-cornered little pods, and blooming, like the groundsel, nearly all the year round; the white, spotted, and purple Blind-Nettles (Lamium album, L. maculatum, and L. purpureum), and the Origanum (Origanum vulgare), are labiate flowers, which are diligently visited by insects for their honey. Here, too, are the bristly, blue-flowered Adder-Wort (Echium vulgare); the round-leaved Mallow (Malva rotundifolia); the Burdock (Lappa major), the blossoms of which cling to the clothes so readily; the common Nettles (Urtica); and the Tansy.

FLOWERS IN CULTIVATED
FIELDS

Several plants grow amid the corn which are really ornamental with their bright flowers. A very pretty example is the larkspur (Delphinium Consolida), a small graceful little plant, with numerous blue spur-like flowers. Near the latter we also find the blue Cornflower (Centaurea Cyanus), which is so frequently plucked by children and woven into wreaths.

The Camomile (Matricaria Chamomilla), is recognized by its strong odor. It has a small chalice with white petals, and is an important medicinal plant. The Corn-cockle (Agrostemma Githago) and the red Poppy (Papaver Rhoeas) are also seen; and at the time when the wind sweeps over the field of stubble the latter is adorned with the wild Pansy (Viola tricolor), the leaves and flowers of which have healing properties, and are collected for medicinal uses.

THE GREAT GROUPS OF CRYPTOGAMS
OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS

The Cryptogams are plants without true, or without visible flowers; to these belong the shave grasses, the ferns, the mosses, the algÆ, the lichens, and the fungi.

The Horse-tail (Equisetum arvense), frequently grows in damp, sandy fields. The spring stem of the plant is simple and reddish in color, and bears fruit called spores in an upright ear.

The Wall Rue (Asplenium Ruta muraria), belongs to the family of ferns. It grows everywhere on walls, and has a short root, three-cornered leaves, and along both sides of the middle ribs of the leaves the fruit lies in rows.

The Common Fern (Polypodium vulgare), grows on walls and rocks. It has a creeping stem, and beautiful serrated leaves, bearing on their underside the somewhat large fruit glands which contain the spores. Other familiar ferns are the Worm Fern (Aspidium Filix mas), and the Eagle Fern (Pteris Aquilina), from three to five feet high.

The Common Hair Moss (Polytrichum commune), grows in all the woods and in wet fields. The stem is upright; the small leaves are pointed and serrated at their edges. The spores develop in a quadrangular sheath, which is surrounded by a cell. The mosses play an important part in the economy of Nature; they retain in the woods a quantity of the water which falls as rain, and thus preserve the lands from being flooded, store up moisture for the plants, and also influence the climatic conditions of a country. The so-called Peat-moss (Sphagnum) enters largely into the composition of peat.

The Reindeer Moss (Cladonia rangiferina), is a much-branched little plant of a greyish color. The small fruit corpuscles are at the ends of the branches. The reindeer moss is common in the pine woods of northern Europe.

The Toad’s-stool (Agricus muscarius), grows in the woods in autumn. The blood-red cap has numerous white excrescences on its surface. It is very poisonous and ill-smelling, and has a bitter taste. It is often used as a poison for flies, but is also dangerous to men and animals.

The Mushroom (Agricus campestris), is common from May to October in fields, gardens, and meadows. It has lately also been cultivated in cellars and greenhouses. It is a favorite article of food, and one of the most useful of the edible fungi.

CAMPHOR TREE (Cinnamomum camphora), one of the most beautiful of all trees, grows in China and Japan, more especially in the island of Formosa. It has also been planted in Ceylon and Florida. The wood of the tree is valued by the cabinet maker, but its chief value is in the solid, essential oil, called gum camphor, extracted from it by a process of distillation. When pure, camphor is a white, soft semi-transparent body, with a peculiarly strong aromatic odor, and a bitter, burning taste. It is used extensively in making celluloid and smokeless powder, in medicine and as a protection against insects. Nine-tenths of the world’s supply of raw material is exported from Formosa. Its production is a monopoly of the Japanese government.

VII. TREES OF THE FOREST

The forest trees are divided into two groups: Trees Bearing Foliage, and Trees with Aciculous Leaves. The former lose their leaves in autumn; the stiff linear leaves of the latter, on the contrary, live throughout the winter, with the exception of those of the larch tree.

Alder (Alnus), trees native to the North Temperate and Arctic zones and to the Andes into Chili. The Black Alder grows near the brooks. The male blossoms stand in long, cylindrical catkins; the female blossoms in small, roundish catkins. The fruit is found in small cones. The alder tree blossoms in April and May. It may reach seventy feet in height and nine in girth, but seldom exceeds forty in height. The bark of the shoots is used in tanning and dyeing leather red, brown, yellow, or, with copperas, black. The wood is durable under water, and is said by Virgil to have been the first wood used by man for boats. It was used for piles at Ravenna and for the Rialto at Venice, and is still so employed in Holland. Its chief use is for gunpowder-charcoal. For this purpose shoots five or six years old, or about four inches across, are employed.

Ash (Fraxinus), a valuable timber-tree belonging to the olive tribe. It has smooth, olive-grey bark, black buds, opposite pinnate leaves of from seven to fifteen leaflets, flowers without calyx or corolla, and an oblong-winged fruit. Its wood is more flexible than that of any other European tree, and is used for walking-sticks, spade-handles, the spokes and felloes of wheels, etc. There are about twelve species native to North America. The best known are: Common Ash, a large tree one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet high, growing wild in southern Europe and northern Asia. White Ash, a large tree forty-five to ninety feet high; Nova Scotia to Florida, westward to Minnesota and Texas. Green Ash, forty to fifty feet high, Vermont to Florida, intermittently to Utah and Arizona. Red Ash, a small tree, rarely more than forty feet high, growing in moist soil from New Brunswick to South Dakota, Florida, Alabama and Missouri. Blue Ash, fifty to seventy-five feet high, Ontario, Minnesota, and Michigan to Alabama, west to Iowa and Arkansas. Black or Hoop Ash, a large tree, seventy to eighty feet high, Newfoundland to Manitoba, south to Virginia and Arkansas.

Aspen or Trembling Poplar (Populus tremula), has a greenish-grey bark. Its leaves have long stalks, and tremble at the slightest current of air. The American Aspen called Quaking Aspen or Quaking Asp, is one of the most widely distributed trees of North America, growing from Alaska and Newfoundland to lower California. A slender tree with light green bark, maximum height 100 feet. Wood soft, light, and largely used for manufacture of wood pulp. The European Aspen is a quick growing tree, fifty to eighty feet high. The wood is soft and porous, and is used in turnery and in interior finish for houses.

Beech (Fagus), a genus containing about sixteen species. The trees have smooth, silver-grey trunks, egg-shaped leaves like leather, and blossoms at the base of the leaves. The beechnuts are three-cornered; they grow in couples in a wooden capsule. The beech trees attain a height of from sixty to ninety feet, and blossom in April and May. The American Beech is the only North American species. It is a beautiful tree seventy to eighty and sometimes one hundred feet high, and is one of the most widely distributed trees of eastern North America. The wood is tough, close grained, and is largely used in the manufacture of tool handles, chairs and for fuel. The Common Beech, forming pure forests in many parts of Europe, is a large tree one hundred to one hundred and twenty feet high. The wood is dark colored, solid, and very durable under water and is much used in cabinet making, for weirs, and for fuel. The bark is sometimes used in tanning. The nuts are used for the manufacture of beech oil.

Birch (Betula), is known by all on account of its chalk-white bark, and its fine, pendent leaves. The male and female blossoms of this tree also grow separate on the same plant. Its seeds are small and plumed, whereby they are particularly adapted for being sown by the aid of the wind. There are about thirteen species in North America. Common Birch, abounding in northern Europe, is a beautiful tree sixty to seventy feet high. The bark is used in medicine and dyeing, and it yields the birch tar employed in the preparation of Russia leather. Red or River Birch grows in the United States from Massachusetts to Iowa and Kansas, south to Florida and Texas. It is a slender tree, seventy to ninety feet high, which produces a hard, valuable timber. Cherry Black or Sweet Birch is a large tree, sometimes eighty feet high. Wood fine grained and valuable for making furniture. The bark yields an oil identical with the oil of wintergreen. It grows from Newfoundland to western Ontario, Florida, and Tennessee. Yellow Birch, a large tree, maximum height one hundred feet, is used in shipbuilding. It grows from Newfoundland to Manitoba, south to Carolina and Tennessee. Paper or Canoe Birch, a large tree, maximum height eighty feet, is of a beautiful white color, and the bark is capable of division into thin sheets, used for making canoes, baskets, and ornaments. Found in Newfoundland to Alaska, northern Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Washington.

Buttonwood. See Plane Tree.

Cedar (Cedrus), the popular name of a variety of trees, mostly agreeing in having a reddish-brown aromatic wood. The coniferous genus includes only four forms, all native to the Old World, the most noted of which are the Cedars of Lebanon, frequently mentioned in the Bible. It has its needle-like leaves fascicled, like the larches; but unlike those trees, evergreen, so that they remain on the tree for several years after the dwarf-shoot has elongated. Its cones are erect, with broad, thin-edged scales which ultimately fall away from the axis, as in the firs. The White Cedar of the United States is more nearly a cypress, and the so-called Red Cedar is a juniper. The wood of the latter is used in making lead-pencils. The species native to the West Indies, yields the wood known as Honduras, Jamaica, or Barbadoes cedar, used for cigar boxes.

Chestnut (Castanea vulgaris), is a fine tree that may reach a large size, and has deeply furrowed bark and large, glossy, serrate but simple leaves in tufts, which turn yellow in autumn. Its flowers are in long pendulous catkins. The dark brown nuts are surmounted by the remains of the perianth, being “inferior” fruits. In a wild state two or three kernels or seeds, separated by a membrane, are contained in each nut; but the Lyons marron, the most valued cultivated race, contains only one. The tree is native from Portugal to the Caspian and in Algeria, and is represented by allied forms in Japan and temperate North America, flourishing in the Alps and Pyrenees at 2,500 to 2,800 feet above sea-level. Its timber resembles oak, but is softer and more brittle.

HOW WE MAY KNOW THE TREES OF THE FOREST

THE OAK

Massive strength is the chief characteristic of the oak, and it was the broad-based trunk of an oak that suggested the design for the first great lighthouse. The branches twist about in zig-zag fashion, and the thick bark is deeply furrowed.

THE BIRCH

We have only to glance at the birch to realize that its name “the lady of the woods” is well deserved. Its chief characteristic is slender gracefulness, and we cannot mistake the silvery white bark, quite unlike any other tree.

Cork Oak or Cork Tree (Quercus suber), is a species of oak, native of southern Europe and northern Africa, the spongy bark of which is the common cork of commerce. It ranges from twenty to forty feet in height, attains a diameter of five feet, and sometimes lives three hundred to five hundred years, producing crops of bark for one hundred and fifty years.

Cypress (Cupressus), is an evergreen tree of the pine family, with small, imbricated leaves and globular cones, comprising about twelve species, in northern regions of the world. The Common Cypress of Europe is famous for its durable wood and is believed to be the cedar or gopher wood of the Bible. The Monterey Cypress, a beautiful tree sometimes one hundred and fifty feet high and eight or ten feet in diameter, grows near the sea in California and three others occur on the Pacific Coast. The so-called Cypress or White Cedar of the Eastern States, and the Bald Cypress of southern swamps, valued for timber, are distant varieties of cypress.

Dogwood (Cornus), is a shrub or small tree, the wood of which is exceedingly hard and is used for many purposes. The astringent bark and sometimes the leaves are used in medicine. There are about eighteen species in the United States. The Flowering Dogwood is a small tree, native of the Eastern States. It has showy white petal-like bracts surrounding its clusters of small flowers.

Ebony (EfenaceÆ), is chiefly a species of tropical trees. The hard, dark colored heartwood of these is the source of most of the ebony of commerce. Those of India, Ceylon, and other tropical countries, furnish the best quality.

Elm (Ulmus). There are about six species which are native to the United States. They attain a height of forty-five to ninety feet, and blossom before their leaves appear, in March and April. The American White Elm is a large tree ninety to one hundred feet high, growing from Newfoundland to Florida and Texas. The wood is tough, strong, and largely used for wheel hubs, in cooperage, and for shipbuilding. It is a fine street and park tree. The Cork Elm is a tree seventy to ninety feet high, growing from Quebec and Vermont westward to Nebraska and Tennessee. The wood is considered the best of American elms, and is much used for agricultural implements and bridge timbers. The Slippery, or Red Elm is a tree sixty to seventy feet high, growing from Ontario to Florida, westward to Nebraska and Texas. The wood is durable in contact with the soil and is much used for fence posts and railway ties. The mucilaginous inner bark is used in medicine.

Eucalyptus, a genus of MyrtaceÆ, contains about two hundred lofty trees occurring chiefly in Australia and the Malayan Archipelago. Many reach a height of one hundred and fifty feet and a girth of twenty-five feet, and they frequently become hollow. The species are of great economic value, yielding oils, kinos, and useful timber, while the well-known oil of eucalyptus is obtained from the blue-gum tree.

Fir (Abies), a genus of the Pine family containing about twenty-five species, natives of the cooler portions of the north temperate zone. The Silver Fir, is a common tree in central Europe, and is common to the mountainous forests of Germany. It reaches ninety to one hundred and thirty feet in height, and has a smooth, light silver-grey bark, and needle-shaped leaves, which, although they stand singly and in a spiral form round the branches, are yet distinctly turned towards two sides, and are serrated at their points. The large, conical fruits stand like tapers upright on the branches, and decay upon the tree; whilst their spindles remain standing. The wood of the white fir tree is much valued. It is used as timber, and in particular for making masts; it is also useful for making all kinds of carved work, and for the manufacture of musical instruments. It is also the source of the Strassburg turpentine. The Balsam Fir is a tree fifty to eighty feet high, growing from Virginia northward. Canada balsam is made from the sap. The White Fir or Great Silver Fir is a large tree, often three hundred feet high and ten feet in diameter, growing from British Columbia to lower California. The wood is soft and extensively used for cooperage and boxes. The Red Fir is a large tree one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet high, found in the same regions as the white fir. It is often planted in Europe as an ornamental tree. The Mexican Fir is a magnificent silver-leaved tree one hundred and fifty feet high.

Gum. The name given to several trees in America and Australia: (a) The Black-Gum, one of the largest trees of the Southern States, bearing a small blue fruit, the favorite food of the opossum. Most of the large trees become hollow. (b) A tree of the genus Eucalyptus. See Eucalyptus. (3) The Sweet Gum tree of the United States, a large and beautiful tree with pointedly lobed leaves and woody, burlike fruit. It exudes an aromatic juice. The wood is now extensively used in cabinet work and interior finish.

Hemlock Tree (Tsuga), is a genus of the Pine family containing about four species which are native to North America. The Common Hemlock is a large tree sometimes attaining a height of one hundred and ten feet, and growing from Nova Scotia to Alabama and west to Wisconsin and Minnesota. The wood is light and soft and is extensively used in building. The bark is largely used in tanning and hemlock oil is distilled from the branches and leaves. There are many cultivated varieties which are very ornamental. The Carolina Hemlock is a tree attaining a maximum height of eighty feet, and growing in Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia.

Hickory (Carya), is represented by ten species, exclusively of North America. Their timber is very heavy, strong, and tough, and is much used in the manufacture of agricultural implements, carriages, and hoops for casks. The fruit is a hardshelled nut, which in some species has an excellent flavor. The Shagbark or Shellbark Hickory is a large tree, sometimes one hundred and twenty feet high, growing in rich soils from Ontario and Minnesota south to Florida, Kansas and Texas. The nuts form an important article of commerce, though less used than the pecan. The Whiteheart Hickory or Mockernut is a large tree seventy-five to one hundred feet high, growing from Ontario to Florida, occasionally to Missouri and Texas. It has a thick-shelled, edible nut. The Pignut Hickory, a tree seventy-five to one hundred and sometimes one hundred and twenty feet high, ranges from Ontario to Florida, westward to Nebraska and Texas. See also Pecan.

Horse-Chestnut (Aesculus), is rarely found in forests, but frequently in pleasure-gardens. This beautiful tree, of sixty feet and over, has large leaves, and splendid yellow-and-red colored blossoms forming large pods. The brown chestnuts are enveloped by a prickly cover, which bursts open in the autumn. The Ohio or Fetid Buckeye, reaching a height of about fifty feet, grows from Pennsylvania to Alabama, west to Michigan and Oklahoma. The wood is used for making artificial limbs and wooden ware. The Sweet or Big Buckeye is a large tree eighty to ninety feet high, growing from Pennsylvania to Georgia, west to Iowa and Texas, and often planted as an ornamental tree. The California Buckeye is a small tree thirty to forty feet high, native of California, and sparingly planted for ornament.

Judas Tree (Cercis siliquastrum), is a beautiful leguminous tree, growing wild from Japan to the shores of the Mediterranean, with smooth kidney-shaped leaves, glaucous above, and pink or red flowers, which spring from both old and young wood before the appearance of the leaves. From its appearance at this season the tree shares with the elder the sinister reputation of having formed the gallows of Judas Iscariot.

BARK, CELLS, HEART AND RINGS OF THE TREE


Scaly Bark of Willow	Membranous Bark of Birch	Fibrous Bark of Honeysuckle	Fissured Bark of Oak

The Structure of a Young Twig of Oak, showing the layer of cells (A) which increases the girth of the twig as it grows into a branch

Section of the Trunk of a Laburnum, showing Heart and Sap-wood		Section of the Trunk of an Oak, showing the Annual Rings

Juniper Tree (Juniperus communis), is rarely seen as a tree, but appears usually as a low shrub. Its awl-shaped, pointed leaves stand always by threes of the same height on the young shoots. The male blossom catkins are short-stalked, and stand singly in the axils of the bracts; the fruit is a black berry. These berries are employed for medicinal purposes. The so-called White Cedar of the Eastern States and the Bermuda Cedar, much prized for timber, are junipers.

Larch (Larix EuropÆa), has leaves which grow in clusters, and drop during the Autumn. Its bark is rough and cracked; its red-blossom catkins stand at the side of the yellow catkins. Its egg-shaped little cones have backward bent stalks. The larch tree attains a height of from forty-five to sixty feet, and is found in forests everywhere. The American Larch or Tamarack is a slender tree fifty to sixty feet high, growing from Virginia to Hudson Bay. It is often planted as an ornamental tree and the wood is highly valued for shipbuilding and for telegraph poles.

Linden or Lime (Tilia), is the emblem of intense feeling. It has been from time immemorial the favorite of the Germans. Below the large linden trees the judicial proceedings, the fairs, and national games formerly took place in Germany, and to this day men and women like to sit under the village linden tree, and talk of the good old times. They do not blossom before June and July. The blossom is five-leaved, and contains many stamens and one pistil. The fruit is a little nut. The American Linden or Basswood is a large tree seventy to one hundred and twenty-five feet high, growing from New Brunswick to Georgia, west to Nebraska and Texas. The wood is extensively used for making cheap furniture and paper pulp. The Southern Basswood or Whitewood is a small tree forty to fifty feet high growing from Long Island to Florida, west to Texas. The White Basswood or Bee Tree is a forest tree forty-five to seventy feet high, Pennsylvania to Florida, west to Illinois and Tennessee.

Locust is a name applied to various trees of the Pea family. The American Locust Tree or the False Acacia is seventy to eighty feet high, growing from Pennsylvania to Georgia. It is widely naturalized in most states east to the Rocky Mountains. The wood is compact and hard and is extensively used for shipbuilding and all purposes where great strength and toughness are required.

Mahogany (Swietenia Mahagoni), is a native of Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies, and yields one of the most generally used of cabinet woods. The leaves resemble those of the ash; the flowers are clustered and small, with their parts in whorls of five, and ten united stamens; and the fruit is a pear-shaped, woody capsule with winged seeds. The wood is a rich reddish-brown, often richly mottled, uniform in grain, susceptible of the highest polish, and very durable. In Mexico the timber is sometimes in thirty-foot lengths and forty-eight inches square. Mahogany is commonly divided into Spanish, the darker, heavier and more figured, from San Domingo and Cuba, and Honduras, lighter, softer, and plainer, from the mainland. It is employed in carving, turning, veneering and cabinet-making, and for solid furniture, easily holding first rank among cabinet woods.

Maple (Acer). This genus of trees contains nearly one hundred species, natives of north temperate regions, especially North America and eastern Asia. The Sugar Maple is ninety to one hundred and twenty feet high, and grows from Newfoundland to Georgia, west to eastern Nebraska and Kansas. The wood is extensively used in cabinet work and interior finish. Large quantities of sugar and syrup are made from the sap. The Silver or Soft Maple is found from New Brunswick to Florida, west to Ontario, Nebraska and Oklahoma. It is often planted as a shade tree. The Scarlet or Red Maple grows in swamps and low ground from New Brunswick to Manitoba, south to Florida and Texas. The close-grained wood is largely used for furniture, and in turnery. The Oregon Maple grows from Alaska to California. It is often planted as an ornamental tree.

Mesquite (Prosopis), is a genus of trees containing about sixteen species, natives of America, Asia, and Africa, three of which grow in the United States. It varies from a straggling shrub to a widely-branched tree fifty feet high and occurs from central Texas to eastern California, and southward to Chile and Argentina. The very heavy wood is used for fuel and fence posts, while the pods and leaves are much eaten by stock. The Screwpod Mesquite is twenty-five to thirty feet high and valuable in arid regions.

Oak (Quercus), is most numerous in temperate climates, though some are tropical; fully fifty species occur in the United States, with many intermediate forms or hybrids. The Oak is a true giant among forest trees. Its trunk often attains a circumference of thirty feet. Its bark is smooth in the young trees and rough in the old oaks. The strong, widely extended boughs are pronged and knotty; the crown is large, with a sinuate outline. The blossoms are within long pendent catkins and appear in the month of May. The bark and the acorns, which are contained in pretty little cups, are medicinal. Along the stems and the boughs mosses and lichens grow exuberantly. In the galls of the leaves and branches different gall insects live. The horn beetles suck the sap of the oaks, and the acorns form the food of squirrels and other rodents. The European Oak, the most important Old World timber oak, is sparingly planted in the United States. The White Oak, the most valuable American timber oak, occurs from Texas to Minnesota and eastward. With similar range, but less valuable for timber, are Bur Oak or Mossy Cup Oak, the Scarlet Oak and the Red Oak. The Cow Oak or Basket Oak and the Yellow or Chestnut Oak produce edible acorns. The bark of the Quercitron is used in tanning, as a yellow dye, and in medicine. The Live Oak, once famous for ship-building, is a sturdy species with entire evergreen leaves occurring in the Southern States, Cuba and the Pacific States.

Osage Orange or Bow Wood (Maclura pomifera), is a native of the southwestern United States. It attains a height of twenty to sixty feet, and is extensively planted for hedges, while the wood, of orange color and of great hardness, is valuable for fence posts, mallet heads, and to some extent in cabinet work.

Pine (Pinus), comprises a genus of about eighty species, nearly two-thirds of which occur in the northern part of the western hemisphere. The White Pine, a tree seventy-five to one hundred feet high, is one of the most important timber trees of North America. Its range is from Newfoundland to Minnesota, south to Georgia. The wood is soft, straight grained, and is much used for building and cabinet work. The Yellow Pine or Long-leaved Pine sometimes attains a height of one hundred feet, and grows in sandy soil from Virginia to Florida and Texas. The wood is heavier and stronger than that of any other pine, and is used in all kinds of building. The tree is the chief source of turpentine, tar, [165] resin, etc. The Western Yellow Pine or Bull Pine is sometimes one hundred and fifty to two hundred and fifty feet high and five to eight feet in diameter. It is found from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific coast and is one of the most important lumber trees of the West. The Sugar Pine of Oregon and California attains a height of one hundred and fifty to three hundred feet and a diameter of more than ten feet. The timber is strong, straight grained, and is much used for a finishing lumber and cabinet work.

Palm Family (Palmaceae), is a very distinct natural family of trees and shrubs, chiefly tropical and subtropical, embracing about one thousand species which are second in economic importance only to the cereal grasses. The Palm Trees have generally straight, scaly trunks without boughs, and many species attain a considerable height. Their large fan-shaped leaves grow near the top, and form a beautiful crown. The numerous blossoms stand in long panicles. The palm trees represent the only riches of many tribes of mankind in the tropics, providing them with food, drink, dress, and building materials for their dwellings. The most valued are the cocoanut, date and sago palm trees. The large nuts of the first named are the well-known cocoanuts.

Plane Tree (Platanus), a genus of six or seven species, is a native of the north temperate zone. The Sycamore, Plane Tree, or Buttonwood reaches a height of one hundred and thirty feet with a trunk diameter of fourteen feet. It is found from Quebec to Georgia, west to Manitoba and Kansas. The wood is a favorite material for tobacco boxes and butcher blocks and is largely used for furniture. Other species in the United States are the California Sycamore and the Arizona Sycamore, both large trees.

Poplar (Populus), a hardy genus of about twenty trees, native to temperate and cold regions. Half of the species occur in the United States, all of soft wood and rapid growth. The Cotton-Wood, common along streams from the Rocky Mountains eastward, sometimes attaining one hundred and fifty feet in height and a diameter of seven feet, is much planted for ornament. The Balsam Poplar, sometimes one hundred feet high, occurs northward and in Siberia. The European White Poplar and Black Poplar, much-planted ornamentals, have become naturalized in the Eastern States. The Lombardy Poplar, with very upright boughs, frequently grows along the roadside in Asia, Europe and America.

Redwood. See Sequoia.

Sandalwood (Santalum album), is a small tree, native of India and the Indian Archipelago. It produces a compact, fine-grained wood which is used for making small ornamental articles and possesses a remarkable fragrance which persists long after it has become thoroughly seasoned.

Sassafras is a genus containing but two known species, one in North America and the other in China. The Sassafras or Ague Tree, is eighty to ninety feet high, is found from Canada to Florida, west to Kansas and Texas. Oil of sassafras, used for flavoring confectionery, is distilled from the roots, and the bark is frequently employed as a household medicine and beverage.

Sequoia, a genus of trees named after a remarkable Cherokee Indian (otherwise George Guess), who gave his tribe a written alphabet of eighty-six characters, and died in New Mexico in 1845. There are only two living species, both natives of Western North America, the Big or Mammoth Tree and the California Redwood. The Big Tree is a native of the Sierra Nevada, and reaches over one thousand years of age, four hundred and fifty feet in height, and one hundred and twelve feet in circumference. The Redwood has a wider range in latitude as a wild tree, and reaches three hundred feet in height. It has a shaggy, reddish bark and very dark foliage. Its wood is of good texture, but monotonous in grain. It is used in cabinet work and interiors.

Spruce (Picea), a genus of about eighteen species, native of the Northern Hemisphere. The White Spruce is a slender tree fifty to one hundred and fifty feet high, found from New York to British Columbia, north to Newfoundland, Hudson Bay and Alaska. The wood is light and soft and is largely used for construction and for paper pulp. The Black Spruce is twenty to thirty and very rarely one hundred feet high; grows from Newfoundland and Hudson Bay and Alberta south to North Carolina, Michigan and Minnesota. It is largely used for wood pulp and paper. The Red Spruce, seventy to eighty feet high, grows from Nova Scotia to Virginia, and is largely manufactured into lumber. The Tideland or Sitka Spruce is a large tree usually one hundred feet, sometimes two hundred feet high, occurring abundantly from northern California to Alaska. Its valuable timber is used for all kinds of building purposes. The Norway Spruce is largely planted in the Eastern States as an ornamental tree.

Sycamore. Only certain trees of the genus Ficus, mostly natives of Asia and Africa, are properly called sycamores. The Egyptian Sycamore, supposed to be the sycamore of the Bible, is a large spreading tree often planted for shade in Egypt and western Asia. In northern Europe this name is also given to the species of maple, and in the United States to the American Plane Tree. See Plane Tree.

Upas (Antiaris toxicaria). A tree found in the Philippine Islands and tropical Asia. The fiber of the bark is sometimes made into cloth and the juice of the roots is used by the Malays for poisoning their arrows. This tree figures in both religion and mythology.

Walnut (Juglans), a genus of about ten species, mostly natives of North America and Asia. The Black Walnut is sometimes one hundred to one hundred and twenty-five feet high, growing from Ontario to Florida, west to Nebraska and Texas. The dark brown wood is largely used for cabinet making and gunstocks. The White Walnut or Butternut resembles the black walnut, but is seldom over one hundred feet high. The wood is used in the interior finish of houses and for furniture. The California Walnut, a tree sometimes sixty-five feet high, is often cultivated in California for shade and as a stock on which to graft the English Walnut. The English Walnut is sixty to ninety feet high, native of Persia, and has long been cultivated for its edible nuts.

Willow (Salix), a genus of over one hundred and fifty species, mostly of cool, northern regions, fully one-half occurring within the United States. The leaves are egg-shaped and wrinkled; the blossoms yellow and greenish. They possess great quantities of honey, and attract, therefore, all kinds of insects, especially bees. The Weeping Willow is much planted for ornament. The European Osier is cultivated for its twigs. Of the native species, the shrubby Shining Willow, the Black Willow, is sometimes forty feet high, and the Heart-leaved Willow are among the best known.

Yew (Taxus), a genus of some six trees and shrubs, are widely distributed in the northern hemisphere, three species occurring in the United States. The American Yew is a low, straggling shrub seldom over five feet high growing in woods from Newfoundland to Manitoba and south to Virginia and Iowa. The Florida Yew is a bushy tree rarely twenty-five feet high. The California Yew is a tree forty to fifty feet high occurring from British Columbia to California, sometimes cultivated in gardens in Europe. The hard wood is used for fence posts. The European Yew is a native of Europe and Siberia reaching a height of forty feet.

VIII. FIBER AND COMMERCIAL PLANTS

The cultivation of the fiber-yielding plants and the manufacture of their products into textiles, ropes, cordage, and matting are among the most important industries of the world, and afford employment directly and indirectly to many millions of people. The industries, moreover, are of great antiquity, for we have definite evidence from the Lake Dwellings of Switzerland that flax was cultivated and used as a textile during the Stone Age, and the occurrence of linen cloth in the tombs of Egypt and constant references to the same material in the earliest books of the Bible are well known to everyone. How and when mankind first became aware of the possibilities of vegetable fibers as materials for clothing it is not easy to say, but it is not improbable that he first employed the fibers to supply his need for string cordage, especially in his hunting expeditions, and that gradually the idea of weaving the strings to form a fabric occurred to him. The apparatus employed must have been of extreme simplicity and the finished product crude according to modern ideas; but that thousands of years ago textiles of superlative quality, rivaling anything that can be produced to-day, were manufactured by Eastern races is a matter of history and observation.

Annotto, Anatto or Arnotto. The red substance imported under this name consists of the aggregated seed pellicles of Bixa Orellana. The coloring matter is best extracted by alcohol, as it is not very soluble in water. It is the source of coloring for dairy products, being the standard butter and cheese color in the United States, England and Holland. Has also a limited use as a dye in calico printing. It was anciently used by natives of Brazil, Central America, and West Indies to stain their bodies red, and by Mexicans in painting. Cultivation prehistoric in tropical America. Now naturalized in India.

Bamboo (Bambusa) grows in the tropics of Asia, Africa and America. The plants are in reality merely gigantic grasses. The stems are hollow and contain only a light pith, but they are jointed and at the nodes strong partitions stretch across the inside. They grow in clumps, and may reach a height of one hundred and twenty feet and a thickness of ten inches. Some species flower only once, some every year, and others at longer intervals.

The Bamboo is noted for its great economic importance, and serves a variety of useful purposes. The young shoots of some species are cut when tender and eaten like asparagus; the seeds also are sometimes used as food, and for making beer; some species exude a saccharine juice at the nodes which is of domestic value.

The hard stems are converted into bows, arrows, quivers, lance-shafts, masts of vessels, bed-posts, walking-sticks, poles of palanquins, rustic bridges, bee-hives, water-pipes, gutters, furniture, ladders, domestic utensils and agricultural implements. Split up finely they afford a most durable material for weaving into mats, baskets, window-blinds, ropes and even sails of boats. Perhaps the greatest use to which they are put is in building, for in India, China, Japan, Assam, Malay, and other countries of the East, houses are frequently constructed solely of this material.

Betel-nut (Areca Catechu), a palm cultivated in tropical Asia. The seed or nut resembles a nutmeg in size and in color. Pieces of this nut are rolled up with a little lime in leaves of Piper Betel, the Betel-pepper, and chewed by the natives. The pellet is hot, acrid, aromatic and astringent, tinges the saliva red, and stains the teeth. Its charcoal is used as toothpowder.

Cultivated extensively in the East Indies, where the consumption of leaves by chewing with the areca nut is enormous. Narcotic stimulant.

Cinchona, a genus of evergreen trees, includes thirty-six species, about a dozen of which are utilized. They are natives of the Andes, growing mostly between five thousand and eight thousand feet above the sea-level. It is the source of quinine, the most important drug in tropical medicine, and widely used throughout the world. Its cultivation is becoming quite extensive.

The bark introduced into Europe in 1639 by the Countess of Cinchon, whence the name. Now extensively cultivated in India, Japan, Ceylon and Jamaica.

Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum) is one of the most important cultivated shrubs. It is an annual and grows from two to four feet in height, with stalks branching extensively. At the bottom of the stalk the limbs are longest, and at the top they are light and short.

The flowers are white, or pale yellow, or cream-colored the first day. They darken and redden on the second day, and fall to the ground on the third or fourth day, leaving a tiny boll developed in the calyx. This boll develops and enlarges until maturity, when it is somewhat like a hen’s egg, both in size and shape. This boll is the house of the seed and lint—the products of commerce. In it are from three to five apartments or cells (often more than five in improved types), which hold the lint from its earliest formation until it is picked in the fall. The bolls of the cotton plant mature all the way from the last of August until frost attacks them. When matured, the fibrous wool, known as seed cotton, is gathered, ginned, and baled. When separated from the seed the lint becomes the cotton of commerce.

The chief commercial types of cotton are American upland, sea island, Egyptian, India, Brazilian and Peruvian. These differ in the length of the individual fibers (staple). The quality is indicated by the grading under such names as fine, good, good fair, fully fair, middling fair, good middling, middling, etc. Sea island cotton has the longest staple and is used for the finest qualities of yarn and fabrics. Egyptian cotton also has a long staple. Large amounts are imported into the United States.

Cotton is next to corn the most valuable farm crop of the United States. Nearly three-fourths of all the cotton produced annually in the world is grown in the south Atlantic and gulf states. The remainder comes mostly from India, Egypt, China, Brazil, and Asiatic Russia. A comparatively small percentage of the crop is sea island cotton from the coast of Georgia and from islands in the West Indies. The area of cotton production is spreading in the United States as well as in foreign countries.

Cotton fiber is spun into yarn and made into thread, muslin, calico and hundreds of other cotton or part cotton fabrics. Mercerized yarn is prepared by treatment with strong caustic alkali. Cotton linters are used in cheap yarns, cotton batting, mattresses, and the manufacture of celluloid and artificial silk.

Cotton seeds are subjected to heavy pressure in machines in order to extract the oil. The oil-cake is a valuable cattle food and the hulls are used for fuel or for paper making.

Cottonseed oil is used for table purposes, for packing sardines, for cooking, making soap, candles, etc.

The greatest centers of cotton manufacture are in England, New England, the Carolinas and Georgia. Germany, Russia, India and Japan are among the important manufacturing nations.

Modern cotton mills are of immense size. The bales are opened, the cotton cleaned, carded, and twisted into slivers, rovings, and finally into yarn. Raw cotton, cotton yarn and cotton fabrics are all important in trade. About half the crop of the United States is exported in bales to be manufactured in the mills of other countries.

England has an enormous foreign trade in cotton fabrics. The United States exports chiefly unbleached muslin, more of which goes to China than to any other country.

It is certain that cotton was in use in India three thousand years ago, and in Egypt more than two thousand years ago. It was well known to the ancient civilizations of Mexico, Peru, Central America and the West Indies. When the European voyagers, Columbus, Pizarro, and Cortez, visited for the first time these ancient civilizations, the manufacture of cotton was in a flourishing condition, and the quality and beauty of the cotton goods of a high order.

Flax (Linum usitatissimum) has been cultivated for centuries. Along the upright stalk, of eighteen to twenty inches high, small narrow leaves grow; the blossoms appear in July and August, and are light blue.

Flax is grown for fiber in Russia, Belgium, Italy, France, Holland, Ireland and Egypt. Little flax fiber is produced in the United States. Plants for fiber production are straight stemmed, while the varieties grown for seed have many branches. Flax seeds are produced in Russia, India, Argentina and the United States. Plants harvested for fiber are pulled up by the root in order to obtain the greatest possible length. The fiber is separated from the stalk of the plant by retting, a process of partial decay, breaking and scutching to remove the woody parts and hackling or combing. In the best grades of flax most of this work is done by hand.

Flax or linen fiber and linseed oil are the chief products of the plant. Tow is a by-product in making linen and flax yarns and fabrics.

Linseed oil is used in paints, varnishes, printer’s ink, oilcloth and linoleum. Linseed oil-cake is a valuable cattle food. Flax seeds find limited use in medicine.

Flax yarns are used in making rope, twine, bagging and coarse, unbleached fabrics. Linen yarns are made into products of the better grade, including fine linens, cambrics, laces, etc.

Linen is bleached by exposure to the sun and by treatment with a dilute solution of chloride of lime. Linen rags are the stock for the best qualities of paper.

The United States imports flax fiber mainly from Europe, as well as large quantities of linens, laces, etc. Some flax seeds are imported and large amounts of linseed oil-cake are sent to Europe.

Guava (Psidium Guayava), small trees of tropical America belonging to the Myrtle family. The fruits vary very much in size, shape and color, the most valued being the white guava, with pear-shaped, yellow or whitish fruits the size of a hen’s egg. The inferior red guava which is more apple-shaped, is also used in preparing guava-jelly and guava-cheese, which preserves, owing to the perishable character of the fruit, are the only forms in which the fruit is imported. The tree has been naturalized in the East, and is commonly grown from Mexico to Peru at date of Spanish discovery. Since widely diffused in East and West India Islands, India, and China. Recently established in Florida and California.

Hemp (Cannabis sativa) is cultivated in many countries. It is about three feet in height, has finger-like leaves and the fruit has the form of a little nut. The home of the hemp is the East Indies. The stalks are dried in the sun, then steeped in water or upon wet (moist) meadows, and again exposed to the sun, when the woody parts are stripped off. The remaining fibers are manufactured into cables, ropes, sail-cloth, linen and paper.

Other hemps of different botanical origin and having quite different qualities are called by such names as manila hemp, sisal hemp, tampico hemp, Mauritius hemp, sunn hemp, bowstring hemp, etc. Strictly speaking, none of these is true hemp.

It is cultivated in Russia, the warm countries of Asia, the shores of the Mediterranean, Kentucky, Missouri, Illinois and California. Russia produces more hemp fiber than all the rest of the world. Russia and Italy are the largest exporters.

As with other cordage fibers of this character, the long, combed fibers are called line and the short strands, tow. The commercial fiber is longer, coarser and less strong than flax. It can not be bleached perfectly white, although used in so-called coarse linens. Russian, Italian and Kentucky, as applied to hemp, denote the country of origin. Italian hemp is the finest, Kentucky the strongest.

Hemp oil is pressed from the seeds. It is used in paints, varnishes and soap. The oil-cake is a cattle food.

Hop (Humulus lupulus), sometimes grows wild in hedges and bushes, and is also frequently cultivated. Its stalk, which leans to the right, is eighteen to twenty-four feet high; its petiolate leaves are heart-shaped, with three to five lobes. The blossoms of its stamens form panicles; the female cones stand either singly in the axils of the leaves or in clusters. In these cones a yellow, bitter resin, the hop-powder or lupulin, is secreted, which yields the wort for beer, and is also used by chemists. Hops are cultivated in almost all parts of Europe, especially in England, Germany and Austria. In the United States, California, Oregon, Washington, New York and Wisconsin produce the largest crops.

Hops are added to the malt, liquor, or wort before fermentation and give a bitter flavor to malt liquors. Hops are not exported on a large enough scale to be an important item in commerce.

Jute is an East Indian plant whose fibers are strong, coarse, dark in color and sometimes twelve feet long. The fibers are largely employed in the manufacture of coarse bagging and sacking called gunny cloth. Gunny bags, in which pepper, ginger, sugar, cotton, rice, gums, etc., are shipped are made of it. Jute is also largely mixed with silk, as it has a gloss that can scarcely be distinguished from silk when woven with it. Attempts have been made to manufacture paper out of jute, but it is difficult to bleach it white, and only a coarse kind of brown paper is obtained.

Licorice (Glycyrrhiza) is a plant having long, pliant, sweet roots, and generally creeping rootstocks; pinnate leaves of many leaflets, and terminating in an odd one; and whitish, violet-colored flowers in spikes, racemes, or heads. The roots of licorice depend for the valuable properties [168] on a substance called Glycyrrhizine, allied to sugar, yellow, transparent, uncrystallizable, soluble in both water and alcohol, and forming compounds both with acids and with bases. They are a well-known article of materia medica, and were used by the ancients as in modern times, being emollient, demulcent, very useful in catarrh and irritations of the mucous membrane. It is a native of the south of Europe and of many parts of Asia, as far as China. It is cultivated in many countries of Europe. The only American species grows in the plains of the Missouri.

Ramie is the bast fiber from a plant (Boehmeria nivea), commonly called China grass, or rhea, although fibers from other plants sometimes receive these names. It is usually strong and silky in appearance but difficult to clean and bleach.

It is used largely in China for weaving grass cloth, or Canton linen. The fiber is very difficult to “de-gum.” Many experiments have been made to find a satisfactory process. It is now used in making fabrics which resemble linen, laces, underwear, plushes, etc.

Raphia, a strong and useful fiber is obtained from the leaves of Raphia Ruffia, a palm cultivated in Madagascar, Mauritius, and neighboring islands, and of the Jupati palm, of Brazil. Madagascar raphia is the only important grade. A similar soft fiber used locally is produced in West Africa.

It is exported in considerable amounts from Madagascar and used by gardeners for tying plants; and also for making mats and basketry and in kindergartens.

Rattan is the stem of a species of climbing palm, natives of Asia, though some occur in Australia and in Africa. They have slender, reed-like but solid stems, seldom more than one or two inches in diameter, which grow to great lengths, clambering up among the branches of trees by means of the hooked prickles on the stalks of their leaves. The Indian and Malayan species are the source of the largely-imported rattan canes, used for the seats of chairs, and, in their native countries, for cables and a variety of other purposes.

Sisal (henequen or sisal hemp) is a hard, strong fiber from the leaves of a century plant (Agave rigida). It is cultivated in Yucatan and the Bahamas. Plantations of henequen, or maguey, have been established in Cuba, Hawaii, India, German and British East Africa and the Philippines. The home of the agave plants is Mexico and Central America and this part of the world produces most of these fibers.

On modern plantations machines have superseded the primitive hand methods of cleaning the fiber. Sisal is the chief product of Yucatan and its greatest export. The bulk of the production is used in the United States in making rope, twine and sacking. All of the other agave fibers are of less commercial importance than sisal or henequen.

The fiber of this species is especially valuable for ship cables, as it has been found to resist the action of sea-water better than most other materials.

Tobacco Plant (Nicotiana tabacum) is three to four feet in height; its leaves longish and lancet-shaped; its corolla pink; its fruit is a capsule, with many seeds. It is indigenous to America. Its leaves are either used for chewing, for smoking, or for snuff. It belongs to the poisonous plants, and contains no nutritious substance; its flavor and odor are disagreeable; nevertheless it furnishes much enjoyment to a large portion of mankind.

More tobacco is raised in the United States than in any other country and Kentucky raises more than any other state. India is the second largest producer. In Europe it is cultivated in Austria-Hungary, Russia, Germany, Netherlands, France, Belgium and Turkey. Cuba, Porto Rico, Mexico, Central and South America, China, Java, Sumatra, Philippines, Ceylon, Syria and Cape Colony are important producers.

Commercial grades are named from the locality of production as Havana, Sumatra, Mexican, Turkish, Virginia, etc. Certain grades are appropriate for use as cigar wrappers and others for fillers and are so named in the trade.

The United States exports over half of the tobacco raised, chiefly to England in the form of leaf tobacco. Few cigars are exported, but cigarettes and plug tobacco go to the East Indies, China and Australia.

IX. POISONOUS PLANTS

A number of plants contain so powerful a poison that we should take especial care to avoid them. As the danger may be better avoided by a general knowledge of these plants, a detailed description of them is highly desirable. Many of them are also important medicinal plants; and we should therefore by no means regret the existence of these poisonous growths; for, if we apply them to their proper uses, they serve to supply us with valuable medical aids.

Darnell (Lolium temulentum) is from eighteen to thirty-six inches high, and often found in cornfields. Its seeds contain a poison, which is narcotic and stupefying.

Deadly Nightshade (Atropa Belladonna) is common in the woods. The sappy stem is from three to six feet high; the egg-shaped leaves are covered with down; the brownish-red blossoms are arranged solitary in the axils of the leaves. The bright black berry is as large as a cherry. The nightshade is our most dangerous poisonous plant, and there is little hope for children who have eaten of its berries. From the fresh leaves atropine is prepared, which is a very powerful remedy in certain diseases of the eye.

Black Hellebore (Helleborus niger) blooms in December, January and February, and is a native of the mountainous woods of South Germany and Austria. The black root, which is white inside, is poisonous.

Fool’s Parsley or Dog’s Parsley (Aethusa Cynapium) is a common weed, growing in gardens, fields, and also on rubbish. It is easily mistaken for parsley. As it is very poisonous, it is well to remember that it can be easily recognized by three long pendent floral leaves on solitary umbels; the leaves are odorless, and only when crushed emit a faint, garlic-like scent.

Hellebore (H. viridis and H. foetidus) is also rightly described as a poisonous plant. One species is used for killing lice and vermin on cattle, horses, and other live stock.

Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) grows on rubbish and waste ground. The entire plant is covered with sticky hairs, and has a repulsive odor. The stem is about thirteen inches high; the longish leaves are widely serrated; the flowers are pale yellow, streaked with dark-violet veins; the fruit is a capsule, which opens with a spring lid. The henbane is also a dangerous, poisonous plant, but its leaves and seeds supply an important medicine.

Herb-Paris (Paris quadrifolia) grows in hedges and shady woods. On its upright stem there are four oval leaves. It has never more than one blossom, consisting of greenish-yellow petals, eight stamens, and one pistil. Its fruit is a dark blue, round berry, which ripens in July and August. The latter when eaten causes diarrhoea, convulsions and other disturbances.

Marsh Crow’s-Foot (Ranunculus sceleratus) grows in ditches and marshes. The upright branching stem is from twelve to eighteen inches high; the leaves are divided in the shape of a hand, and the blossoms are small and yellow. The marsh crow’s-foot contains very poisonous juices, which cause blisters and ulcers to rise on the skin, and when taken inwardly nearly always cause death. The other species of crow’s-foot found in meadows, fields, woods, etc., are also more or less poisonous.

Meadow Saffron (Colchicum autumnale) is a bulbous plant, which blooms in dry meadows in September and October. The flesh-colored blossoms appear in the autumn, and leaves are thrown up in the following spring; between the leaves are large capsules, each containing numerous seeds. The seeds and the bulbous root contain poison, and the former are used in medicine.

Mezereon (Daphne Mezereum) grows solitary in the woods. It is a tough plant, from one to three feet high; the lanceolate leaves are arranged in tufts at the end of the shoots; the rose-colored blossoms appear before the leaves, and are generally situated in clusters of three on the branches; the fruit is a red stone-fruit. The whole plant is poisonous; a medicine is prepared from the bark.

Purple Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) is a common wild flower, and grows to a height of fifty inches. The longish leaves are felt-like, and the large purple flowers stand in a cluster; the fruit is a capsule. The purple foxglove is poisonous, and its leaves are used in medicine.

Spotted Hemlock (Conium maculatum) grows upon rubbish, hedges, fences, and highways. The stem is three to six feet high, marked with blue and bluish-red spots; the leaves are tripennate; the white blossoms also stand in flat umbels. The leaves when bruised emit a very peculiar mouse-like odor which is very noticeable on hot summer days. The root, especially, is poisonous, and when eaten causes the most fatal consequences. Hemlock is a powerful sedative, and is used medicinally.

Thorn Apple (Datura Stamonium) originally came from the East Indies, but is now widely spread, growing on rubbish and in gardens. Never more than a few plants are found. Its forked stem is from eighteen inches to three feet high; the petiolate leaves are widely serrated; the large blossoms are a pure white; the fruit resembles the horse chestnut, and contains numerous black seeds. The thorn apple has a very repulsive odor, a disagreeable flavor, and is poisonous in all parts. The leaves and seeds are used in medicines.

Water Hemlock (Cicuta virosa), is very common in many localities on the banks of streams, ditches, and in flooded fields; in other localities it is rare. The thick, fleshy root is hollow, and divided in the interior into sections; the upright stem is hollow and smooth; the leaves are tripennate; the small white blossoms are arranged in umbels of ten or more rays. The poison is chiefly contained in the red root, which, when eaten by children, who mistake it for an edible root, nearly always causes death, unless medical aid is immediately at hand. The other parts of the plant also contain a poison, which is so strong that its odor alone will produce headache and giddiness.

Wolf’s-Bane or Monk’s-Hood (Aconitum Lycotonum) is a rare plant from eighteen inches to three feet high; the leaves are shaped like a hand, with three, five or seven lobes. The blossom is yellow. The wolf’s-bane contains a virulent poison, especially in the root and in the seeds. This description also applies to the Aconitum Napellus, which is grown as an ornamental plant in gardens; its tubers are used medicinally.

X. SOME WONDERS OF PLANT LIFE

We usually think of plants as quite harmless things, almost wholly at the mercy of the animal creation. This, however, is only one side of the story, for quite a number of plants have a very cunning plan whereby they entrap flies and other insects. The ingenuity with which these plants lure their victims on to death is simply amazing. Everything is done to tempt the creature to visit the death traps of the plants, and, on the other hand, no means are spared to make an escape impossible.

THE MOST CRUEL PLANT
IN THE WORLD

One of the most singular instances of this is to be seen in a little plant which is only found growing in the bogs of the Carolinas. This has been rather cynically called the Venus Fly Trap (DionÆa muscipula), a fanciful name which hides its cruel practices. Few plants have adopted a more certain plan than the DionÆa. Every leaf which the plant produces is the most perfect device for the securing of prey that could be imagined.

The mechanical construction of this remarkable vegetable trap is somewhat on the following lines. The leaf is borne at the end of a curiously broad stalk, and is divided into two lobes; these are joined together by a hinge-like arrangement. The outside borders of the lobes are fringed with from a dozen to twenty long teeth. When fully expanded the leaf lies back on the moss amid which the plant grows.

If we examine the inside surface of the lobes we shall see that these are in the middle colored a rosy red. Just at this point will be discovered three hairs arranged in triangular fashion.

It is interesting to consider the actual manner in which the plant carries out its fly-catching.

As is well known, bright colors have a great attraction for insects. In this case it is apparently the red areas on the lobes of the leaves which possess such an attraction for insects of all kinds. Possibly they secrete a sweet substance, but this is not definitely known. All goes on well as long as the creatures avoid doing one thing; unhappily, this they are almost certain to do sooner or later. Nothing happens unless the insect brushes up against one of the hairs previously mentioned as being on the surface of the lobes. The succeeding happenings are disastrous for the fly.

With really astonishing rapidity the sides of the leaf snap together so that the spines on the borders of the lobes meet. Thus, in a very brief time a most perfect little cage is devised from which any sort of escape is absolutely impossible. During the next half hour the sides draw in still closer, so that the spines overlap. At this stage the leaf pours out a copious discharge of digestive fluid, which enables the plant to make use of the nutritious element in the fly.

CRUEL PLANTS THAT ENTRAP AND KILL ANIMALS


The light streaming through the transparent spaces induces the prisoner to waste its strength in a vain effort to escape through them.	Once below the inside edge, escape is almost impossible. Pitchers have been found almost full of flies and other insects.

Absorbed in the delights of feasting on the nectar of the Nepenthes, the insect wanders with fatal ease down the fluted rim.	The fruits of the Martynia fasten themselves to passing animals that sometimes get the hooks caught in their mouths and die a dreadful death.

After an interval of several days the leaf of the DionÆa opens and allows the hard carcass of the fly to roll away. The plant is then ready for another meal, and unable to realize the fate which is in store for it, another fly falls a victim. Quite often the Venus Fly Trap is able to capture large insects.

THE STRANGE HABITS OF
THE NEPENTHES

Scattered over the tropics of the old world there is a remarkable group of plants known as Nepenthes. Many of these are of a climbing habit, rooting in bark crevices where a little moist soil may have collected. To augment their food supply they have produced pitchers, which in some species are of great size. Indeed, in one kind of receptacles will hold as much as two quarts of water. In all cases these pitchers have a thick, corrugated rim, and it is this which plays a big part both in the luring and the capturing of the insects. On this rim, as well as on the lid of the pitcher, there are honey secreting glands, and these, of course, make the strongest appeal to hungry insects.

Absorbed in the delights of the feast, the insect wanders with fatal ease down the fluted rim. Once below the inside edge of this, escape is almost impossible, for the border is adorned with sharp, teeth-like processes, all pointing downward to the pit of destruction. Moreover, the inside walls of the pitcher are specially smoothed with a wax-like secretion, which makes climbing up a very difficult feat. Even insects with wings seem to find a great difficulty in making good their escape.

The pitchers of the Nepenthes are usually about half filled with fluid; this is not entirely collected rain or dew, but is largely formed by a definite secretion of the plant. Into this fluid the exhausted insect tumbles sooner or later, there to end miserably among a mass of drowning victims. It has been definitely proved that this fluid is an acid secretion—not unlike the digestive juices of an animal—which enables the plant to extract the nutriment it needs from the bodies of its victims.

THE NEPENTHES CATCH EVEN
MICE AND BIRDS

It is in connection with the fluid contained in the pitchers of the Nepenthes that these plants catch much larger prey than insects. In the tropics it is not always an easy matter for birds and other small animals to secure a drink readily. The half-filled pitchers entice many a small creature to creep over the fluted rim in order to secure a draught of the fluid, which is not unpleasant to the taste. Now and again the venturesome visitor loses his hold and tumbles into the pitcher. Even in the case of mice and small birds the pitcher proves a veritable death-trap. The slippery sides are almost insurmountable, while the sharp hooks round the rim still further check an escape. Sooner or later the victim falls back into the fluid and is drowned. Strange as it may appear, after such a capture the plant grows vigorously, for the decaying body of its victim is rich in just the food material of which it stands in need.

THE DEATH PITCHER OF
THE SARRACENIAS

A very singular group of plants, the Sarracenias, are quite common in the bogs of North America. These are of an elegant shape, and may be as much as one foot or two feet in height. Nearly always they are highly colored, and altogether so attractive do they appear that insects of all kinds simply crowd to them. On arrival at the lip of the pitcher, the insects find a feast of honey spread out for their delectation. With almost devilish ingenuity this becomes sweeter and more plentiful the farther down into the pitcher one traverses. At a certain point, however, the nectar ceases, and the insect thinks that he will retrace his steps. But although it has been easy enough to go down, it is almost impossible to get back, for the surface of the inside of the pitcher is thickly covered with sharp bristles, all pointing downward.

Some flying insects may escape, but even these do not find it easy, as witness the fact that the plant often catches a large number of winged creatures. In the lower part of the Sarracenia pitcher a fluid is secreted, and it is into this that the creatures ultimately fall, and, of course, perish. How successful are the Sarracenias in their insect-catching may be gathered from the fact that pitchers have been discovered well nigh full of flies and other small creatures.

A PLANT WITH PRISON
WINDOWS

The California Darlingtonia seems to have been specially devised for the securing of winged creatures. The plant is most singular in appearance, and the upper part of the pitchers bear a remarkable resemblance to the head of a snake. Part of the hood and also the two protruding leaves are gaily colored in crimson. It should also be noted that the upper portion of the hood is adorned with transparent patches, like so many little windows. Now, the only opening into the pitcher of the Darlingtonia is quite a small hole on the under side of the hood. As in the case of the other pitcher plants, the orifice of this hole is freely supplied with honey, and this extends well into the interior of the receptacle.

Owing to the attraction of the little windows, which have been already mentioned, the flies do not attempt to get out of the hole to the extent which might be supposed. The light streaming through the transparent spaces seems to convince the insects that in that direction lies the path to freedom. At all times it is possible to see perhaps a dozen flies bobbing against the windows in a vain endeavor to escape. Finally, wearied to death by their hopeless endeavors to escape, the insects fall down into the lower part of the pitcher and become suffocated by the fluid it contains.

AN AUSTRALIAN PLANT WITH
TWO KINDS OF LEAVES

A curious little Australian plant which has adopted a very similar plan of fly catching to that to be seen in the Nepenthes is the Cephalotus. One singular feature about this Australian pitcher plant is that it produces quite ordinary leaves in addition to the highly specialized fly-catching ones.

PLANTS THAT KILL EVEN
THE POWERFUL LION

The Martynias of South America produce fruits with hooks sometimes five or six inches in length, [172] which get imbedded into the flesh of animals. The African Grapple-plants (Harpagophyton procumbens) are even worse in the amount of suffering which they cause; thousands of antelopes, goats, and other creatures are lamed by them every season. The seed vessel of this plant is provided with a large number of curved hooks by which it attaches itself to the coats or hoofs of animals and is thus transported from place to place. It has been known to choke and cause the death of lions.


The pretty little parachute-like device of the Dandelion seed which helps to waft it over a wide area. It often rises to a height of thirty feet, and is wafted many miles away.	The Willow Herb produces an enormous number of flying fruits. These often sail away in masses and are carried for a great distance over the countryside, to take root in a new location.		The seed of the Sycamore is provided with a long wing. These wings revolve quickly when the heavy seed is falling, prevent a rapid decent, and help to scatter them.

The head of a seeding Dandelion. Observe the enlarged view of one of the parachutes above.		When the fruits of the Coltsfoot are ripe the smallest puff of air disperses the seed far and wide.

HOW PLANTS TRAVEL

Many plants provide their seeds with an apparatus which forms a singularly effective flying machine. Some of these are among the most beautiful and ingenious contrivances in the plant world.

NATURE’S AVIATORS AND
SEED-SOWERS

By far the commonest method of ensuring a wide distribution of a seed is that in which the object is attached to some light, feathery substance which prevents a speedy falling. Of this there is no better instance than the common dandelion, which at seed time produces the handsome “clock” so prized by the children.

Here each seed is attached to a feathery process which plays the part of a parachute. On a dry day, when the dandelion heads are parting with their fruits, we may see how well the scheme works. Each puff of wind releases a few of the seeds, and these, unlike the ordinary parachute with a load, are so light that they rise upwards on the air currents.

Curiously enough, the fruits seem to travel farther when the breezes are light, and a very rough wind blows them back to earth, where they may catch in the grass or become damaged. Thus, like the airman, the dandelion seed stands the best chance of a safe journey when the weather is not too boisterous.

A very similar arrangement is to be seen in the case of the goat’s-beard fruit and that of the coltsfoot, which, by reason of its flying device, secures a very wide distribution.

THE WILLOW ALSO PRODUCES
FLYING SEEDS

After flowering the Willow Herb develops long, pod-like processes. During damp and stormy weather these pods remain tightly closed. On a day when the air is dry and the breezes are light, the sides of the case split open and reveal a prodigious number of perfect flying machines. The seed itself weighs a mere trifle, and to this is attached a beautiful arrangement of feathery hairs. The whole thing is so well adapted for an aËrial voyage that it mounts rapidly upward on the faintest puff of air. It should be here explained that by experiment it has been shown that the air currents tend to move upward. So light are some of these flying fruits that they often rise to an immense height. It is not an uncommon thing for them to be found on mountains thousands of feet above sea-level.

Of course, many foreign seeds have remarkable flying appendages. That of the South African Stapelia has a vast mass of fluffy hairs which will support it on quite a long aËrial voyage. In the case of the cotton plant man has turned to good account the hairs by which the seed flies.

SEEDS OF THE SYCAMORE A DIFFERENT
TYPE OF FLYING MACHINE

In a large number of cases the conveyance of the seeds to a distant point is accomplished by the adoption of the screw-propeller principle. An excellent example of this is to be seen in the fruits of the sycamore. Here the actual seed is large and heavy, but it is attached to a wing-like expansion. When the fruit falls from the tree the wing revolves with great rapidity, very much on the lines of a propeller blade. This has the effect of controlling the rate of fall, so that the whole contrivance is carried to some distance before the seed is actually brought to earth.

PLANT TRAVELERS
ON LAND

Some kinds of touring plants send out long trailing stems to search for fresh rooting places. A little Alpine saxifrage is curious in this respect, for the plant will traverse over many feet of barren rock to reach a suitable position. Directly the shoot touches the soil, a new plant is formed, and as this grows up, the connection between it and the parent is severed. A kind of lily has an even more singular way of traveling about. Here, after the plant has flowered, buds arise on the stems which bore the blossoms. Eventually they take root in fresh positions. This plant if left alone would rapidly cover many yards with its offspring, and this without setting a single seed.

A strange group of plants are those which actually break themselves in pieces in order to pursue their journeys abroad. A plant belonging to the Houseleek order (Sempervivum soboliferum) is remarkable in this respect. The species naturally finds its home in the crevices of rocks, and at a certain stage in its development numerous little ball-like offshoots are produced. In the early days these are kept at home by the stems by means of which they are attached to the parent plant. Eventually these attachments shrivel up and the offshoots go rolling away over the rocks often much helped in their journey by the wind. A considerable distance may be traversed before a little ball finds a resting-place in some niche.

HOW THE CACTUS PROTECTS ITS FLOWERS

HOW THE PLANTS DEFEND THEMSELVES

It is well-known to every intelligent observer that plants are menaced by a host of enemies. Though the plant cannot take up the aggressive to any extent, the weapons which it employs in its own defense are of an exceedingly efficient nature. In their way they are quite as effective as anything that animals employ in their battle for existence.

Among the commonest defenses of the plant are spines, thorns and prickles. In the sloe (Prunus spinosa), for example, the spines are modified branches; in gorse (Ulex EuropÆus) they are branches and leaves; and in cacti the green parts are thickened stems and the spines reduced leaves; while in holly (Ilex aquifolium) the prickly leaves answer the purpose of spines. The stinging hairs of the nettle which exude an irritating acid when touched are a familiar example of protection against vegetarian animals.

The way in which seeds are protected by spines is well illustrated in the case of the Sweet Chestnut. Here it would be a very knowing animal that could open one of the cases before they split naturally with the ripening of the seed.

HOW THE CACTUS DEFENDS
ITS LIFE

There are few plants so well armed as the Cactus, the evident design of which is to conserve its moisture. This is accomplished in several ways. Of course, the very shapes of the plants are all in their favor. Being either round, globular, or cylindrical, they offer a limited surface to the dry air inconceivably less than a plant of the same size bearing a quantity of leaves. The thick skins, too, play a big part in keeping in the moisture, and many kinds of cacti, such as that known as Old Man’s Beard, are covered with dense masses of hair.

Many of these succulent desert plants grow to a great size. Thus the Giant Cactus sends up a tall column, often with only a very few branches, which may be eighty or even one hundred feet in height.

Curiously enough, some cacti produce the most beautiful flowers, blossoms without rival in the whole world. The various kinds bear flowers of every conceivable shade except blue, and the blooms are often of an immense size. It is not unusual for the blossoms to measure eighteen inches, or even two feet, across.

Living as they do in arid regions, cacti are peculiarly liable to be attacked by thirsty animals. Now, a common mode of defense is the covering of the plant with sharp spines. These spines are so arranged that they completely shield the juicy stem from any possibility of attack, it is said that on occasion Mexican ponies will try to knock a cactus to pieces with their heels when they are thirsty. More often than not the animals suffer cruelly for their temerity by being severely pricked.

In much the same way the Aloes and Agaves are protected, so that a hedge of these plants when placed round a field, is better than the most perfect barbed wire fence.

THE AMERICAN AGAVE, OR
“CENTURY PLANT”

This plant is remarkable for its beauty, and grows to a height of twenty to thirty-five feet. It was long popularly supposed to bloom only once in a century; hence the name. Though this is a mistaken idea, the vegetative growth of the plant is many years. The plant produces flowering stems, sometimes several feet in height, ultimately terminating in a large panicle of flowers and dying of the effort. A single plant may produce five thousand flowers, so that the ground beneath is wet with the honey distilled by them. The fiber of the leaves was used by the ancient Mexicans for paper parchment, and is now largely exported for that purpose and for cordage.

THE CURIOUS MISTLETOE, A
ROBBER PLANT OR PARASITE

The mistletoe is one of the most interesting of the parasite plants. It grows on various trees, and is celebrated on account of the religious purposes to which it was consecrated by the ancient Celtic nations of Europe. It is a small shrub, with oblong, somewhat leathery leaves, and small yellowish-green flowers, the whole forming a pendent bush, covered in winter with small white berries, which contain a glutinous substance. It is common enough on certain species of trees, such as apple and pear trees, hawthorn, maple, lime, and other similar trees, but is very seldom found on the oak. Its roots penetrate into the substance of the tree on which it grows, and though it may live for forty years, it finally kills the branch supporting it.

In days of old the mistletoe was looked upon with awe as a mysterious and wonderful plant. The ancient Druids held it sacred, and cut it down with a golden sickle with all sorts of strange, mystic rites. It was the symbol of peace and friendship; and that is why we hang it up at Christmas time, and when two people meet under its green leaves, they are expected to “kiss and be friends.”

A PLANT THAT GROWS
IN SNOW

Strangest of all the plants is the Soldanellas, a small species which exists on the lower slopes of the Alps. When the flower stems are in their most active state of growth they release a considerable amount of heat. In this way they will bore a course up through a thick coating of ice and snow to the light and air above, when by some means the plant is aware that the spring has arrived. There seems to be something more wonderful in this than can be explained by mere mechanical causes. Indeed, the sympathy of the plant with its surroundings is surely one of those mysteries which are as inscrutable as life itself.

THE PRIMARY USE OF LIQUID
RUBBER TO PLANTS

The grubs of many beetles live in wood, upon which they feed. This probably gives a clue to the primary use of the important commercial substances india-rubber and guttapercha, which are the dried sticky juices of various shrubs and trees growing in hot climates. Beetles of the wood-boring kind, which seek to pierce and lay eggs in such plants, are liable to be snarled and killed by the viscid fluids which ooze out.

Arums, and various other plants, ward off the attacks of snails and slugs in a rather curious way The outer parts of their stems and leafstalks contain bundles of excessively sharp crystals (raphides), composed of oxalate of lime. These pierce the soft mouths of snails and slugs like so many needles, conveying a lesson which usually needs no repetition.

STRANGE LIFE HABITS OF UNUSUAL PLANTS

The Giant Cactus of the American Desert

These plants are little more than succulent stems covered with a thick skin which retains the moisture of the juicy shoot.

The Century Plant

The Century Plant is a native of Mexico, and is remarkable for the long intervals between the blooming periods—once erroneously thought to be 100 years.

CHRISTMAS ROSE IN WINTER

In defiance of the weather a few plants elect to come into bloom right in the middle of winter. The most striking of these is the Christmas Rose, or Hellebore. The flowers of this plant are protected by the encircling sepals, and are fully able to hold their own until the approach of a more favorable season.

SCIENTIFIC TERMS USED IN BOTANY
Completely Classified, Illustrated and Exemplified

ROOTS.

Kinds.—(1.) Primary, growing from root-end of embryo.

(a.) Simple.—Conical, ; napiform, ; fusiform, .

(b.) Multiple.—Moniliform, necklace-like. Fasciculated, tufted, thick and fleshy. Tubercular, having small tubers. Fibrous, threadlike.

(2.) Secondary, growing from stems.

Underground, starting from stem below ground. Aerial, starting from stem above ground.

STEM.

Parts.— n, Node, part to which the leaf is fastened.

i, Internode, portion between nodes.

a, Axil, the angle between leaf and stem, upper side.

Class.—Exogenous, outside-growing (Maple, Elm).

Endogenous, inside-growing (Corn-stalk, Timothy).

Situation.—(1.) Above ground, usually leaf-bearing.

(2.) Under ground, scale-bearing.

Stems above Ground.

Character.—Herbaceous, soft, not woody (Four-o’clock).

Suffrutescent, slightly shrubby (Toad-flax).

Suffruticous, shrubby at base (Trailing Arbutus).

Fruticous, shrubby (Currant-bushes).

Arborescent, tree-like (Flowering Dogwood).

Arboreous, tree (Elm).

Direction of Growth.—Repent, prostrate and rooting from the under surface (Partridge-berry).

Procumbent, prostrate, but not rooting (Purslane).

Decumbent, prostrate, except at the extremity (Poor Man’s Weather-glass).

Assurgent, ascending obliquely.

Erect, upright (Indian Corn).

Scandent, climbing with tendrils or rootlets (Grape, English Ivy).

Voluble, twining (Morning-glory).

Declinate, declined or bent downwards (Blackberry).

Diffuse, loosely-spreading (Red Currant).

Forms of Branches.—Sucker, a branch of subterranean origin that finally rises out of the ground. The Raspberry multiplies in this way.

Offset, a short, prostrate-rooting branch with a tuft of leaves at the end (Houseleek).

Runner, a long, prostrate-rooting branch with tuft of leaves (Strawberry).

Stolon, a branch that curves downward and takes root. The Currant multiplies in this way.

Tendril, a thread-like coiling branch used for climbing.

Spine or Thorn, a hard, sharp-pointed branch.

Stems under Ground.

Kinds.—Rhizoma or Rootstock, a perennial, horizontal stem, partially or wholly subterranean (Calamus).

Tuber, an enlarged stem with eyes (White-potato).

Bulb, a bud, usually subterranean with fleshy scales (Onion, Lily).

Corm, a solid bulb (Indian Turnip).

LEAVES.

Parts.— b, Blade, the expanded portion.

p, Petiole, the stem.

s, Stipules, leaf-like appendages at base of petiole.

Kinds.—(1.) Simple, having but one blade.

Sessile, without petiole.

Petiolate, with petiole.

Stipulate, with stipules.

Cirrhous, with tendril.

(2.) Compound, having more than one blade.

(a.) Pinnate, with leaflets arranged along a common petiole.

Abruptly pinnate, with even number of leaflets.

Odd-pinnate, having an odd leaflet.

Unipinnate, divided but once.

Bipinnate, divided twice.

Tripinnate, divided three times.

(b.) Palmate, leaflets diverging from one point.

Unipalmate, divided but once.

Bipalmate, divided twice.

Tripalmate, divided three times.

Framework.—Midrib, the central vein.

Ribs, , strong veins branching from near the base of midrib.

Veins, the branching framework.

Veinlets, small veins.

Venation.—Parallel, with simple veins running parallel from base to apex.

Feather, with lateral veins branching at regular intervals from midrib.

Radiate, with strong veins branching from apex of petiole.

Reticulate, with veins and veinlets that unite and separate in the form of network.

Form.—(a.) Broadest at the Middle.—Peliate, ; orbicular, ; oval, ; elliptical, ; oblong, ; linear, , acerose, (Pine).

(b.) Broadest at Base.—Deltoid, ; ovate ; lanceolate, ; subulate, ; cordate, ; reniform, ; hastate, ; sagittate, .

(c.) Broadest at the Apex.—Obovate, ; oblanceolate, ; spatulate ; cuneate ; obcordate, ; lyrate, ; runcinate, .

Bases.—Auriculate, ; oblique, ; tapering, ; abrupt, ; clasping, ; perfoliate, ; connate, ; decurrent, .

Apexes.—Obcordate, ; emarginate, ; retuse, ; truncate, ; obtuse, ; acute ; acuminate, ; mucronate, ; cuspidate, ; aristate, .

Margins.—Entire, ; repand, ; sinuate, ; crenate, ; dentate, ; serrate, ; incised, ; laciniate, ; palmately-lobed, ; palmately-cleft, ; palmately-parted, ; palmately-divided, ; pinnately-lobed, ; pinnately-cleft, ; pinnately-parted, ; pinnately-divided, .

Surface.—(a.) Without Hairs.—Glabrous, smooth.

(b.) Soft Hairs.—PÍlous, few, short; hirsute, few, long; pubÉscent, dense, short; villous, dense, long; serÍceous, silky; lanuginous, woolly; tomÉntous, matted like felt; flÓccous, fleecy tufts.

(c.) Stiff Hairs.—Scabrous, minute, hard points; hispid, few, short points; setous, bristly; spinous, having spines.

Color.—Glaucous, covered with whitish powder.

CanÉscent, grayish-white with fine pubescence.

Incanous, hoary-white.

Punctate, having transparent dots.

Hyaline, nearly transparent.

Texture.—Succulent, fleshy; coriaceous, leather-like; scarious, dry; rÚgous, wrinkled.

Phyllotaxis, arrangement on the stem.—Alternate, ; opposite, ; whorled (verticillate); radical, near the ground; cauline, on the stem; rosulate, clustered; fascÍculate, in bundles.

Vernation, arrangement in the bud.

Induplicate, folded crosswise (Tulip-tree).

Conduplicate, folded along midrib (Oak).

Plicate, folded like a fan (Red-currant).

Circinate, rolled lengthwise (Fern).

Convolute, rolled edgewise (Cherry).

Involute, both edges rolled inward (Apple).

Revolute, both edges rolled outward (Willow).

Equitant, astraddle (Iris).

Obvolute, half equitant (Jerusalem Sage).

Triquetrous triangular equitant (Sedges).

Duration.—Fugacious, falling very early.

Deciduous, falling at the close of the season.

Persistent, remaining through the winter.

INFLORESCENCE.

Parts.—Flower, the blossom.

Peduncle, the stem of a solitary flower or the main stem of a flower-cluster.

Scape, a peduncle that grows from the ground.

Pedicel, , p, the stem of each flower of a flower-cluster.
Bracts, b, small floral leaves.

Involucre, a cluster of bracts.

Kinds.—(1.) Solitary, single, alone.

Terminal, at the summit of the stem.

Axillary, in the axils of the leaves.

(2.) Clustered, several flowers collected in a bunch.

(a.) Indefinite or Indeterminate, flowering from axillary buds. Inflorescence centripetal.

Flowers pedicellate	-	Raceme, flowers arranged along the axis; pedicels about equal in length (Currant).
		CÓrymb, same as raceme, except that the lower pedicels are elongated, making the top flat (Hawthorn).
		Umbel. same as corymb, except that the pedicels branch from about the same point (Milkweed).
		Panicle, compound raceme (Blue-grass).
		Thyrsus, a compact panicle (Lilac).

Flowers sessile	-	Spike, same as raceme with flowers sessile (Mullein).
		Spadix, a fleshy spike, generally enveloped by a large bract called a Spathe, (Calla Lily).
		?ment or Catkin, a slender pendent spike, with scaly bracts (Birch).
		Head or Capitulum, a shortened spike, reduced to a globular form (Clover).

(b.) Definite or Determinate, flowers all terminal. Inflorescence centrifugal.

Cyme, flat-topped or rounded inflorescence (Elder).

Fascicle, a compact cyme (Sweet-William).

Glomerule, a cyme condensed into a head (Mint).

Verticillaster, two opposite glomerules joined (Motherwort).

Scorpioid, a one-sided and coiled cyme (Forget-me-not).

FLOWER.

Parts.—Receptacle, the part upon which the several organs of the flower are inserted.

Calyx, the exterior floral envelope.

Corolla, the interior floral envelope. The calyx and corolla constitute the protecting organs, sometimes called perianth.

Stamens, the fertilizing organs.

Pistils, the seed-bearing organs. The stamens and pistils constitute the essential organs.

Kinds.—Symmetrical, same number in each set of organs; unsymmetrical, different number.

Complete, all the sets present; incomplete, some sets wanting.

Regular sepals and petals uniform; irregular, sepals or petals unlike.

Perfect, stamens and pistils both present; imperfect, one set absent.

Staminate, with stamens only; pistillate, with pistils only; neutral, with neither.

Monoecious, staminate and pistillate on same plant; dioecious, on different plants.

Dichlamydeous, having calyx and corolla; monochlamydecous, having calyx only; achlamydecous, having neither.

Di, trÍ, tetrÁ, pentÁ-merous, two, three, four, or five parts in each set.

Sessile, without peduncle; pedunculate, with peduncle.

Deviations from the Normal or Pattern Flower arise from

Augmentation, increase of floral circles (Water Lily).

Cherisis, increase of organs by division. The Bleeding-heart shows the collateral chorisis of stamens, and the Catchfly shows the transverse chorisis of corolla.

Anteposition, parts opposite instead of alternate (Grape).

Cohesion, union of parts of the same set (corolla of Morning-glory).

Adnation, union of different sets. In the Cherry the stamens and corolla are inserted upon the calyx.

Irregularity, parts of the same set unequally developed (Violet, Pea).

Suppression, non-development of some parts. In the mints some of the stamens are suppressed or wanting.

CALYX.

Parts.—Sepals, the divisions of the calyx.

Tube, the united portion of a gamosepalous calyx.

Teeth or lobes, the distinct or divided portions of a gamosepalous calyx.

Throat, the orifice or summit of the tube.

Pappus, in CompositÆ, the calyx border consisting of scales, teeth, bristles, or slender hairs.

Cohesion.—Gamosepalous or Monosepalous, sepals partially or wholly grown together.

Truncate, without lobes.

Toothed, lobes small.

Lobed, parted about one fourth.

Cleft, parted about one half.

Parted, separated nearly to the base.

Polysepalous, separated to the base.

Adnation.—Inferior, calyx free from ovary.

Half-inferior, calyx adherent to the ovary half-way.

Superior, calyx adherent to the ovary.

Form.—See under Corolla.

Æstivation.—See under Corolla.

COROLLA.

Parts.—Petals, the divisions of the Corolla.

Lamina, the expanded portion of the petal.

Claw, , the stem portion of the petal.

Spur, ; s, the hollow portion of certain corollas.

Crown, , a small projection from certain petals (Catchfly).

Cohesion.—Gamopetalous or Monopetalous, petals partially or wholly grown together.

Truncate, toothed, lobed, cleft, parted.

Polypetalous, petals separate.

Adnation.—HypÓgynous, corolla attached under the pistil (gynia, pistil).

PerÍgynous, corolla attached to the calyx. It is thus around the pistil.

EpÍgynous, corolla attached to the ovary. It is thus upon the ovary which is a part of the pistil.

Form.—Gamopetalous and Polypetalous.

Gamopetalous.	-	Regular.
		Urceoiate, urn-shaped (Whortleberry).
		Tubular cylindrical (Trumpet Honeysuckle)
		CampÁnulate, bell-shaped (Harebell).
		InfundÍbular, funnel-shaped (Morning-glory).
		HypocraterimÓrphous, salver-shaped (Phlox).
		Rotate, wheel-shaped (Potato).
		Irregular.
		Ligulate, strap-shaped (Dandelion).
		Labiate, two-lipped.
		Galeate, upper lip arched (Catmint).
		Ringent, both lips arched (Dead-nettle).
		Personate, throat closed (Toad-flax).

Polypetalous.	-	Regular.
		Rosaceous, petals without claws (Rose).
		Liliaceous, petals with claws gradually spreading (Lily).
		Caryophyllaceous, long claws enclosed in a tube (Pink).
		CrucÍferous, four clawed petals in the form of a cross (Mustard).
		Irregular.
		Papilionaceous, butterfly-shaped (Bean).
		Parts.—Vexillum, banner; alÆ, wings; carina, keel.

Æstivation, the arrangement of the floral organs in the bud.

Valvular, pieces met by their margins (Lilac).

Induplicate, margins turned inward (sepals of Clematis).

Reduplicate, margins turned outward (sepals of Hollyhock).

Convolute, or contorted, each piece overlaps its neighbor in one direction (Geranium).

Imbricated, one or more petals wholly outside.

QuincÚncial, five petals, two without and two within and the remaining one with one edge outside and the other inside.

Triquetrous, three petals, one without and one within, and the remaining one with one edge outside and the other inside.

VÉxillary, having one large petal enclosing the others (Pea).

Plicate, the folding of gamopÉtalous flowers.

Supervolute, with folds turned obliquely in the same direction (Morning-glory).

STAMENS (Androecium).

Parts.— Anther, the enlarged and essential portion.

Filament, the stem holding the anther.

Pollen, the fertilizing powder found in the anther.

Kinds.—Sessile, anther without filament.

Sterile, filament without anther.

Connivent, converging.

Exserted, protruding out of corolla.

Included, entirely within the corolla.

Didy?namous, four in number, two long and two short.

Tetrady?nanious, six in number, four long and two short.

Cohesion.—Syngenesious, united by their anthers.

Monodelphous, united by their filaments into one set.

Diadelphous, united into two sets.

Polyadelphous, united into many sets.

Adnation.—HypÓgynous, borne on the receptacle.

PerÍgynous, borne on the calyx.

EpipÉtalous, borne on the corolla.

Alternate, with the lobes.

Opposite, in front of the lobes.

EpÍgynous, borne on the ovary at its summit.

GynÁndrous, borne on the style (Orchid).

FILAMENT.

Kinds.—Filiform, subulate, dilated, petaloid, bidentate.

ANTHER.

Parts.—Lobes (thecÆ) and connective.

Adnation.—Innate, anther firm on summit of filament.

Adnate, anther attached by its whole length to filament.

ExtrÓrse, facing the petals.

IntrÓrse, facing the pistils.

Versatile, attached near the middle.

Dehiscence.—Longitudinal, opening lengthwise.

Transverse, opening crosswise.

Porous, opening by terminal holes.

Valved, opening by valves or doors.

PISTILS (Gynoecium).

Parts.— Stigma, the rough end to which the pollen adheres.

Style, the stem holding the stigma.

Ovary, the enlarged portion containing the ovules.

Cohesion.—Simple, having but one cell, placenta style and stigma.

Multiple, a collection of simple pistils (Blackberry).

Compound, simple pistils grown together, each called a carpel.

STIGMA.

Kinds.—Sessile, stigma on ovary: no style.

Globose, globular (Four-o’clock).

Capitate, broad and flat.

Lobed, rounded.

Feathered, like a feather (Grasses).

Linear, thread-like (Corn).

STYLE.

Kinds.—Basal, attached to base of ovary (Forget-me-not).

Lateral, attached to side of ovary (Strawberry).

Terminal, attached to top of ovary.

OVARY.

Parts.—PlacentÆ, the parts to which the ovules are attached.

Dissepiments, partitions.

Cells, cavities in which the ovules are arranged.

Ovules, unfertilized seeds.

Adnation.—Inferior, calyx adherent to ovary, same as superior calyx.

Superior, calyx free from ovary, same as inferior calyx.

Placentation.—Free-central, ovules attached to a central column in a one-celled ovary (Pink).

Axillary, ovules attached to a central column in a compound ovary.

Parietal, ovules attached to the outer walls of the ovary.

OVULE.

Parts.—Nucleus, n, the essential part in which the embryo is formed.

Primine, p, the exterior coat.

Secundine, s, the interior coat.

MÍcropyle, m, the opening of the ovary coats.

FunÍculus, the stem to which the ovule is attached.

Hilum, h, the point of attachment on the ovule.

Chalaza, c, the place where the coverings and nucleus join

Rhaphe, r, the connection between the hilum and the chalaza.

N. B.—Through the funiculus, the rhaphe, and the chalaza the ovule receives its nourishment from the placenta. Through the micropyle it receives the tubular prolongation of the pollen.

Kinds.—OrthÓtropous straight; no change in direction of parts (Buckwheat).

CampylÓtropous, curved; the micropyle brought near the chalaza (Bean).

AnÁtropous, inverted; the micropyle brought near the hilum, pointing to the placentÆ. Rhaphe the whole length of the ovule (Magnolia).

AmphÍtropous, half inverted; short rhaphe (Mallow).

Direction of Ovary.—Erect, ; ascending, ; horizontal, ; pendulous, ; suspended, .

FRUIT.

Parts.—Seed, the part containing the embryo.

Pericarp, the covering of the seeds, including the ovary and all adnate parts. The parts of the pericarp are epicarp, or outer coat; mesocarp, or middle coat; and endocarp, or inner coat.

Dehiscence.—Septicidal, opening of the partitions.

Loculicidal, opening at the dorsal suture.

SeptÍfragal, valves falling away from partitions.

Circumscissile, opening by a circular horizontal line.

Kinds.—Simple, aggregate, accessory, multiple.

(1.) Simple Fruits.—Fleshy, Stone, Dry (formed by a single pistil).

(a.) Fleshy Fruits.—Indehiscent (with two or more seeds).

Seeds immersed in a pulpy mass.	-	Berry, rind membranous (Grape).
		Hesperidium, rind leathery, separable (Orange).
		Pepo, rind hard (Cucumber).
Seeds in cells.—Pome, succulent calyx (Apple).

(b.) Stone Fruits.—Indehiscent; one-celled; endocarp hard.

Drupe, three-coated; stone-cell entire (Peach).

Tryma, two-coated; stone-cell two-parted (Walnut).

EtÆrio, an aggregation of drupes (Raspberry).

(c.) Dry Fruits.—Indehiscent, usually one seed with one coat.

Achenium, coat separable from seed (Dandelion).

Utricle, coat inflated (Goosefoot).

CaryÓpsis, coat inseparable (Wheat).

Glans, invested with a cupule, (Acorn).

Samara, having winged appendages (Maple).

(c¹.) Dry Fruits.—Dehiscent.

Single pistil.	-	Follicle, opening by a ventral suture (Columbine).
		Legume, opening by both sutures (Bean).
		Loment, jointed legume (Desmodium).

Compound pistil.	-	Capsule, any compound dehiscent fruit.
		SÍlique, a two-valved capsule (Mustard).
		SÍlicle, a short silique (Shepherd’s Purse).

Pyxis, circumscissile dehiscence (Purslane).

(2.) Aggregate Fruits, . A cluster of carpels on one receptacle taken as a whole (Raspberry).

(3.) Accessory or Anthocarpous Fruits.—Those of which the most conspicuous portion, although appearing like a pericarp in some cases, does not belong to the pistil (Rose-hip).

(4.) Multiple or Collective Fruits.—Those which result from the aggregation of several flowers into one mass (Pine-apple, Mulberry).

StrÓbile or Cone, a scaly multiple fruit, resulting from the ripening of some kinds of catkins (Hop, Conifers).

GÁlbalus, a closed cone (Juniper-berry, Red Cedar).

SEED.

Parts.—Integuments, seed-coats. Nucleus, part containing the embryo.

(1.) Parts of Integuments:

Testa (episperm), the outer or proper seed-coat.

Tegmen (endopleura), the inner coat, sometimes wanting.

FunÍculus HÍlum (h), Chalaza (c), Rhaphe (r), are the same as in ovule.

Aril, covering exterior to the integuments (not in the ovule) (May-apple, Water-lily).

Coma, a tuft of hairs on certain seeds (Silkweed).
This is to be distinguished from pappus, which is a tuft on the fruit (Achenium).

(2.) Parts of Nucleus:

Embryo (e), the initial plantlet.

Radicle (r), the rudimentary stem or first internode.

Cotyledon (c), the seed leaf at the primary node.

Plumule (p), the growing points above the cotyledons.

Albumen (a), the food for the plantlet’s first growth, stored outside the embryo.

Kinds.—(1.) General Form: Orthotropous, ; campylÓtropous, ; anÁtropous, ; amphÍtropous, same as in ovule.

(2.) Form of Covering:

Conformed, adhering closely to nucleus.

Cellular, loose (Pyrola).

Winged, having expanded appendages (Catalpa).

Woolly, covered closely with fibers (Cotton).

Comose, with coma at the end (Willow Herb).

(3.) Texture of Albumen:

Farinaceous, mealy (Wheat).

Oily, mealy but mixed with oil (Poppy).

MucilÁginous, like mucilage (Morning-glory).

Ruminated, wrinkled (Papaw).

(4.) Number of Cotyledons:

MonocotylÉdonous, (Corn).

DicotylÉdonous, (Bean).

PolycotylÉdonous, (Pine).

(5.) Position and Arrangement of Embryo:

Eccentric, embryo on one side of albumen (Indian Corn).

PerÍpheric, curved around albumen (Four-o’clock).

Accumbent, applied to the cotyledons when the radicle is bent and lies along their edge (Water-cress).

Incumbent, applied to the cotyledons when the radicle rests against the back of one of them (Shepherd’s Purse).

Conduplicate, applied to cotyledons that are incumbent and so folded as to embrace the radicle (Mustard).

(6.) The Direction of the Embryo as respects the Pericarp.

Ascending, pointing to the apex.

Descending, pointing to the base.

Centripetal, pointing to the axis.

Centrifugal, pointing to the sides.

BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

The living plants may be divided into two grand divisions—Flowering Plants and Flowerless Plants—with five main subdivisions, according to the complexity and structure of their reproductive organs, or seed structure. The scientific names of these groups are the Thallophyta, the Bryophyta, the Pteridophyta, the Gymnosperms, and the Angiosperms.

Each of the five main groups is divided into a number of lesser subdivisions, sometimes called phyla, orders, each of which is composed of several families.

Most systematic botanists begin the study of plants with the lowest forms of plants and proceed to the highest. In the following classification, however, the usual order has been reversed because of its greater interest for a large majority of readers; the highest division is placed first and the lowest last.

In the earlier days of the science of botany nearly every botanist’s energies were devoted to this branch which we now call systematic botany. There are now named and described close on a quarter of a million of living species of plants altogether, including the lower and often nearly invisible forms, and of this vast number about one hundred and thirty thousand belong to the highest group of all—the Angiosperms. With nearly a quarter of a million described forms to deal with the value of such keys will be recognized.

Sub-Kingdom I.—Flowering Plants (Phanerogams), or SpermophytÆ.

(1) Angiosperms (anj´i-o-sperms)—Plants producing protected seeds.

The greatest group, the Angiosperms, with over a hundred and thirty thousand species, contains nearly all the plants that yield crops of economic importance to man, or that decorate his gardens, or that feed his sheep or cattle. They have netted-veined leaves. When this group is further examined, there are found to be two well marked divisions—Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons. The first has embryos with only one cotyledon or “seed leaf,” the second has embryos with two. The Angiosperms include over one hundred and thirty thousand species, divided among sixty-two orders, only the most important families of which can be given here.

Order I.—RanunculaceÆ: Herbs or small shrubs; about thirty genera.

Anemone (windflower): Perennial herb. Dry copses. Massachusetts to New Jersey and west to Colorado.

Anemonella (rose anemone): Open woods. Canada to Georgia and west through Mississippi Valley.

Caltha (cowslip, marsh marigold): Perennial herb. United States and Canada.

Clematis (virgin’s bower): Perennial. United States and Canada.

Ranunculus (buttercup, crowfoot): Herb, annual or perennial. Canada, United States and Europe.

Thalictrum (meadow rue): Perennial herb. United States and Canada.

Order II.—BerberidaceÆ: Shrubs or perennial herbs; nineteen genera.

Berberis (barberry): Fruit, a sour berry. Found in Europe; naturalized in New England.

Podophyllum (May apple, mandrake): Perennial herb. Fruit, a berry. Found: Eastern North America; a species in Himalaya Mountains.

Order III.—PapaveraceÆ: Annual or perennial herbs with milky or colored juice; about twenty-four genera.

Papaver (poppy): Geographical home on southern edge of North Temperate Zone, spreading north and south. Great opium districts are the valley of Ganges, Asiatic Turkey, Persia, Egypt, Asia Minor, China. From India, fourteen million pounds annually. Persia and Turkey, seventy-one million pounds.

Order IV.—CruciferÆ: Herbs; about one hundred and seventy-two genera.

Brassica (turnip, mustard, cabbage, cauliflower, rape): United States, Europe, India, Syria and Russia.

Capsella (shepherd’s purse): Naturalized in United States; from Europe.

Cochlearia (horseradish): Perennial. Root. Middle and southern edges of North Temperate Zone, from Great Britain to Asia and northeastern America.

Isatis (woad): Biennial. Throughout Europe. Cultivated in Azores and Canary Isles.

Nasturtium (watercress): Europe and northern Asia. Cultivated in Palestine, Hindustan, Japan.

Order V.—CapparidaceÆ: Herbs, shrubs, trees; twenty-three genera.

Capparis (caper): Small shrub. Southern France and Mediterranean countries, Sicily, Malta.

Order VI.—ViolaceÆ: Herbs; twenty-one genera.

Viola (violet): Perennial. Canada; United States, west to Colorado; throughout Europe, some parts of China, Japan, India.

Order VII.—BiximÆ: Shrubs; 29 genera.

Bixa (arnotto): Tropical America. Cultivated in southern Europe, Burma, Philippine Islands, Hindustan.

Order VIII.—TerustroemiaceÆ: Shrubs and small trees; thirty-two genera.

Thea (tea): Shrub. China. Cultivated between parallels of 25° and 35° throughout Asia. In Kangra, Gurhwal, Assam, Cachar, Sylhet, Chittagong, Darjeeling, Chota, Nagpur, Hindustan, Japan, Australia, Jamaica, Brazil, North America.

Order IX.—MalvaceÆ: Herbs, shrubs.

Gossypium (cotton): Tropical and sub-tropical. East Indies, China, Asiatic Islands, Greece, islands in eastern Mediterranean, Asia Minor, northern and western Africa, Australia, West Indies, southern United States, Venezuela, British Guiana, Brazil.

Order X.—SterculeaceÆ: Trees and shrubs.

Theobroma (cocoa): Tropical and sub-tropical. Brazil and north of Brazil, West Indies, Mexico. Cultivated in Philippine Islands, southern Europe, India.

Order XI.—TiliaceÆ: Trees and shrubs; 40 genera.

Corchorus (yellow jute): Southern belt of North Temperate Zone and Tropics. Cultivated in southern and western Asia, Grecian Archipelago, central and northern Africa.

Order XII.—LinaceÆ: Shrubs and herbs; 94 genera.

Linum (flax): Herb. Widely distributed. Hindustan, southern Egypt, throughout Europe, southern and middle Russia, northeastern America.

Erythroxylon (coca): Shrub. Tropical and sub-tropical. Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, northern Brazil.

Order XIII.—ZygophyllaceÆ: Trees, shrubs, herbs; seventeen genera.

Guaiacum (lignum-vitÆ): Tree. Tropical and sub-tropical. Exclusively American; native to West Indies.

Order XIV.—RutaceÆ: Small trees and shrubs; eighty-three genera.

Citrus (orange, lemon, shaddock): In all regions of no frost. India. Cultivated in Persia, Syria, southern Europe, northern Africa, Spain, China, Japan, Sicily, Australia, Brazil, West Indies, Florida, southern California, Azores.

Order XV.—MeliaceÆ: Trees; thirty-seven genera.

Swietenia (mahogany): Large tree. Tropical and sub-tropical. West Indies, Bahamas, Central America, southern Florida. Cultivated in southern British India.

Order XVI.—IliciniÆ: Trees and shrubs; three genera.

Ilex (Paraguay tea): Small tree. Paraguay. In Parana, ten million pounds produced annually.

Order XVII.—RhamnaceÆ: Trees and shrubs; thirty-seven genera.

Ceanothus (New Jersey tea): Shrub. Eastern North America.

Rhamnus (buckthorn): Shrubs, small trees. Southern Persia and southern Levant countries. Grows as far north as England.

Order XVIII.—AmpelideÆ: Woody vine; few genera.

Vitis (grape): Zone from 21° N. latitude to 48°. British Isles and Portugal, east to Persia. Middle Atlantic States to California. Cultivated in Australia.

Order XIX.—SapindaceÆ: Trees and shrubs; seventy-three genera.

Acer (maple): Tree. Not south of 38° N. latitude, except in high mountains in northern United States and southern British America.

Order XX.—AnacardeaceÆ: Trees and shrubs; forty-six genera.

Anacardium (cashew nut): Tropics of Asia and America, Jamaica.

Rhus (sumach): North America, Canada to Gulf States; Arkansas, Levant, and western Europe, Syria. Cultivated in Sicily, Italy, Turkey, Spain, Portugal.

Order XXI.—LeguminosÆ: Herbs, shrubs, trees; four hundred genera.

Acacia (gum arabic): Shrubs and small trees. Tropical and sub-tropical, but widely distributed. Australia, Africa, Asia, America.

Arachis (peanut): Sub-tropical. Southern United States, southern and central Virginia, the Carolinas and Tennessee.

Astragalus (gum tragacanth): Small shrub or herb. Sub-tropical. Persia, Greece, east Mediterranean Islands, Syria.

Cassia (senna): Tropical and sub-tropical. Widely distributed.

CÆsalpinia (Brazil wood): Trees. Brazil.

Dalbergia (rosewood): Trees and vines. Brazil and southern Asia.

Glycyrrhiza (licorice): Small shrub and herb. Italy and southern Europe, southern England. Cultivated in Spain and Portugal.

HÆmatoxylon (logwood): Small tree. Yucatan, Guatemala, Honduras, Isthmus of Panama, West Indies. Cultivated in Burma.

Indigofera (indigo): Shrub. India, Java, East Indies, north Africa, West Indies, Central Asia.

Lens (lentil): Annual. Syria, Egypt, southern and central Europe, Hindustan.

Phaseolus (bean): Annual herb. Tropics and Temperate Zones to forty-fifth parallels.

Pisum (pea): Annual herb. Central and southern Europe, Egypt, Syria, Japan, India, China.

Tamarindus (tamarind): Tree. Tropical and sub-tropical. Africa. Cultivated in Arabia, southern India, Ceylon, Java, Philippines, northern Australia, Pacific Isles, South America.

Order XXII.—RosaceÆ: Trees, shrubs, herbs; seventy-one genera.

Fragaria (strawberry): Herb. Widely distributed, even to Kamchatka and Alaska.

Prunus (plum): Tree. Temperate Zone, south of 60°. Europe, western Asia. Cultivated in northeast America.

Prunus (cherry): Tree. North Africa, Holland, Portugal. Cultivated in southeastern Africa, America, Belgium, England.

Prunus (apricot): Tree. Armenia, Persia, China, Japan, California.

Prunus (peach): Tree. Southern half of North Temperate Zone in Asia, Europe, America, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland.

Pyrus (apple): Tree. England, France, Germany, Netherlands, Prussia, Poland, United States, south Australia.

Pyrus (pear): Tree. China, Syria, Persia, central and northern Europe, Belgium, France, Great Britain. Cultivated in North America.

Pyrus (quince): Tree. Northern Persia, east and west. Cultivated in northeastern America, Portugal.

Rubus (black raspberry and raspberry): Shrub. Temperate Zone, between 30° and 50° latitude. In North America, Europe north to sixtieth parallel, south to northern parts of Africa, Asia Minor, and eastward into India; also in British Isles.

Order XXIII.—SaxifragaceÆ: Shrubs, herbs; seventy-three genera.

Ribes (currant): Shrub. Lapland and southern Europe; also in the New World, northern United States to south and middle Canada.

Ribes (gooseberry): Shrub. France, England, Germany and northeastern Russia, Siberia.

Order XXIV.—CombretaceÆ: Shrubs, trees; seven genera.

Terminalia (myrobalano): Large trees. Tropical India, along southern fringes of Ghaut Mountains, and in Burma.

Order XXV.—MyrtaceÆ: Trees; seventy-six genera.

Bertholletia (Brazil nut): Large tree. Tropical South America, Panama.

Eugenia (cloves): Molucca Islands. Cultivated in Brazil, West Indies.

Eugenia (allspice): Jamaica.

Myrtus (myrtle): Tropical and sub-tropical. Southeastern Italy. Cultivated in all Mediterranean countries.

Order XXVI.—LythraceÆ: Tropical trees; thirty genera.

Punica (pomegranate): Persia. Cultivated in Syria, Asia Minor, Levant, southern Europe, China, Japan, South and North America.

Order XXVII.—CucurbitaceÆ: Herbs; sixty-eight genera.

Citrullus (watermelon): Herbaceous vine. Africa. Cultivated in southern Europe and southern and middle North America.

Cucumis (cucumber): Northeastern India. Cultivated in Levant, southern Asia, southern Europe, Africa, southern Russia, United States.

Cucumis (muskmelon): British India, Baluchistan, West Africa, Guinea, banks of Niger. Cultivated in Mediterranean States, India, China, Japan, middle and southern United States.

Cucurbita (squash): Annual. Europe and western Asia. Cultivated in Pacific Islands, southern Asia, Africa.

Cucurbita (pumpkin): Warm climates.

Order XXVIII.—UmbelliferÆ: Herbs; one hundred and fifty-two genera.

Apium (celery): Biennial. Great Britain, western Europe, Mediterranean shores, Peloponnesus, Caucasus, Palestine, South America, and western coast of North America to southern California.

Coriandrum (coriander): Annual. Tartary. Cultivated in Hindustan, Burma, middle, southern and western Europe, North America.

Carum (parsley): Biennial. Mediterranean countries and Asia Minor. Cultivated in Japan, England, and northeastern America.

Carum (caraway seed): Lapland to Siberia. Cultivated in Great Britain and Continent south of 60°, North Africa, Hindustan, Burma, northeastern America.

Cuminum (cumin): Northern Africa, middle and southern Europe, Syria, Hindustan, Bombay, Burma.

Daucus (carrot): Biennial. Herb. All over Europe south of 60°, especially in France, Germany, northern Africa, southwestern Asia, China, Japan. Cultivated in North America.

Foeniculum (fennel): Biennial. Levant. Cultivated in Hindustan, Atlantic States, France, Germany, Great Britain, southern Europe.

Pinipinella (anise): Perennial. Egypt, Syria, Malta, Spain, southern Germany, Hindustan, Japan.

Pencedanum (parsnip): Biennial. Europe, southern Greece. Cultivated in Asia and North America.

Ferula (asafetida): Middle and western Asia.

Order XXIX.—RubiaceÆ: Trees, shrubs, herbs; three hundred and thirty-seven genera, including madder, coffee, tea, etc., according to most authorities.

Cephaelis (ipecacuanha): Shrub. Tropical and sub-tropical. Bolivia, Colombia. Cultivated in West Indies, Hindustan, India, America.

Cinchona (Peruvian bark): Trees. Tropical Andes. Cultivated in Ceylon, Jamaica.

Coffea (coffee): Shrub. Persia. Cultivated in Arabia, East Indies, Mexico, Brazil, Guatemala, Cuba, British West Indies, Santo Domingo, Java, Padang, Sumatra, Macassar, Ceylon, British India, Manila.

Rubia (madder): Perennial. West Asia, Mediterranean countries.

Order XXXVII.—BorraginaceÆ: Herbs; sixty-eight genera.

Symphytum (comfrey): Perennial herb. Peloponnesus and Greek islands. Cultivated in middle Europe and older parts of the United States.

Order XXXVIII.—ConvolvulaceÆ: Herb; thirty-two genera.

Ipomoea (sweet potato): Perennial. Asia and America. Cultivated in southern United States, Carolinas, Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, southern New Jersey, southern Spain, Italy.

Order XXXIX.—SolanaceÆ: Herb; sixty-six genera.

Atropa (deadly nightshade): Europe, western Asia. Cultivated in North America.

Capsicum (red pepper, cayenne pepper): Annual. South America, southern Asia. Cultivated in southern Europe and in United States, West Indies, middle Africa, southern Asia.

Lycopersicum (tomato): Annual. South and Central America. Cultivated in Italy, southern France, Spain, Greece, northern Africa, Islands of southern Asia, England (under glass), Virginia, Carolinas.

Nicotiana (tobacco): Santo Domingo, South Atlantic States of United States of America. Cultivated in Virginia, Kentucky, Carolinas, Venezuela, Cuba, Brazil, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Holland, Flanders, France, Alsace, Hungary, European Turkey, China, Japan, southern Africa, Australia.

Solanum (potato): Chile. Cultivated wherever cereals flourish.

Order XL.—PedalineÆ: Herb; ten genera.

Sesamum (sesame): Sunda Islands. Cultivated in India, western Asia, southern Europe, northern Africa, America.

Order XLI.—VerbenaceÆ: Tree; fifty genera.

Tectona (teak): Tropical. East Indies, Burma, Philippines.

Order XLII.—LabiatÆ: Herb; one hundred and thirty-six genera.

Lavandula (lavender): Greece and Grecian Isles. Cultivated in Hindustan, Atlantic States of North America, Levant.

Marrubium (hoarhound): Perennial. Levant, Peloponnesus, etc. Cultivated all over Europe, and in Temperate Zone in Asia, and Atlantic States in North America.

Mentha (pennyroyal): England, Hindustan, Japan, Persia, India, Egypt. In a belt from eastern side of Mississippi Valley to Japan.

Mentha (spearmint): England, etc., as above.

Nepita (catnip): Perennial or annual. Europe, western Asia, Levant, North America.

Origanum (marjoram): Levant, Mediterranean countries, Europe, as far north as fiftieth parallel. Sweet marjoram, native in Greece.

Rosmarius (rosemary): Evergreen. Southern Europe, Greek islands in the Peloponnesus. Cultivated in western Europe, Japan, Egypt, Hindustan, Asia.

Salvia (sage): Mediterranean countries. Cultivated in middle-southern Europe, British Isles, North America, British India.

Thymus (sweet thyme): Perennial. Spain, southern Europe, Mediterranean States, mountains of Greece, and islands of Archipelago, British Isles, southern Siberia.

Order XLIII.—ChenopodiaceÆ: Herb; eighty genera.

Beta (beet): Europe and western Asia. Cultivated in Europe, west Africa, temperate British India, North America.

Spinacia (spinach): Annual. Persia. Cultivated in middle of North Temperate Zone, from Hindustan to western shores and islands of Europe, eastern United States of North America, South Pacific Islands.

Order XLIV.—PolygonaceÆ: Herb; thirty genera.

Fagopyrum (buckwheat): Central Asia and Tartary, Russia. Cultivated in Canada, northern United States, northern and central Europe.

Rheum (rhubarb): Perennial. Tartary. Cultivated as far north as fiftieth parallel, China, especially in provinces of Shensi, Kansu, and Szechuen.

Order XLV.—PiperaceÆ: Shrub; eight genera.

Piper (pepper): Southern Asia. Cultivated in southern India, Java, Sumatra, and Malabar.

Order XLVI.—MyristicaceÆ: Trees, shrubs; one genus.

Myristica (nutmeg): Molucca Islands. Cultivated in Sumatra, Island of Bourbon, Mauritius, Madagascar, West Indies.

Order XLVII.—LauraceÆ: Tree; thirty-four genera.

Cinnamomum (cinnamon): East India Archipelago. Cultivated in Ceylon, West Indies, South America, Pacific Isles.

Cinnamomum (camphor): Trees. Japan, Formosa, China, Borneo. The camphor gum of commerce was introduced into Europe by the Arabs.

Order XLVIII.—SantalaceÆ: Herbs, shrubs, trees; twenty-eight genera.

Santalum (sandalwood): Trees. East Indies, Asia, Malaysia, Pacific Islands, India, China.

Order XLIX.—EuphorbiaceÆ: Herbs, shrubs, trees; one hundred and ninety-five genera.

Buxus (box): Evergreen, shrub, and small trees. Southern Europe, western Asia, Syria, Persia, and south of Black Sea. Cultivated in middle States of North America and Virginia.

Croton (croton-oil plant): Cultivated in southeastern Hindustan and East India Islands.

Hevea (caoutchouc): Large tree. South America. Cultivated in southern Asia, middle Africa, northern Australia.

Manihot (tapioca): Tropical and sub-tropical South America. Cultivated in southern Asia and western Africa.

Ricinus (castor-oil plant): Annual. Southern Asia, eastern Africa. Cultivated in Japan, Bengal, eastern and northern Africa, southern Europe and United States, especially Kansas.

Order L.—UrticaceÆ: Trees, shrubs, herbs; one hundred and eight genera.

Cannabis (hemp): Annual. Chinese Tartary, northern India, southwestern Siberia. Cultivated in China, Japan, Persia, Hindustan, Egypt, southern Africa, Russia, European states, Canada, United States.

Ficus (fig): Tree. Subtropical. Western Asia. Cultivated through Mediterranean countries west to Canary Isles.

Humulus (hop): Perennial herb. Middle Europe, Siberia, Levant, Asia Minor, Japan, North America, foot-hills of Rocky Mountains, and along upper Arkansas River, Missouri and Mississippi Rivers, Lake Winnipeg, North Atlantic States. Cultivated in Egypt.

Morus (mulberry): Tree. Cultivated in western New England, southern upper Canada, Dakotas, Kansas and the South. White mulberry is a native of China and Japan. Cultivated in Italy, Greece, Asia Minor, Armenia.

Ulmus (elm): Tree. From Mediterranean countries to the middle of European Russia, from southern banks of St. Lawrence River to Gulf of Mexico, and westerly to foot-hills of Rocky Mountains.

Order LI.—JuglandaceÆ: Trees; five genera.

Juglans (butternut): Northeastern North Africa. Cultivated in middle Europe and England.

Juglans (walnut): Southwestern New York and southward to Gulf of Mexico and westward beyond Mississippi River. Cultivated in eastern middle States and southern New England, England and southern Europe.

Hicoria (hickory nut): North and middle States of North America from Atlantic to Mississippi River, and cultivated in corresponding latitude in Europe.

Hicoria (pecan nut): Southern North America. Cultivated in Prussia and England.

Order LII.—CupuliferÆ: Trees; ten genera.

Castanea (chestnut): Eastern coast of North America, west to eastern Kentucky and Tennessee. Cultivated in middle and southern England, middle and southern Europe, northern Africa, Levant, and southern and eastern Asia.

Corylus (hazelnut): Levant. Cultivated between 35° and 55° latitude in Northern Hemisphere, eastern parts of Western Hemisphere, and western Old World.

Fagus (beech): Temperate Zones up to 60° north latitude, south to 50°.

Quercus (oak): Temperate Zones above 35°, and in a zone between 30° and 60° around the globe.

Order LIII.—SalicaceÆ: Shrubs, trees; numerous genera.

Salix (weeping willow): Western and southern Asia. Cultivated in southern England.

Salix (curled willow): England. Cultivated in eastern United States.

ANGIOSPERMS (LEAVES PARALLEL-VEINED)

Order LIV.—OrchidaceÆ: Woody vine; three hundred and thirty-four genera.

Vanilla (climbs over lofty trees): Tropical and sub-tropical southern Mexico, coast of Vera Cruz. Cultivated in Guatemala, Mauritius, Bourbon, Madagascar, Java.

Order LV.—ZingiberaceÆ: Herbs; thirty-six genera.

Curcuma (turmeric): Farther India and Asiatic isles, southern Asia and Malay Peninsula. Cultivated in Hindustan, Cochin-China, southern India, Bengal, Java, Pacific Isles.

Elettaria (cardamom): Perennial. Tropical Asia. Cultivated in southern India, Madras, Allepy, Ceylon.

Maranta (arrowroot): Tropical America, Florida.

Musa (banana): Asia. Cultivated in Indian Archipelago, China, Cochin-China, Hindustan, Australia, Pacific Islands, Madagascar, western Africa, Sicily, southern Spain, Mexico, Central America, Colombia, Peru, northern Brazil, Guiana, West Indies, southern Florida, and Louisiana.

Musa (manila): Philippines. Cultivated in India and southern Asia.

Zingiber (ginger): Sub-tropical. Southern Asia. Cultivated on western coast of Africa, in the West Indies, and southern slopes of Himalayas.

Order LVI.—BromeliaceÆ: Herbs; twenty-seven genera.

Ananassa (pineapple): Perennial root. Tropical. Bahama Islands. Cultivated in South America, Florida, southern shores of Europe, East Africa, Pacific Isles, India.

Order LVII.—IridaceÆ: Herbs; fifty-seven genera.

Crocus (saffron): Throughout southern parts of North Temperate Zone.

Order LVIII.—DioscoreaceÆ: Shrubs; eight genera.

Dioscorea (yam): Tropical and sub-tropical Africa.

Dioscorea (Chinese yam): America, Asia, Malaysia. Cultivated in Japan, East Indies, Siam.

Order LIX.—LiliaceÆ: Herbs; one hundred and eighty-seven genera.

Asparagus: Perennial herb. Japan, Levant. Cultivated in England, Holland, central Europe, Mediterranean countries, sandy places of Poland, southern Russia, Hindustan, North America.

Aloe: Southern Asia, Arabia, southern Africa. Cultivated in southern Europe, northern Africa, British West Indies.

Order LX.—PalmÆ: Shrubs and small and large trees; one hundred and thirty-seven genera.

Areca (betelnut): Sunda Isles, Philippines, Cochin-China, Sumatra, southern India.

Cocos (cocoanut): East India Archipelago, Arabia, Persia, Malay. Cultivated in eastern Africa, western America, Brazil, West Indies, islands of Central America.

Metroxylon (sago palm): Malacca, southern China. Cultivated in Eastern Archipelago.

Phoenix (date palm): Between 15° and 30° north latitude, from Atlantic Coast to the River Indus; Sahara oases. Cultivated in Acre, Palmyra, Jaffa.

Order LXI.—GramineÆ: Herbs; one thousand two hundred and ninety-eight genera.

Avena (oats): West central Asia, east central Europe. Cultivated in Scotland, Ireland, Norway, Canada, United States.

Hordeum (barley): Annual. Temperate western Asia. Cultivated in northern Russia, Siberia, etc.

Oryza (rice): Southern Asia. Cultivated in India, China, Japan, East Indies, Africa, southern Europe, Hungary, South America, southern United States.

Setaria (millet): China, Japan, India. Cultivated wherever oats and rye are, except in United States.

Saccharum (sugar-cane): Perennial. Cochin-China. Cultivated in West Indies, Brazil, Mexico, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Mauritius, southern India, Pacific Islands, northern Australia.

Sorghum (broom corn): Annual. Middle Africa. Cultivated in southern India, northern Africa, southern and middle Europe, throughout United States.

Secale (rye): Southern Russia and north of Black and Caspian Seas. Cultivated in northern Germany, Poland, Sweden, Norway, Russia, western Europe, United States.

Triticum (wheat): Cultivated in western Asia, western America, southern Russia, central and western Europe, southern Italy, Turkey, Syria, northern and southern Africa, Brazil, Chile, Australia. Great wheat-growing regions are southwestern plains of Russia and central plain of North America, and in southern California, northern India, England.

Zea (Indian corn or maize): America. Cultivated in United States, upper Canada, South America, Mexico, southern Europe, Africa, western Asia.

Order LXII.—ConiferÆ: Shrubs, trees; thirty-two genera.

Abies (fir): Northeastern North America, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, middle States, western Wisconsin. Cultivated in England.

ChamÆcyparis (cypress): Evergreen, cypress. Cultivated between 30° and 42° N. latitude in both hemispheres, Carolinas, Georgia, Florida.

Lumpirus (cedar): Trees and shrubs. Middle and western Europe, northern Asia, North America.

Larix (larch): Mountains of middle Europe, north of New York to Pacific Ocean.

(2) Gymnosperms (jim´n_o?-sperms).—Plants producing naked seeds (i. e., seeds not inclosed in an ovary), as the common pine and hemlock.

This second division of flowering plants (phanerogams) includes four living groups: (a) ConiferÆ, including all evergreen trees, such as pine, fir, redwood (Sequoia), etc.; (b) CycadaceÆ, trees such as cypress, palmetto, etc.; (c) GnetaceÆ; (d) Ginkgo. There are about five hundred living species.

Order LX.—

Order LXX.—

Sub-Kingdom II.—Flowerless Plants, or Cryptogamia (krip´t_o?-ga´mi-?).

(3) Pteridophyta (ter-i-dof´i-ta).

This group does not include over five thousand species altogether. All its members have a well-marked differentiation into leaves and stems, some with large leaves like the Bracken fern and some with small leaves like the Club-moss. All are provided with well-differentiated wood and phloem, which are arranged in bundles in the stem. All the members, also, have a well-marked alternation of generations, but it differs from that of the bryophytes, for the leafy plant which is conspicuous is the spore-producing generation, while the sexual generation is a very small and inconspicuous little structure, as simple as an alga except for its sexual organs. To this cohort belong all the ferns, all the Equisetums, or Horsetails, and the Club-mosses and Selaginellas.

(4) Bryophyta (bri-ofi´-t?).

The Bryophyta form a much smaller group, reported to have about sixteen thousand species. Some of these appear, as do the mosses, to have true leaves, but their apparent leaves are not really like those of the higher plants. They have no true wood or vessels. They have a definite alternation of generations, but the spore-producing generation grows on to the “leafy” sexual generation, and is generally, but wrongly, called its “fruit capsule.” To this group belong the Mosses and Liverworts.

(5) Thallophytes (thal´o-fitz).

The Thallophytes have the largest number of species after the Angiosperms, and number about eighty thousand species all told. They are all comparatively simple in structure and have no differentiation into stems and roots. The Thallophytes include the algÆ, the large fungi, the toadstools, and all the parasitic and disease producing forms of plants.

AlgÆ are divided into FlorideÆ, the Red Seaweeds, and the orders DictyoteÆ, OÖsporeÆ, ZoÖsporeÆ, ConjugatÆ, DiatomaceÆ, and CryptophyceÆ.

Fungi include the molds, mildews, mushrooms, puffballs, etc., which are variously grouped into several sub-classes and many orders. The Lichenes or Lichens are now considered to be of a mixed nature, each plant partly a Fungus and partly an Alga.

THREE CELEBRATED PICTURES OF ANIMAL FAVORITES

ORPHEUS AND HIS LUTE.

From the painting by J. C. Dollman.

THE POLAR BEAR BEGS

LION-MARMOSETS OF BRAZIL

Clyx.com

RELATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE

TROPICAL LIFE

WHERE THE MOST POWERFUL ANIMALS ARE FOUND

LIFE IN THE TEMPERATE ZONES

HOW THE LIFE OF THE TEMPERATE ZONE DIFFERS FROM THAT OF WARMER ZONES

ORIGINAL HOME OF OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS

LIFE IN THE COLD ZONES

CHIEF DIVISIONS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

I. CEREALS, GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS

HOW OUR CEREALS WERE DEVELOPED

HOW THE WORD “CEREAL” ORIGINATED

WHERE THE CEREALS GROW

HOW THE BOTANIST DESCRIBES CEREALS AND GRASSES

II. KITCHEN VEGETABLES

III. THE FRUIT TREES

IV. FRUIT-BEARING SHRUBS AND PLANTS

V. FLOWERS AND OTHER ORNAMENTAL PLANTS

ROSES AND ROSE CULTURE

DESIRABLE VARIETIES FOR THE ROSE GARDEN

VI. WILD FLOWERS AND FLOWERLESS PLANTS

FLOWERS THAT GROW IN THE WOODS

WILD FLOWERS AMONG THE HEDGES AND BUSHES

THE FLOWERS OF THE OPEN MEADOWS

FLOWERS OF THE WOODED PASTURES

WILD FLOWERS ON HIGHWAYS AND WASTE LAND

FLOWERS IN CULTIVATED FIELDS

THE GREAT GROUPS OF CRYPTOGAMS OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS

VII. TREES OF THE FOREST

VIII. FIBER AND COMMERCIAL PLANTS

IX. POISONOUS PLANTS

X. SOME WONDERS OF PLANT LIFE

THE MOST CRUEL PLANT IN THE WORLD

THE STRANGE HABITS OF THE NEPENTHES

THE NEPENTHES CATCH EVEN MICE AND BIRDS

THE DEATH PITCHER OF THE SARRACENIAS

A PLANT WITH PRISON WINDOWS

AN AUSTRALIAN PLANT WITH TWO KINDS OF LEAVES

PLANTS THAT KILL EVEN THE POWERFUL LION

HOW PLANTS TRAVEL

NATURE’S AVIATORS AND SEED-SOWERS

THE WILLOW ALSO PRODUCES FLYING SEEDS

SEEDS OF THE SYCAMORE A DIFFERENT TYPE OF FLYING MACHINE

PLANT TRAVELERS ON LAND

HOW THE PLANTS DEFEND THEMSELVES

HOW THE CACTUS DEFENDS ITS LIFE

THE AMERICAN AGAVE, OR “CENTURY PLANT”

THE CURIOUS MISTLETOE, A ROBBER PLANT OR PARASITE

A PLANT THAT GROWS IN SNOW

THE PRIMARY USE OF LIQUID RUBBER TO PLANTS

SCIENTIFIC TERMS USED IN BOTANY Completely Classified, Illustrated and Exemplified

ROOTS.

STEM.

Stems above Ground.

Stems under Ground.

LEAVES.

INFLORESCENCE.

FLOWER.

CALYX.

COROLLA.

STAMENS (Androecium).

FILAMENT.

ANTHER.

PISTILS (Gynoecium).

STIGMA.

STYLE.

OVARY.

OVULE.

FRUIT.

SEED.

BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

ANGIOSPERMS (LEAVES PARALLEL-VEINED)

WHERE THE MOST POWERFUL
ANIMALS ARE FOUND

HOW THE LIFE OF THE TEMPERATE ZONE
DIFFERS FROM THAT OF WARMER ZONES

ORIGINAL HOME OF OUR
DOMESTIC ANIMALS

HOW OUR CEREALS WERE
DEVELOPED

HOW THE WORD “CEREAL”
ORIGINATED

WHERE THE CEREALS
GROW

HOW THE BOTANIST DESCRIBES
CEREALS AND GRASSES

FLOWERS THAT GROW IN
THE WOODS

WILD FLOWERS AMONG THE
HEDGES AND BUSHES

THE FLOWERS OF THE
OPEN MEADOWS

FLOWERS OF THE WOODED
PASTURES

WILD FLOWERS ON HIGHWAYS
AND WASTE LAND

FLOWERS IN CULTIVATED
FIELDS

THE GREAT GROUPS OF CRYPTOGAMS
OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS

THE MOST CRUEL PLANT
IN THE WORLD

THE STRANGE HABITS OF
THE NEPENTHES

THE NEPENTHES CATCH EVEN
MICE AND BIRDS

THE DEATH PITCHER OF
THE SARRACENIAS

A PLANT WITH PRISON
WINDOWS

AN AUSTRALIAN PLANT WITH
TWO KINDS OF LEAVES

PLANTS THAT KILL EVEN
THE POWERFUL LION

NATURE’S AVIATORS AND
SEED-SOWERS

THE WILLOW ALSO PRODUCES
FLYING SEEDS

SEEDS OF THE SYCAMORE A DIFFERENT
TYPE OF FLYING MACHINE

PLANT TRAVELERS
ON LAND

HOW THE CACTUS DEFENDS
ITS LIFE

THE AMERICAN AGAVE, OR
“CENTURY PLANT”

THE CURIOUS MISTLETOE, A
ROBBER PLANT OR PARASITE

A PLANT THAT GROWS
IN SNOW

THE PRIMARY USE OF LIQUID
RUBBER TO PLANTS

SCIENTIFIC TERMS USED IN BOTANY
Completely Classified, Illustrated and Exemplified