The Circle of Knowledge: A Classified, Simplified, Visualized Book of Answers


CHINESE (Yellow)	JAPANESE (Yellow)	SIAMESE (Yellow)	BURMESE (Yellow)

MAORI (Brown)	SAMOAN (Brown)	JAVANESE (Brown)	SIBERIAN (Yellow)

ARABIAN (White)	EGYPTIAN (White)	BERBER (White)	NUBIAN (Black)

INDIAN (Red)	ESKIMO (Red)	SUDANESE (Black)	ZULU (Black)

BOOK OF RACES AND PEOPLES

Man, though a member of the animal kingdom, is so superior and distinctive that he must be set entirely apart for special consideration. The branches of knowledge or science, concerning his nature, origin and development are of the highest importance to us because of their relation to our very selves as part of the great family of Mankind. Strictly speaking, there can be but one science of man—Anthropology—but the various parts of this supreme science have received various district names. (1) Man as an animal belongs to Biology and Zoology; (2) his structure and functions belong to Anatomy and Physiology; (3) his mind falls under Psychology; (4) the facts and theories as to his speech and language come under Philology; (5) the study of the various races, their origin, physical and mental differences, migrations, and geographical distribution, falls under Ethnology; and (6) human culture, or civilization, which includes government, social institutions, customs and usages, traditions, folklore, religion, etc., belong to Sociology. In a certain sense, Anthropology also includes History, which is the record of the doings of civilized man in the order in which they occurred; but this branch of knowledge is so vast in itself that it is usually assigned a province of its own.

MAN AND THE HUMAN FAMILY

In the colorless language of science, man is classed under the order Primates (Lat., primus, first) and suborder Bimana (Lat., bis, twice; manus, a hand) which means a two-handed animal. Although the contrast between man and other animals is more distinct among the higher members of the human species, it may be traced in all. It is less of degree than of kind, and is rather intellectual and spiritual than physical.

In size man is dwarfed by numerous animals; in strength he is no match for some that do not attain his proportions. He is short-sighted compared to the eagle; deaf compared to the hare; and almost without the sense of smell compared to the wild dog or the vulture, who perceives the faintest scent borne to it upon the breeze.

HOW MAN DIFFERS FROM
OTHER ANIMALS

In adult life man is unique in his erect posture, and in the freedom of his hands from any direct share in locomotion. His body is usually naked, his canine teeth are not longer than their neighbors, his thumbs are larger than those of monkeys, and his feet are distinguished by the horizontal sole which rests flatly on the ground. His face is notably more vertical than that of apes, lying below rather than in front of the forepart of the brain-case; the jaws, the orbits, and the ridges above them are relatively smaller; the nose-bones project more beyond the upper jaw; and the chin is more prominent than in other Primates.

BRAIN-POWER THE SUPREME
DIFFERENCE

Probably the most important difference between man and other members of the same or any order, is the higher physical development of the brain. Not only is the size greater in proportion to the rest of the body, but it presents a more elaborate series of folds, or convolutions. When it is understood that the physical processes corresponding to the highest mental activities are located in the cortex, or rind of the brain, it is seen that the extent and number of the convolutions, by increasing the area of the cortex, must play a considerable part in determining the intellectual effectiveness of the animal.

In addition to mere size of brain, may be noted the adaptability of his hands to many uses, allowing a degree of skill impossible to other animals. The senses, too, are so nicely balanced and accurately adjusted as to enable him to obtain an intimate acquaintance with the properties of the world around him, in a manner that will contribute to his pleasure, and at the same time ensure his elevation and happiness. He possesses the gift of language by which to denote his wants; the colors of the earth and sea and sky gladden his eye; melody enchants his ear; the sweet odors of flowers delight his nostrils; the fruits of summer please his palate; the glorious sun and the spangled canopy of heaven entrance him—and all lead him to the contemplation of the Deity, of whose wondrous scheme he is himself the corner-stone.

When differences other than physical are considered, the superiority of man is so great as to incline many to the opinion that he is a separate creation on the ground of his mentality alone.

However great this superiority is, it does not appear that man possesses any faculty or fairly fundamental mental process which is not possessed in some degree by some lower animal or other. Memory, the powers of abstraction, and of reasoning are possessed by certain animals, if only in a very simple form.

He alone can produce fire; and this acquaintance with fire and the art of cooking has also frequently been regarded as the most distinctive characteristic of the human race. Clothing and decoration are also early peculiarities of man. Alone among animals, he covers himself with the skins of the beasts he has slain, and adorns himself with feathers, shells, teeth, and bones. Yet from these simple beginnings all the arts gradually developed.

MAN AND HIS
DEAD

Man is one of the few animals to pay special attention to his dead. Funeral rites differ much from place to place, and form a special subject of anthropological study. Tumuli, pyramids, standing-stones, and other forms of funeral monument have each their history and implications. Especially does man almost everywhere believe in some sort of survival of the individual after death, and in the existence within himself of a soul or spirit which outlives its fleshly habitation. The origin of religion is largely connected with these ideas of a future life and a future world. Herbert Spencer traces it directly to the theory of hosts and ancestor-worship; Dr. Tylor, to what he calls animism, or the belief in souls universally pervading all natural objects.

Man alone also wilfully indulges in intoxicating, stupefying, or exciting substances, such as alcohol, tobacco, bhang, opium, hashish, etc.

THE GREAT QUESTION OF
MAN’S ORIGIN

As to man’s origin, two main views may be said at present to contest the field. Has man sprung from a single or from several stocks? Do the races of men constitute so many members of one family, or are they four or more unrelated groups? One answer, formerly the accepted one, is based either upon the literal interpretation of Scripture or upon natural theology, and regards him as a distinct creation, separate from and superior to the remaining animals. The other, accepted by many competent authorities, regards him as descended from a hairy ancestor, more or less remotely allied to the anthropoid apes. This theory of his antecedents has been elaborated in profuse detail by Charles Darwin, whose Descent of Man forms the great storehouse of information and speculation on the question. In the beginning, according to the evolutionary view, man was apparently homogeneous—a single species, speaking a single primitive rude tongue (largely eked out by signs and gesture-language), and not divided into distinct varieties. At an early period, however, the species broke up into several races, now inhabiting various parts of the world.

MAN’S PRIMEVAL HOME AND HIS
EARLIEST KNOWN REMAINS

If man is therefore essentially one, he cannot have had more than one primeval home. This human cradle, as it may be called, has been located with some certainty in the Eastern Archipelago, and more particularly in the island of Java, where in 1892 Dr. Eugene Dubois brought to light the earliest known remains that can be described as distinctly human. From the Pliocene (late Tertiary) beds of the Trinil district he recovered some teeth, a skull, and a thigh-bone of a being whom he named the Pithecanthropus erectus, thereby indicating an “Ape-man that could walk.”

In this “first man,” as he has been designated, the erect position, shown by the perfectly human thigh-bone, implies a perfectly prehensile (grasping) hand, with opposable thumb, the chief instrument of human progress, while the cranial capacity suggests vocal organs sufficiently developed for the first rude utterances of articulate speech.

PROBABLY THE FIRST
MIGRATIONS OF MAN

The Javanese man was thus already well equipped for his long migrations round the globe. Armed with stone, wooden, bone, and other weapons that lay at hand, and gifted with mental powers far beyond those of all other animals, he was assured of success from the first. He certainly had no knowledge of navigation; but that was not needed to cross inland seas, open waters, and broad estuaries which, indeed, did not exist in Pliocene and later times. The road was open across the Indian Ocean to Madagascar and South Africa by the now submerged Indo-African Continent. The Eastern Archipelago still formed part of the Asiatic mainland from which it is separated even now by shallow waters, in many places scarcely fifty fathoms deep. Eastwards the way was open to New Guinea, and thence across Torres Strait to Australia and thence to the Islands of the Pacific Ocean. In the northern hemisphere Europe could be reached from Africa by three routes, one across the Strait of Gibraltar, another between Tunis, Malta, Sicily and Italy, and a third from Cyrenaica across the Ægean to Greece, and the British Isles from Europe via the Strait of Dover and the shallow North Sea. Lastly, the New World was accessible both from Asia across Bering Strait, and from Europe through the Orkneys, the Shetlands, the Faroes, Iceland, and Greenland. Here were, therefore, sufficient land connections for early man to have gradually spread from his Javanese cradle to the uttermost confines of the habitable globe.

THE OLDEST EXTANT REMAINS OF THE HUMAN RACE


APE-MAN OF JAVA (Pithecanthropus erectus)	PILTDOWN MAN
as restored from the remains found by Dr. Dubois in Java in 1892. It is estimated that he lived at least 500,000 years ago.	of Sussex, England, whose antiquity is thought to be over 100,000 years. This restored model indicates a marked progress in type and intelligence.

NEANDERTHAL MAN	CRO-MAGNON MAN
whose remains were found in central France. It is probably a type of a hunting race existent more than 25,000 years ago.	skeletons of which type were found in the grotto of Cro-Magnon, VÉzÈre valley, France, in 1868. Supposed antiquity, 12,000 years.

WHEN THE WORLD WAS
FIRST PEOPLED

Much trustworthy evidence has been collected to show that the whole world had really been peopled during the period which roughly coincides with what is known in geology as the Ice Age; that is, when a large part of the northern and southern hemispheres was subject to invasions of thick-ribbed ice advancing successively from both poles. The migrations were most probably begun before the appearance of the first great ice-wave, then arrested and resumed alternately between the glacial intervals, and completed after the last glacial epoch, say, some two or three hundred thousand years ago.

At that time the various wandering groups had already made considerable progress both in physical and mental respects, as is seen in the Neanderthal skull, which is the oldest yet found in Europe, standing about midway between the Javanese ape-man and the present low races. All were still very much alike, presenting a sort of generalized human type which may be called Pleistocene man, a common undeveloped form, which did not begin to specialize—that is, to evolve the existing varieties until the several primitive groups had reached their respective homes as disclosed at the dawn of history.

EVIDENCES OF MAN’S ADVANCEMENT
IN PREHISTORIC AGES

From human remains, weapons, tools and other vestiges of human activity, found in the more recent deposits on the earth’s surface, the presence of man in these far off ages is made increasingly certain. The Pleistocene or Quaternary epoch, as represented by these objects of primitive culture, ranged over a vast period of time which has been conveniently divided into two great epochs, the Paleolithic or Old Stone, and the Neolithic or New Stone Age, these being so named from the material chiefly used by primitive peoples in the manufacture of their weapons and other implements. The distinction between the two periods, which are not to be taken as chronological, since they overlap in many places, is based essentially on the different treatment of the material, which during the immeasurably longer Old Stone Age was at first merely chipped, flaked, or otherwise rudely fashioned, but in the New more carefully worked and polished.

MAN IN THE OLD
STONE AGE

Evidence is, however, that it is not always possible to draw any clear line between the Old and New Stone Ages. In one respect the former was towards its close even in advance of the latter, and quite a “Paleolithic School of Art” was developed during a long period of steady progress in the sheltered VÉzÈre valley, of South France. Here were produced some of those remarkable stone, horn, and even ivory scrapers, gravers, harpoons, ornaments and statuettes with carvings on the round, and skilful etchings of seals, fishes, reindeer, harnessed horses, mammoths, snakes, and man himself, which also occur in other districts.

In Tunisia many implements lie under a thick bed of Pleistocene limestone deposited by a river which has since disappeared. The now absolutely lifeless Libyan plateau is strewn with innumerable worked flints, showing that early man inhabited this formerly fertile region before it was reduced by the slowly changing climate to a waste of sands. The same story of man’s great age is told by discoveries in Burma, India, North and especially South America, and now also in Great Britain.

MAN IN THE NEW
STONE AGE

Outstanding features of the New Stone Age are the Swiss and other lake-dwellings, the Danish peat-beds with their varied contents, the shell-mounds occurring on the seaboard in many parts of the world.

In the more civilized regions, such as Egypt, Babylonia, parts of Asia Minor, and the Ægean lands, the Stone Ages were at an early date followed by a period vaguely designated as “prehistoric,” during which stone as the material of human implements was gradually replaced by the metals, first copper, then various copper alloys (arsenic, sulphur, nickel, cobalt, zinc, and especially tin) generally called bronze, lastly iron.

1 to 29.—Implements of the Stone Age. 30 to 48.—Implements of the Bronze and Early Iron Ages. 49 to 60.— Implements of the Late Iron Age.

Large illustration (273 kB)

Thus were constituted the so-called Metal Ages, during which, however, overlappings were everywhere so frequent that in many localities it is quite impossible to draw any well-marked dividing lines between the successive metal periods. Indeed a direct transition from Stone to Iron may be suspected in some places, and in any case the pure copper period appears to have nowhere been of long duration except in America, where there was no iron and little bronze.

THE AGE OF LETTERS
OR PICTOGRAPHS

Besides the metals, letters also, or at least pictorial writings such as the old rock carvings of Upper Egypt, were introduced in the Prehistoric Age, which comprises that transitional period dim memories of which lingered on far into historic times. It was an age of popular myths, folklore, demi-gods, heroes, traditions of real events, and even philosophic theories on man and his surroundings, which supplied ready to hand the copious materials afterwards worked up by the early poets, founders of new religions, and later lawgivers.

So also in China the early historians still remembered the still earlier “Age of the Three Rulers,” when people lived in caves, ate wild fruits and uncooked food, drank the blood of animals, and wore the skins of wild beasts (our Old Stone Age). Later they became less rude, learned to obtain fire by friction, and built themselves habitations of wood and foliage (our New Stone Age).

Of strictly historic times the most characteristic feature is the general use of letters, most fruitful of human inventions, since by its means everything worth preserving was perpetuated, and all useful knowledge thus tended to become accumulative. Writing systems, as we understand them, were not suddenly introduced, but gradually evolved from pictures representing things and ideas to conventional signs or symbols which first represent words, as in the Chinese script and our ciphers, and then articulate sounds, as in our alphabet. Between the two extremes—the pictograph and the letter—there are various intermediate forms, such as the rebus and the full syllable, and these transitional forms are largely preserved both in the Egyptian and Babylonian systems, which thus help to show how the pure phonetic symbols were finally reached. That was probably six thousand years ago, since we find various ancient scripts widely diffused over the Greek Archipelago (Crete, Cyprus, Asia Minor) in very early times. The hieroglyphic and cuneiform systems whence they originated were very much older, since the rock inscriptions of Upper Egypt are prior to all historic records, while the Mesopotamian city of Nippur already possessed half-pictorial, half-phonetic documents some six thousand years before the New Era.

This is an inscription in hieroglyphic writing found at Meidum, Egypt. It records the life events of King Rahotep and his Queen Nefert.

Here is an Egyptian pictograph representing the Nubians bearing gifts to the King of Egypt.

Large illustrations:
Top (233 kB)
Bottom (232 kB)

DEVELOPMENT OF THE HUMAN RACE THROUGH THE AGES

This chart falls within the Cenozoic (se´no-zo´ik), or “Recent life,” Period of the Earth and should be compared with it. Estimated Age of the Cenozoic Period, 3,000,000 years.

Geological Epochs of the Earth		Successive Upward Stages in the Development of Civilized Man		Estimated Time and Duration of Periods
Quaternary (KwÄ-ter´na-ri) or “Fourth” Sedimentary System of the Earth. Age of Man.	Recent or Alluvial Epoch; called by Geologists Holocene (ho´lo-sen)	Historic Period.—Rise of Civilization through the gradual organization of mankind into social groups and nations, for the protection of life, liberty and property and the advancement of the arts, sciences and religion.	Age of Letters or Pictorial Writing This period offers an unbroken record of events from the first dated monuments and documents down to the present day. With the discoveries of archÆologists in Babylonia, Egypt, Southern Arabia, and the Ægean lands, the beginnings of historic times are constantly receding farther into the background, and to the Mesopotamian city of Nippur is already ascribed an antiquity of about eight thousand years.	800 B.C. to Present Time.
			Late Iron Age In this age man begins to bestir himself towards discovery and invention. He organizes into tribes, makes laws, records observations—in fact, develops into nations such as manifest themselves on the earliest monuments of Egypt and Babylonia. In Europe it is characterized by forms of implements, weapons, personal ornaments, and pottery, and also by systems of decorative design, which are altogether different from those of the Bronze Age.	In Europe, 500 B.C. to Roman times.
			Early Iron Age, or Hallstatt Period The earliest evidence of this age was found near Hallstatt, in Upper Austria, in a famous Celtic burial-ground. The excavations here yielded swords, daggers, javelins, spears, helmets, axes, shields, and various forms of jewelry, also amber and glass beads; silver was apparently not known. Most of the weapons were of iron, only a few being of bronze.	In Europe, 1000 to 500 B.C. In Orient 1800 to 1000 B.C.
			Bronze Age Here flint is cast aside, and gold as an ornament begins to attract him. This was the stage reached by the Aztecs and the aborigines of Peru when discovered by Europeans in the early sixteenth century. The implements and weapons include knives, saws, sickles, awls, gouges, hammers, anvils, axes, swords, daggers, spears, arrows, shields. The forms of each class differ in different areas, and vary with advancing time. The workmanship is always of a very high order, the shapes graceful, and the finish fine.	In Europe, 2000 to 1000 B.C. In Orient 4000 to 1800 B.C.
	Pleistocene (plis´to-sen) or Glacial Epoch		New Stone Age or Neolithic (Gr., neos, new; lithos, stone) The Neolithic implements occur in river-terraces, alluvial deposits, lake dwellings and caves. The weapons and tools were made of highly polished stone. With the relics of Neolithic man are found remains of the Irish elk, the reindeer, beaver, brown bear, etc. Besides these were the remains of domesticated forms such as the cat, horse, sheep, dog, and goat. The tribes were acquainted with agriculture, and were advanced in the arts of weaving and pottery-making.	In Europe, about 12,000 to 3000 B.C. Cro-Magnon, and Grimaldi Races (about 10,000 B.C.)
		Pre-historic Period.—Dawn of mind, industry and art. This period merged imperceptibly into the more strictly historic period when letters were introduced.	Old Stone Age or Paleolithic (Gr., palaios, ancient; lithos, stone) The men of this age were hunters, and the remains of successive hunting races have been found in the deposits of caves, river gravels, and other sediments. They used rude hatchets and other implements of rough, unpolished stone which occur in association with relics of northern (mammoth, reindeer, cave-bear) and southern mammalia (lion, leopard, hippopotamus). The walls of their caves are covered with rough sketches of animals belonging to that period. The men who inhabited the caves of Europe in Paleolithic time were very similar to the modern Eskimo.	In Europe, about 125,000 to 12,000 B.C. Neanderthal Man (about 25,000 B.C.) Piltdown Man (about 110,000 B.C.)
			Dawn Stone Age, or Eolithic Primitive man existed even earlier than paleolithic man. It is certain that, in order that man possess the necessary skill exhibited in the flint implements, he must have passed through a previous and necessarily less skillful stage. Evidences of this period have been claimed to exist in the Plateau-gravels of Kent, Belgium and Egypt.	About 525,000 to 125,000 B.C. Heidelberg Man (about 250,000 B.C.) Pithecanthropus (about 475,000 B.C.)
Tertiary (ter-shi-a-ri), or “third.” Age of mammals.	Pliocene (pli´o-sen), or “more recent.”		Period of the probable appearance of the Human Races.	...
Tertiary (ter-shi-a-ri), or “third.” Age of mammals.	Miocene (mi´o-sen), or “less recent.”		Gradual formation of man-like types.	...

Geological Epochs of the Earth		Successive Upward Stages in the Development of Civilized Man		Estimated Time and Duration of Periods
Quaternary (KwÄ-ter´na-ri) or “Fourth” Sedimentary System of the Earth. Age of Man.	Recent or Alluvial Epoch; called by Geologists Holocene (ho´lo-sen)	Historic Period.—Rise of Civilization through the gradual organization of mankind into social groups and nations, for the protection of life, liberty and property and the advancement of the arts, sciences and religion.	Age of Letters or Pictorial Writing This period offers an unbroken record of events from the first dated monuments and documents down to the present day. With the discoveries of archÆologists in Babylonia, Egypt, Southern Arabia, and the Ægean lands, the beginnings of historic times are constantly receding farther into the background, and to the Mesopotamian city of Nippur is already ascribed an antiquity of about eight thousand years.	800 B.C. to Present Time.
			Late Iron Age In this age man begins to bestir himself towards discovery and invention. He organizes into tribes, makes laws, records observations—in fact, develops into nations such as manifest themselves on the earliest monuments of Egypt and Babylonia. In Europe it is characterized by forms of implements, weapons, personal ornaments, and pottery, and also by systems of decorative design, which are altogether different from those of the Bronze Age.	In Europe, 500 B.C. to Roman times.
			Early Iron Age, or Hallstatt Period The earliest evidence of this age was found near Hallstatt, in Upper Austria, in a famous Celtic burial-ground. The excavations here yielded swords, daggers, javelins, spears, helmets, axes, shields, and various forms of jewelry, also amber and glass beads; silver was apparently not known. Most of the weapons were of iron, only a few being of bronze.	In Europe, 1000 to 500 B.C. In Orient 1800 to 1000 B.C.
			Bronze Age Here flint is cast aside, and gold as an ornament begins to attract him. This was the stage reached by the Aztecs and the aborigines of Peru when discovered by Europeans in the early sixteenth century. The implements and weapons include knives, saws, sickles, awls, gouges, hammers, anvils, axes, swords, daggers, spears, arrows, shields. The forms of each class differ in different areas, and vary with advancing time. The workmanship is always of a very high order, the shapes graceful, and the finish fine.	In Europe, 2000 to 1000 B.C. In Orient 4000 to 1800 B.C.
	Pleistocene (plis´to-sen) or Glacial Epoch		New Stone Age or Neolithic (Gr., neos, new; lithos, stone) The Neolithic implements occur in river-terraces, alluvial deposits, lake dwellings and caves. The weapons and tools were made of highly polished stone. With the relics of Neolithic man are found remains of the Irish elk, the reindeer, beaver, brown bear, etc. Besides these were the remains of domesticated forms such as the cat, horse, sheep, dog, and goat. The tribes were acquainted with agriculture, and were advanced in the arts of weaving and pottery-making.	In Europe, about 12,000 to 3000 B.C. Cro-Magnon, and Grimaldi Races (about 10,000 B.C.)
		Pre-historic Period.—Dawn of mind, industry and art. This period merged imperceptibly into the more strictly historic period when letters were introduced.	Old Stone Age or Paleolithic (Gr., palaios, ancient; lithos, stone) The men of this age were hunters, and the remains of successive hunting races have been found in the deposits of caves, river gravels, and other sediments. They used rude hatchets and other implements of rough, unpolished stone which occur in association with relics of northern (mammoth, reindeer, cave-bear) and southern mammalia (lion, leopard, hippopotamus). The walls of their caves are covered with rough sketches of animals belonging to that period. The men who inhabited the caves of Europe in Paleolithic time were very similar to the modern Eskimo.	In Europe, about 125,000 to 12,000 B.C. Neanderthal Man (about 25,000 B.C.) Piltdown Man (about 110,000 B.C.)
			Dawn Stone Age, or Eolithic Primitive man existed even earlier than paleolithic man. It is certain that, in order that man possess the necessary skill exhibited in the flint implements, he must have passed through a previous and necessarily less skillful stage. Evidences of this period have been claimed to exist in the Plateau-gravels of Kent, Belgium and Egypt.	About 525,000 to 125,000 B.C. Heidelberg Man (about 250,000 B.C.) Pithecanthropus (about 475,000 B.C.)
Tertiary (ter-shi-a-ri), or “third.” Age of mammals.	Pliocene (pli´o-sen), or “more recent.”		Period of the probable appearance of the Human Races.	...
Tertiary (ter-shi-a-ri), or “third.” Age of mammals.	Miocene (mi´o-sen), or “less recent.”		Gradual formation of man-like types.	...

From the pictorial and plastic remains recovered from these two earliest seats of the higher cultures it is now placed beyond doubt that all the great divisions of the human family had at that time already been fully developed. Even in the New Stone Age, the present European type had been thoroughly established, as shown by the remains of the “Cro-Magnon Race,” so called from the cave of that name in Perigord, France, where the first specimens were discovered. In Egypt, where a well-developed social and political organization may be traced back to the seventh century B.C., Professor Petrie discovered in 1897 the portrait statue of a prince of the fifth dynasty (3700 B.C.) showing regular Caucasic features. Still older is the portrait of the Babylonian King Sargon (3800 B.C.), also with handsome features which might be either Semitic or even Aryan. Thus the Caucasic, that is, the highest human type, had already been not only evolved but spread over a wide area (Europe, Egypt, Mesopotamia) some thousands of years before the New Era. The other chief types (Mongol, Negro, and even Negrito) are also clearly portrayed on early Egyptian monuments, so that all the primary groups had already reached maturity probably before the close of the Old Stone Age.

Early picture writing of the Chippewa (Ojibwa) Indians.

But these primary groups did not remain stationary in their several original homes; on the contrary they have been subject to great and continual fluctuations throughout historic times. Armed with a general knowledge of letters and other cultural appliances, the higher races soon took a foremost place in the general progress of mankind, and gradually acquired a marked ascendency, not only over the less cultured peoples, but to a great extent over the forces of nature herself. With the development of navigation, and improved methods of locomotion, inland seas, barren wastes, and mountain ranges ceased to present insurmountable obstacles to their movements, which have never been completely arrested, and are still going on.

HOW THE RACES ARE
CLASSIFIED

On the basis of bodily characteristics, including form, color and features, modern ethnologists have divided mankind into four primary groups, or families: the Caucasian, Mongolian (or Tartar), Negro and American; or, according to color, the white, yellow, black and red races. It must not be supposed that these types were sharply marked off from one another; indeed, there must have been a great range of varieties then, as now, due to the conditions under which man lived, as well as to actual race mixtures.

It is probable, however, that all these primary groups had reached definite characteristics before the close of the Stone Age.

The term Caucasian is taken from the mountain-range between the Black and Caspian seas, near which region the finest physical specimens of man have always been found. Mongolian is derived from the wandering races that inhabited the plateaus of central Asia. Negro is the Spanish word for “black.” American is applied to the red, or copper-colored, race found in this continent when it was discovered.

The sub-joined table brings into parallel columns the chief distinguishing characteristics of the races:

PHYSICAL AND MENTAL CHARACTERS OF THE PRIMARY HUMAN GROUPS

Points of Contrast	Caucasian, or White	Mongolian, or Yellow	Negro, or Black	American, or Red
Hair	Rather long, straight, wavy and curly, black, all shades of brown, red, flaxen.	Coarse, lank, dull black, round in transverse section.	Short, jet black, wooly, flat in transverse section.	Very long, coarse, black, lank, nearly round in section.
Skin	White, florid, pale, swarthy, brown and even blackish; altogether very variable.	Dirty yellowish and brown (Malays.)	Very dark brown or blackish.	Coppery, yellowish, various shades of brown.
Skull	Two distinct types; long, 74, and short, 80 to 90.	Short; index 84 to 90.	Long; index 72.	Very variable; ranging from 70 to over 90.
Cheekbone	Small, inconspicuous but high in some places.	High prominent laterally.	Small, somewhat retreating.	Moderately prominent.
Nose	Large, straight or arched (hooked, aquiline), narrow.	Very small, snub, but variable.	Flat, small, very broad at base.	Large, arched, rather narrow.
Eyes	Blue, gray, black, brown, moderately large, and always straight.	Small, black, oblique; vertical fold of skin over inner canthus.	Large, round, black, prominent, yellowish cornea.	Small, round, straight, black sunken.
Stature	Variable; 5 ft. 4 in. to 6 ft.	Undersized; 5 ft. 4 in., but very variable.	Above the mean; 5 ft. 10 in; Negrito often under 4 ft.	Above the mean; 5 ft. 8 in. to over 6 ft., but variable.
Speech	Mainly inflecting; in the Caucasus agglutinating.	Agglutinating, with postfixes; isolating, with tones.	Agglutinating; of various and postfix types.	Polysynthetic almost exclusively.
Temperament	Serious, steadfast, solid in the north; fiery, impulsive, south; active, enterprising, imaginative everywhere; science, art, and letters highly developed.	Sluggish, somewhat sullen with little initiative but great endurance, generally frugal and thrifty; moral standard low; little science; art and letters moderately developed.	Sensuous, indolent, improvident, fitful, passing easily from comedy to tragedy, little sense of dignity, hence easily enslaved; slight mental development after puberty.	Moody, taciturn, wary, impassive in presence of strangers; science and letters slightly, art moderately developed.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES OF MANKIND

DISTRIBUTION OF THE CAUCASIAN OR
WHITE DIVISION OF MANKIND

Original Home.—North Africa between Sahara and the Mediterranean.

Early Expansion.—To Europe, the Eurasian Steppes between the Carpathians and the Pamir, Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine, Arabia, Mesopotamia, Iran, or Persia, India, Northeast Asia, Southeast Asia, Malaysia, Polynesia.

Later Expansions.—The Caucasian race has now spread, through colonization, over the whole world, but its proper region is Europe, western Asia, and the northern strip of Africa Nine-tenths of the people of Europe belong to the Caucasian family, the other tenth consisting of the Turks, the Magyars (in Hungary), the Finns, the Laplanders, and the tribe called Samoieds in the extreme northeast of European [276] Russia. In Asia, the Caucasians include the Arabs, the Persians, the Afghans, and the Hindus. In Africa, the Caucasians are spread over the whole north, from the Mediterranean to the south of the Sahara Desert, and to the farthest border of Abyssinia as well as to the greater portion of South Africa. In North and South America three-fourths of the people are now Caucasian. In Australia and New Zealand the Caucasian colonists have almost extinguished the native races.

Religion.—The Caucasian race now supports various forms of Christianity in Europe, America, and their Colonies; Buddhism in India; Mohammedanism in Central Asia, Siberia, Turkey, Arabia, North Africa, Irania, India, Malaysia. Originally nature-worship was more pronounced than the cult of ancestor-worship. The Egyptians did not worship but embalmed the dead. The chief gods of the Semites were those of the sun and moon; and those of the Aryans were Dyaus, Indra, Zeus, Jupiter, Apollo, Saturn, etc., all personified elements of the upper regions which later became the basis of extensive systems of mythology. Later these forces were symbolized in wood or stone, which led to idolatry—that is, the worship of the image itself, which still persists among the uneducated in some parts of Christendom. The belief in magic, demons, witchcraft, omens, ghosts and allied superstitions was also very prevalent.

Out of the general polytheism were slowly evolved various shades of monotheism, whence arose the historical religions of the West, such as Judaism, Christianity and Mohammedanism, while crass polytheism persisted in the East—Brahmanism in India, degraded forms of Buddhism in Ceylon and elsewhere. Intermediate between monotheism and polytheism was the Persian religion, which refers light and all good to Ormuzd and his host of angels, night and all evil to Ahriman and his host of demons. Although already denounced by Isaiah, whose Jehovah is the one source of all things, this twofold principle no doubt found its way into the early Christian teachings.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE MONGOLIC
OR YELLOW DIVISION

Original Domain.—Probably the Tibetan tableland.

Early Expansion.—Mongolia, Siberia, China, Indo-China, Malaysia, Mesopotamia (?). The earlier Mongolians were extremely migratory, but the more settled tribes developed into the later Japanese, Chinese. Burmese, Siamese, and other peoples in the southeast and east of Asia; and the native tribes of the Siberian plains. The wandering tribes developed into the Turks, Magyars (Hungarians), Finns, Laplanders, and Samoeids, of Europe, and the Esquimaux of America.

Religion.—Animism in the widest sense is the dominant note of Mongolian religions. The worship of spirits extended both to the disembodied human soul (ancestor-worship, which is now perhaps the most prevalent form) and to the innumerable spirits, bad and good, which people earth, air, water, the celestial and underground regions. Although nominal Buddhists, the Chinese, Indo-Chinese, and Mongols live in terror of malevolent spirits, and the Annamese scrupulously observe “Roast-pig Day,” as they call their All-Souls Day, by littering the graves of the dead with scraps of victuals. Among the Siberians this spirit-cult takes the form of Shamanism, in which the Shaman (wizard or medicine man) is the “paid medium” of communication between his dupes and the invisible good or evil genii. In Tibet demonology still survives beneath the official Lamaism; the Eastern Siberians are Bear-worshipers; and the Polynesians have deified both the living and dead members of their dynasties.

The historical religions are largely a question of race, the Mongols proper, Manchus, Koreans, Japanese, Chinese, Indo-Chinese, and Tibetans being at least nominal Buddhists. The Turks, Tartars, and most Malays are Mohammedans; and the Finns, Lapps, and Magyars now Christians. Other so-called state religions—Confucianism and Taoism in China, Shintoism and Bushidoism in Japan are other ethical codes fostered and upheld for political purposes.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE NEGRO,
OR BLACK RACE

Original Domain.—The Eastern, or Oceanic, Section had its home in Malaysia, Andamans, Philippines, New Guinea, Melanesia, Australia, Tasmania; with no later expansion. The Western, or African, Section lived in Africa south of the Sahara.

Later Expansion.—Subsequently the Africans spread, either voluntarily or were taken as slaves to Madagascar, north Africa, southern United States, West Indies, and Latin America.

Religion.—Spirit-worship very prevalent among native Negro races, and totemism in Australia. The Melanesian system is distinctly animistic, distinguishing between pure spirits, that is, supernatural beings that never were in a human body, and ghosts—that is, men’s disembodied spirits revisiting their former abodes. There are prayer, sacrifice, divination, omens, death and burial rites, a Hades too, with trees and houses, as on earth, also a ghostly ruler, but no supreme being. There is little or nothing of all this in Australia or New Guinea, where the religious sentiment is so little developed that many close observers have failed to detect it.

Among African tribes, though religion is animistic, ancestor-worship seems much more prevalent than nature-worship. There is no supreme being anywhere. The chief deities are Munkulunkulu, with many variants along the eastern seaboard, and Nzambi, also with many variants on the west side, both intermingling in the interior. Witchcraft, omens, and ordeals are very prevalent; pure fetishism and human sacrifices prevail in Upper Guinea, in Uganda and other parts.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE AMERICAN,
OR RED DIVISION

Original Domain.—The New World. The chief sub-divisions were as follows:

(1) North American: Eskimo, Athabascan (Chippewaian, Taculli, Hupa, Apache, Navajo); Algonquian (Cree, Chippewa, Mohican, Delaware, Shawnee, Cheyenne, Illinois, etc.); Iroquoian (Erie, Huron, Mohawk, Tuscarora, Cherokee, etc.); Siouan (Dakota, Assinaboin, Missouri, Iowa, Winnebago, Mandan, Tutelo, Catawba); Muskhogean (Seminole, Choktaw, Creek, Chickasaw, Alibamu, Apalachi); Salish; Shoshone; Pawnee; Pueblo (ZuÑi, Hopi, Tegua).

(2) Central American: Opata-Pima (Yuma, Cora, Tarahumara, Tepeguana); Nahuan (Aztec, Huichol, Pipil, Niquiran); Maya-QuichÉ (Huaxtec, Maya, Lacandon, QuichÉ, Pocoman, Zendal, Chol, Zotzil, Cachiquel, MamÉ); Zapotec; Mixtec (MixÉ); Lencan (Chontal, Wulwa, Rama, Guatusa); Bribri; Cuna.

(3) South American: Chibcha; Choco; Quichua (Inca, Chanca); Aymara (Colla, Calchaqui); Antisuyu; Jivaro; Zaparo; Pano; Ticuna; Chuncho; Carib (Macusi, Akawai, Bakairi, Arecuna); Arawak; (Atorai, Wapisiana, Naypure, Parexi); Warrau; Chiquito; Bororo; Botocudo; Tupi-Guarani (Chiriguana, Caribuna, Goajira, Omogua, Mundrucu); [277] Payagua; Mataco; Toba; Araucan; Puelche, Tehuelche (Patagonian); Fuegian (Ona, Yahgan, Alakaluf.)

Present Restricted Domain.—The Arctic seaboard, Greenland, Alaska; numerous reservations and some unsettled parts of the United States and Canada; most tribes of Mexico, Central and South America are partly intermingled with the whites and blacks and still partly in the tribal state. By far the greater part of the native tribes never progressed beyond the savage state, except in the United States and Canada, where during the past quarter century, and particularly during the last decade, the Indians have rapidly advanced in civilization.

Religion.—Shamanism was widely diffused among the North America aborigines. But still more prevalent is the cult of the aËrial gods, who support the four quarters of the heavens, and of animals (bear, wolf, raven, jaguar) which has given rise to strange wehrwolf superstitions, and to totemistic systems similar to those of the Australian natives.

Solar worship prevailed in Peru, while the cultured peoples of Mexico (Aztecs, Mayas, Zapotecs and others) had developed a complete pantheon of ferocious deities, such as Tezcatlipoca, Quetzalcoatl and Tlaloc, whose thirst for human blood was insatiable. Thus arose an established order of priests, who sacrificed human victims on solemn occasions, and presided over other sanguinary rites often accompanied by unutterable horrors. Aztec women cast their infants into the Mexican lagoons to propitiate the Rain-god Tlaloc.

Some modern races, like the ZuÑis, have an elaborate and highly mystical ritual, to the exhibitions of which none but the initiated are admissible. The snake-dance of the Moquis of Arizona is a most curious ceremonial and attracts many visitors. The ritual of the Roman Catholic Church has strong attractions for the Indian; and the less elaborate service of the Episcopalians has in several instances helped to win over to Christianity tribes which had long rejected the teachings of missionaries of other denominations.

THE CAUCASIAN THE REAL
HISTORIC RACE

Of all these races the only one whose history is important for us is the Caucasian or white race, to which we ourselves belong. This race is “historical” because it displays the most highly civilized type of mankind,—that type whose progress and achievements are the true province of history.

THREE DIVISIONS OF THE
CAUCASIAN RACE

This grand stock—the Caucasian race—has been classified into three main branches,—(1) the Aryan or Indo-European; (2) the Semitic; (3) the Hamitic.

The Hamitic branch is named from Ham, the son of Noah, and ancestor of some of its peoples, most notable of which was the ancient empire in Egypt. Accounts of their conquests, under great dynasties of kings, have come down to us in hieroglyphic inscriptions. The Egyptians became highly civilized at a very early time, and exerted a marked influence on the civilization of succeeding ages.

The Semitic branch is so called from Shem, also a son of Noah, described in the Bible as ancestor of some of the nations which it includes. Its chief historical representatives are the Hebrews, Phoenicians, Assyrians, Arabs, and Babylonians. The early Semitic race conquered Chaldea, united Sumer and Accad, and have similarly left us records of their early civilization in cuneiform inscriptions and tablets. It is distinguished in religious history, because from it originated the three faiths whose main doctrine is that there is but one God; namely, the Jewish, the Christian, and the Mohammedan. Apart from this, and with the special exception of the ancient Phoenicians and Carthaginians, the Semitic nations have not been generally distinguished for progress and enterprise, but have mainly kept to their old home between the Mediterranean, the river Tigris, and the Red Sea.

THE SUPREMACY OF THE
ARYANS IN HISTORY

The leading part in the history of the world has been, and is still, played by the Aryan nations. The Caucasian presents us with the highest type among the five families of man; the Aryan branch of the Caucasian family presents us with the noblest pattern of that highest type.

The Aryan branch includes nearly all the present and past nations of Europe, the Greeks, Latins, Teutons or Germans, Celts and Slavonians; as well as three Asiatic peoples,—the Hindus, the Persians, and the Afghans and the modern Americans. It is the Aryans that have been the parents of new nations, and that have reached the highest point of intellectual development, as shown in their political freedom, and in their science, literature, and art.

The term Aryan is derived either from one ancient word implying that they were “cultivators of the soil,” or from another meaning “worthy, noble.” There was a time when these ancestors of the Celts, the Germans, the Slavonians, the Greeks and Italians, the Persians, the Hindus, and of nearly all the European nations, were living together, separate from the ancestors of the Semitic race. Their earliest known home was the high tableland of central Asia, north and northwest of the Himalaya Mountains, near the sources of the Oxus and Jaxartes rivers.

Through pressure of numbers, and spurred on by their own enterprising nature, these Aryan peoples for ages moved mainly westward, from their ancestral seats. A branch went southward across the Himalayas, and peopled Hindustan, Persia, and the intervening lands; another branch at different times and long intervals moved westward into Europe.

The Celts were the first European emigrants and spread themselves over a great part of the continent; as a distinct people they are now only found in parts of the British Isles and France. Later came the Italic (Latin) tribes who possessed the peninsula now known as Italy; the Hellenic (or Grecian) tribes, who occupied the peninsula of Greece; the Teutonic tribes, who replaced the Celts in central Europe, and finally also occupied Denmark and the Scandinavian peninsula (Sweden and Norway). The last of the Aryans were the Slavonians, [278] now spread over Russia, Poland, and Bohemia, and the Lithuanians, settled on the Baltic coast, partly in Prussia, partly in Russia. Thus was Europe gradually overspread by successive waves of Aryan settlement.

ARYAN CIVILIZATION BEFORE
THE MIGRATION

The study of the early Aryan languages tells us what progress had been made by this race, before the time arrived for starting south and west, to possess the Western world. Whatever words are alike in these Aryan tongues must be the names of implements, or institutions, or ideas, used or conceived before the first wave of migration made its way. We thus learn that, at that far distant time, the Aryans had houses, plowed the earth, and ground their corn in mills. The family life was settled—basis as it is of all society and law—and had risen far above the savage state. The Aryans had sheep, cattle, horses, dogs, goats, and bees; drank a beverage made of honey; could work in copper, silver, gold; fought with the sword and bow; and had the beginnings of kingly rule which subsequently became the central element of the state.

DICTIONARY OF THE HISTORICAL RACE GROUPS

Albanian (al-ba´ni-an).—The native and aboriginal race or people of Albania, unlike most of the so-called European “races,” is a distinct race physically and not merely in language. It resembles most the Celtic race, but the type is taller: the northern Albanians, like the Montenegrins, rival the Scotch and the Norwegians in stature.

The Albanians are today a mixed race, as is every European people. They are brave, but turbulent in spirit—warriors rather than workers. Even their own tribes are at enmity among themselves and tribal and family feuds are common. It is the most backward in cultivation of all; and therefore not surprising that the rate of illiteracy is one of the highest in Europe.

In religion the Albanians are about equally divided among the Mohammedan, the Catholic, and the Greek faiths.

The Albanians go under many different names. Skipetar and Arnaut are equivalents of Albanian. All mean “highlander.” Until about the fifteenth century they were called Illyrians, or Macedonians. From them came the name of the ancient Roman province of Illyricum, embracing Epirus and parts of Macedonia. All the Slavs of the Balkan Peninsula made their settlements during the middle ages. The Albanians, or Illyrians proper, previously occupied the entire country north to the Danube.

Arabian (a-ra´bi-Än).—One of the three great groups of the Semitic branch of the Caucasian race. The Arabians are related to the Hebrews and include Arabs proper and the wandering Bedouin tribes of the desert. They have long since spread out from the country that bears their name and settled in distant portions of Africa and Asia, as well as penetrated into Europe. They have given their language, through the Koran, to the vaster populations of Mohammedan faith. They are not to be confounded with the Turks who are Mongolian, Tartar, in origin and speech, rather than Caucasian. Neither are they closely related to the Syrians who are Christians and Aryans, not Semites; nor even to the Berbers and the modern Moors of north Africa, who are Hamitic rather than Semitic in origin. Yet Syrians and Moors alike have long used the Arabic tongue.

Armenian (Är-me´ni-an) or Haik.—The Aryan race, or people of Armenia, in Asiatic Turkey. In language they are more European than are the Magyars, the Finns, or the Basques of Europe. The nearest relatives of the Armenic tongue are the Persian, the Hindu, and the Gypsy. In religion the Armenians differ from all the above-named peoples excepting the Syrians in that they are Christian. They boast a church as old as that of Rome.

Only a fraction of the Armenians are found in their own country, Armenia; perhaps one-eighth. Over 1,000,000 live in Russia; 400,000 in European Turkey; 100,000 in Persia; about 15,000 in or near Hungary; and 6000 in India and Africa. About half their number still live in different parts of the Turkish dominions. Large numbers have migrated because of the persecutions of the Turks and Kurds directed against them.

Assyrians (a-sir´i-Äns).—The Assyrian is an ancient language extinct for at least two thousand years. No people today can claim pure physical descent from this stock. The arid region occupied by the early Assyrian empire has been swept by one civilization after another. Their ancient Hamitic speech was largely replaced by that of conquering Medes and Persians and, later, of Mohammedan hosts. It finally disappeared after the Babylonians and Chaldeans, who used a Semitic tongue replaced the Assyrians in Mesopotamia. Turkish, Persian, Kurdish, and Arabian blood has been added to the ancestral stock of the modern Assyrians. Reclus says: “The Assyrians and Chaldeans were either exterminated or else absorbed in the victorious races, forfeiting name, speech, and the very consciousness of their race.”

Babylonians (bab-i-lo´ni-Äns).—Babylonia has always been a land of mixed races and tongues. The earliest of the inscriptions has revealed that the first population was a people belonging to the Mongolian family. The linguistic connection was afterwards confirmed by the discovery by de Sarzec of statues of these primitive inhabitants which present an undoubted Tartar type of features. The skull is that of the Mongolian race with high cheek-bones, curly black hair, the eyes oblique and bright; the type being ethnically related to the Elamites of Susiana and the first Medean stock to which we find this early race linguistically related.

These people were not aboriginal to the plains of Chaldea, but came, as their traditions indicate, from the mountains to the northeast, and brought with them the already fairly advanced elements of civilization which they planted in Chaldea. At a very early period in the history of Babylonia the Semites appear as an element in the population, their type being clearly indicated in the sculptures connecting them with the Hebrew and northern Arabs, while the same relationship is linguistically established. From time to time, by war or commerce, other elements were introduced into the population, until almost every nation finds its representative in the “mixed crowd of nations” inhabiting the plains of Chaldea.

The Semites, having once obtained a footing in Babylonia, soon assimilated themselves to the more advanced culture of their Sumero-Accadian masters. They borrowed the cuneiform mode of writing, the religion, mythology, and much of the science of that inventive people, and so rapidly increased in numbers and power, that as early as about 3800 B.C. we find a dynasty of Semitic kings under Sargon of Accad and his son Naram-Sin, ruling in northern Babylonia.

THE WANDERING ARAB LOVES THE DESERT SANDS

Warlike by nature, here we see him scouting the silent wastes with his ever faithful companion in peace or war—restless as the shifting sands.

The desert oasis is his place of assembly for recreation or trade. In the above picture we have a view of a desert market held far remote from any city but at the junction of several caravan routes.

Basques (b?skz).—A race inhabiting the Basque provinces and other parts of Spain in the neighborhood of the Pyrenees, and part of the adjacent territory in France. They were formerly Iberian as to language, the sole non-Aryan language of western Europe. But few now live in the old province of southwestern France, Gascony, formerly called “Vasconia,” after them; about 500,000 still remain in northwestern Spain. They are a fragment, perhaps the only distinct remnant, of the pre-Aryan race of Europe. Recent researches connect them, not with the Mongolian Finns as formerly, but with the Hamitic (Caucasian) Berbers of northern Africa. They are not now easily distinguished in physical appearance from their Spanish or French neighbors, although many still speak the strange Basque tongue. The latter is not inflected, like most European (Aryan) languages, but agglutinative, like the typical languages of northern Asia.

Berbers (bÉr´bÉrz).—A race of people constituting, with the Cushites, the Hamitic family, which is found scattered over North Africa and the Sahara, from the Red Sea to the Atlantic. The complexion of the Berbers varies from white to dark brown; their features remind one of the Egyptian type; their stature is medium. They have occupied their present habitat since the dawn of history. Never have their indomitable tribes become entirely subject to a foreign master, or lost their racial and linguistic characteristics, in spite of Punic, Roman, Germanic, Arabic, and Saracen conquests. In the mountains they are agricultural; in the Sahara, nomadic. For centuries they have been the middlemen between the Mediterranean coast and the Negro states of the Sudan. In religion the Berbers are nominally Mohammedan. A few tribes have adopted the Arabic, and so have a few Arabs adopted Berber dialects. The Berber languages are often called Libyan. They number at least 7,000,000 in Morocco and Algeria and 500,000 in Tunis and Tripoli.

Bulgarians (bul-ga´ri-anz).—The people of Bulgaria are supposed to be Finnic (Mongolian) in origin, are also the most numerous people in European Turkey. The Bulgarians and their neighbors on the north, the Roumanians, are among the rare races that are physically of one stock and linguistically of another. Both possess adopted languages. While the Bulgarians appear to be Asiatics by origin who have adopted a Slavic speech, the Roumanians are Slavs who have adopted a Latin language. While the Bulgarians adopted the language of the Slavs, whom they conquered and organized politically, they were themselves swallowed up in the Slavic population. They lost not only their ancient language but their physical type. While they are the most truly Asiatic in origin of all the Slavs, they are Europeanized in appearance and character. In some respects their life is more civilized and settled than that of some of the Slavs farther west, as in Montenegro and Dalmatia. They are not only less warriors in spirit than these, but are more settled as agriculturists. Yet they seem to feel that they do not belong to the civilization of Europe, properly speaking, for they say of one who visits the countries farther west that he “goes to Europe.”

There would appear to be little doubt that the Bulgars came through southern Russia to their present home in the time of the early migrations of the middle ages. Some records locate them in the second century on the river Volga, from which they appear to have taken their name. In fact, a country called “Greater Bulgaria” was known there as late as the tenth century. If the common supposition be correct, the Bulgarians are most nearly related in origin to the Magyars of Hungary and the Finns of northern Russia. After these they are nearest of kin to the Turks, who have long lived among them as rulers. But Turks and Finns alike are but branches of the great Ural-Altaic family, which had its origin in northern Asia, probably in Mongolia.

Carthaginians.—See Phoenicians.

This group of present day Bulgarian college girls shows that a striking transformation has been wrought by European influences upon a people of Mongolian origin centuries ago.

Celts, or Kelts (kelts).—The peoples which speak languages akin to those of Wales, Ireland, the Highlands of Scotland, and Britanny, and constitute a branch or principal division of the Indo-European [281] families. Formerly these peoples occupied, partly or wholly, France, Spain, northern Italy, the western parts of Germany, and the British Islands. Of the remaining Celtic languages and peoples there are two chief divisions, viz., the Gaelic, comprising the Highlanders of Scotland, the Irish, and the Manx, and the Cymric, comprising the Welsh and Bretons.

Irish, because of its more extensive literature and greater antiquity, is considered to be the chief branch of the Gaelic group. Modern Erse or Scotch is thought to be a more recent dialect of Irish. Manx is the dialect spoken by a small number of persons in the Isle of Man. Welsh is the best preserved of the Cymric group. It has a literature nearly if not quite as rich as that of Irish, and is spoken by a larger population than any other Celtic language found in the British Isles. Low Breton, or Armorican, is the speech found in Lower Brittany, in France. It is spoken by nearly two-thirds as many persons as are all other Celtic dialects combined.

This “Celtic” race seems to have had its main center of dissemination in the highlands of the Alps of midwestern Europe. While all Celtic-speaking peoples are mixed races, those of the British Isles are distinctly long-headed and tall, in fact, are among the tallest of all Europe. It is almost impossible to give the population of the Celtic race—that is, of those whose ancestral language was Celtic—since most of its members now speak English or French only.

Chaldean.—See Babylonian.

Chinese (chi-nes´ or -nez´).—The race or people inhabiting China proper. Linguistically, one of the Sinitic groups of the Mongolian or Asiatic race. The name Chinese is also applied, erroneously from an ethnical standpoint, to all the natives of the Chinese Empire, including China proper; that is, to the entire Sibiric group. These are, on the northeast the Manchus, on the north the Mongols, on the west the tribes of Turkestan and of Thibet. The name does not properly apply to the other Sinitic peoples—the Cochin-Chinese and the Annamese of the French colonies and the Burmese of the British colonies, all of whom border on China on the south and southwest. The people of Manchuria and of Mongolia are not so nearly related linguistically to the Chinese as they are to the Japanese. All these “Sibiric” peoples have agglutinative languages, while the Chinese is monosyllabic, being more nearly related to the languages stretching from Thibet southeast to the Malay Peninsula.

The Chinese physical type is well known—yellowish in color, with slanting eyes, high cheek bones, black hair, and a flat face. The eye is more properly described as having the “Mongolic fold” at the inner angle. This mark is found to some extent in all Mongolian peoples, in the Japanese, and now and then in individuals of the European branches of this race in Russia and Austria-Hungary.

Egyptian (e-jipt´e-an).—The ancient race or people of Egypt, best represented to-day by the Copts or Fellahs, although those are generally of mixed stock. In a political sense, any native of Egypt.

The origin of the Egyptians is still a matter of dispute. It is quite probable that they were Hamitic and belonged to the Berber type. They have no real negroid trace about them, though probably there is a strain from intermarrying; thus it is likely that they may have been a fair-skinned indigenous race, mixed also with people of Asiatic origin, and a certain amount of negro blood. The earliest types, as pictured by themselves on monuments, show men of fine build with no trace of the negroid type; the males are painted red-brown and the females a light yellowish tint.

The fellah (Arabic for ploughman) forms the bulk of the peasantry. They are chiefly Mohammedan in faith, though the Copts, also natives of Egypt, have kept their Christian belief.

The Egyptian features are as unchangeable as the pyramids themselves. On the right is the sculptured likeness of Queen Tiy of four thousand years ago; on the left of an Egyptian girl of the present day.

The fellah is a hard-working and industrious person, of big build, with a fine, oval face, smooth black hair (the head is usually shaved), and well formed features. The women are often of great beauty, both in form and figure, though they lose their youth early. The Copts are racially the purest descendants of the ancient Egyptians. The coloring of the fellah varies from a fair [282] yellowish shade in Lower Egypt to a deeper tone in Middle Egypt, and in Upper Egypt the majority are a deep bronze. The Arab portion of the population are of two classes: the Arabic speaking tribes who come from the deserts, and the Hamitic tribes who speak a language of their own. The Nubians are chiefly mixed with Arab blood. The foreigners are mainly Greeks, Turks, Italians, British, French, Syrians, Levantines, and Persians.

Etrurians (e-tru´ri-anz), or Etruscans (e-trus´-kanz).—The ancient inhabitants of Etruria, the modern Tuscany. The Etrurians are the most mysterious people of antiquity. According to ancient tradition, they came from Lydia in prehistoric times, and colonized Latium. Certain details of their costumes and customs appear to be identical with those of Lydia, and the legend is probably based upon fact.

The Etruscans were proverbially a religious people. Their tombs bear witness to a belief in a future life, and a dread of the malignant power of their deities.

Greeks.—The ancient Greeks belonged to Aryan or Indo-European race. They entered Greece from the North, and as they moved south in separate tribes, the foremost tribes were impelled forward by the pressure of those behind. Even when the whole of the peninsula had been for some time filled and fully occupied, a fresh wave of immigrants swept over the whole country, disturbing everything. Such a wave was the “Return of the HeraclidÆ,” or the Dorian Invasion. The result was to drive emigrants on to and over the isles of Greece, and to plant Greek cities and Greek culture on the coasts of Asia Minor. At later times Sicily, the Black Sea, Libya, etc., were dotted with Greek colonies, the ancient Greeks were pre-eminent in philosophy and science, leaders in the civilization of their own day, and laid the foundations of modern civilization.

The modern Greek race or people is that which has descended, with considerable foreign admixture, from the ancient Greeks. While the stock has changed much, physically and otherwise, the modern language is more nearly like the ancient Greek than Italian, for instance, is like the ancient Latin.

The Greek race of today is intensely proud of its language and its history, and naturally wishes to be considered as genuinely Hellenic. The official title of the country is now the “Kingdom of Hellas,” and any citizen, however mixed in race, styles himself a Hellene. The people are wide-awake on political questions, are avid readers of newspapers, and, like the Greek of older times, eager to learn some new thing. Generally speaking, in customs, superstitions, and folklore, the modern race is a continuation of the ancient.

It may not be commonly known that the greater part of the Greeks live outside of Greece, probably twice as numerous as those in Greece. Ripley says that they form a third of the total population of the Balkan States. On the other hand, von Hellwald says that of the population of Greece itself only about 1,300,000 are truly Greek in race.

Gypsies (jip´sez).—A peculiar wandering race which appeared in eastern Europe in the fourteenth century and is now found in every country of Europe, as well as in parts of Asia, Africa, and America. The Gypsies are distinguishable from the peoples among whom they rove by their bodily appearance and by their language. Their forms are generally light, lithe, and agile; skin of a tawny color; eyes large, black and brilliant; hair long, coal black, and often ringleted; mouth well shaped; and teeth very white. Ethnologists generally concur in regarding the Gypsies as descendants of some obscure Hindu tribe. They pursue various nomadic occupations, being tinkers, basket-makers, fortune-tellers, dealers in horses, etc.; are often expert musicians; and are credited with thievish propensities. They appear to be destitute of any system of religion, but traces of various forms of paganism are found in their language and customs.

The Gypsy calls himself “Rom,” whence comes Romany as a name for the language. Special names are applied to Gypsies in the different countries where they are found. Some of these relate to the supposed origin of this singular people, as Gypsy or Egyptian in the British Isles, BohÉmien in France, Gitano (Egyptian) in Spain, and Tatare in Scandinavia. In some countries they are known, by a term of contempt, as Heiden (heathen) in Holland, Harami (robbers) in Egypt, and Tinklers in Scotland, but in most parts of Europe a local form of the word Zingani is used to designate them, as Zigeuner in Germany, Cygany in Hungary, and Zingari in Spain.

Intermarriage with other peoples is becoming more frequent. Through loss of language, the assumption of a sedentary life, and intermarriage, Gypsies are decreasing in numbers and seem everywhere doomed to extinction by absorption.

Of the total population of Gypsies in the world, three-fourths are in Europe. There are 200,000 in Roumania, 100,000 each in Hungary and the Balkan Peninsula, 50,000 each in Spain, Russia and Servia, and 50,000 in Germany and Italy combined. The number in the British Isles is variously estimated at from 5,000 to 20,000. There are thought to be 100,000 in Asia and 25,000 in Africa. Only a few thousand are found in the Americas.

Hebrews (he´bruz), Jewish or Israelite.—The race or people that originally spoke the Hebrew language. They were primarily of Semitic origin, and according to tradition, descended from Heber, the great-grandson of Shem, in the line of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. They are scattered throughout Europe, especially in Russia, yet preserve their own individuality to a marked degree. Linguistically, the nearest relatives of the ancient Hebrew are the Syriac, Assyrian, and Arabic languages. While the Hebrew is not so nearly a dead language as the related Syrian, Aramaic, or the ancient Assyrian, its use in most Jewish communities is confined mainly to religious exercises. The Jews have adopted the languages of the peoples with whom they have long been associated. More speak Yiddish, called in Europe “Judeo-German,” than any other language, since the largest modern population of Jews borders on eastern Germany and has been longest under German influence.

Physically the Hebrew is a mixed race. In every country, however, they are found to approach in type the people among whom they have long resided. The two chief divisions of the Jewish people are the northern type, and the Spanish or southern type. The latter are now found mainly in the countries southeast of Austria. They consider themselves to be of purer race than the northern Jews and in some countries refuse to intermarry or worship with the latter. Their features are more truly Semitic.

The social solidarity of the Jews is chiefly a product of religion and tradition. Taking all factors into account, and especially their type of civilization, the Jews of today are more truly European than Asiatic or Semitic.

The Jews are endowed with the most varied qualities, as shown by the whole course of their checkered history. Originally pure nomads, the Israelites became excellent husbandmen after the settlement in Canaan, and since then they have given proof of the highest capacity for poetry, letters, erudition of all kinds, philosophy, finance, music, and diplomacy. The reputation of the medieval Arabs as restorers of learning is largely due to their wise tolerance of the enlightened Jewish communities in their midst.

This remarkable Cliff Palace of Chapin’s Mesa, Colorado, is believed to have been constructed either by the Pueblo Indians or their immediate predecessors. Originally it was a city in itself, being prepared for siege, drought, and famine, besides the necessities of every-day life.

In late years the persecutions, especially in Russia and Roumania, have caused a fresh exodus, and flourishing agricultural settlements have been founded in Argentina and Palestine.

Jewish immigrants usually, however, settle in the cities. New York City, for example, has the largest Jewish population of any city in the world, now estimated by some at about 1,000,000, or nearly one-fourth of the total population. About 50,000 more are added annually. Among large cities, Warsaw and Odessa have a still larger ratio of Jewish population, namely, one-third. In London, on the contrary, only one-fiftieth of the population is Hebrew. The Jewish population of the entire United States is less than 2,000,000.

Hindus (hin´duz), or Hindoos.—The native race in India descended from the Aryan conquerors. Their purest representatives belong to the two great historic castes of Brahmans and Rajputs. Many of the non-Aryan inhabitants of India have been largely Hinduized. More loosely the name includes also the non-Aryan inhabitants of India.

It is not generally realized how great a number of races and tribes there are in India, many of them extremely low in civilization and approaching the Negro in physical characteristics. Such are some of the Dravidas and Mundas, who occupy all of southern India. In greatest contrast with these are the Aryan Hindus of the north, more closely related in language, if not in physical appearance, to the northern Europeans than are the Turks, Magyars, and various peoples of eastern Russia.

Hindi and Hindustani are the most widely spread modern languages or group of dialects of India. Hindustani is generally understood to be the polite speech of all India, and especially of Hindustan. Hindi, in the wider sense of the term, is spoken by 97,000,000 of people, mainly of northern India. The darker non-Aryans and Mongolians alone of India nearly equal the population of the United States. There are one hundred and forty-seven peoples or tribes speaking different languages.

Indians (in´di-anz).—The aboriginal inhabitants of North America were so named on the supposition that the lands discovered by the early navigators were parts of India. This erroneous name has continued in use ever since, notwithstanding attempts at its correction. The Indians were not nomadic until after the arrival of Europeans, who drove many tribes from their established seats to those occupied by other tribes. From the same Europeans they procured the horse and firearms, both of which were necessary to a nomadic life under the existing conditions.

Explorers and early settlers gave fanciful names to many of the groups of Indians which they encountered. Efforts to reproduce native tribal names (unpronounceable in foreign tongues) in the traveler’s own language, resulted in many different names for the same tribes. Several thousand names for Indian tribes or groups are found in the English and European writings of the last three hundred years.

Recent ethnological study tends to recognize possibly two marked types of North American Indians, (1) those facing the Pacific and the Asiatic Continent with its broad-headed Mongolic races; and (2) those found chiefly on the Eastern Slope, looking toward Africa and Europe. They incline to the view, also, that the race is not traceable to a “single origin, but that immigrants came by many routes from many regions.” While a similarity in the new environment tended to bring the fragments of the old populations into similarity of physical type, likenesses in language, are accepted as the sound basis for classification of Indian tribes and groups.

Major J. W. Powell, in 1891, recognized “fifty-eight linguistic families,” and mapped the geographic distribution of these great stocks over the continent. The Pacific coast has a multiplicity of small linguistic families; while the more populous central and eastern parts have comparatively fewer linguistic stocks. Dr. McGee, in 1896 estimated the number of Indian tribes belonging to various linguistic families at 782—the largest number of these, tribes of little importance, numerically or historically. Some of the principal linguistic families are:

1. The Algonquian (including thirty-six tribes) originally distributed along the Atlantic Coast from Newfoundland and Nova Scotia as far south as North Carolina, and throughout the middle portion of the continent from Tennessee, northward throughout the main part of Canada. Among them were the tribes found in New England and Virginia by the earliest settlers from Europe,—the Abnaki, Delawares, Narragansetts, Pequots, Powhatans, Mohegans, Ottawas, Illinois, Objibwa (Chippewa), Cheyennes, Siksika and Arapaoes, with the now largely civilized and dispersed Potawatomi.

2. The Athabascan (fifty-three tribes) chiefly found now in Northwestern Canada, but including also the large Southwestern tribe of about 30,000 Navahoes, in Arizona and New Mexico; the Apaches and the Mescaleros, with a few small tribal groups on the coast of central and northern California.

3. The Iroquoian (thirteen tribes) among which were the famous “Five Nations” of New York, including the Cayugas, Oneidas, Senecas, Onondagas, Tuscaroras, Mohawks, the numerous Cherokees, and the Hurons, nearly annihilated in 1650 by the Iroquois.

TWO INSTRUCTIVE VIEWS OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN

The former free and open life of the plains is now supplemented with the refinements and even luxuries of modern American life. Rich in lands, and protected by the guardianship of the American government, the future of the Indian is unusually safe-guarded.

The Indian farmer is under the instruction of upward of five hundred skilled specialists who demonstrate the art of profitable farming. His lands equal in area all New England and New York, and their value is placed at six hundred million dollars.

4. The Siouan (sixty-eight tribes) including the great Dakota (Sioux) tribes, with their numerous sub-divisions; the Omahas, Poncas, Osages, the Winnebagos, Iowas, Crows; and the Catawbas in Carolina, who perhaps mark the original eastern habitat from which Siouan tribes moved northwest.

5. The Shoshonean (twelve tribes) including the Comanches, Utes, Hopis, and Shoshone.

6. The Muskhogean (nine tribes) including the Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Seminoles.

7. The Eskimauan family (seventy tribes) scattered through Greenland and the Arctic Coast and islands of Central and North America and Alaska.

8. The Pueblo, including the ZuÑi, Hopi and Tegna.

On the continent of North America, north of Mexico, three or four hundred years ago, there were probably about 1,150,000 Indians. Of these, perhaps 850,000 were on territory now that of the United States proper; 220,000 in British America; 72,000 in Alaska; and 10,000 in Greenland. Numerous and prolonged intertribal wars, ravages of tuberculosis, and fevers, are known to have swept off entire populations of large districts, before contact with Whites had greatly accelerated the death-rate of the American Indians. Smallpox, introduced by the Whites, has nearly extinguished entire tribes, time after time. Whiskey, and attendant dissipation, sexual diseases brought in by Whites, and the lowered vitality which results from changed conditions of life, with tuberculosis, rendered much more deadly in the conditions of life forced upon Indians by the Whites, had largely reduced the Indian population before 1800, and have steadily tended toward the extermination of Indians since that date, although intermarriages and enrolment of mixed-bloods have kept up the numbers on tribal rolls.

The most interesting groups of Indians in Central and South America have been the (a) Aztecs, (b) Pipils, making the Nahuatlan group; and the (a) Mayas, (b) QuichÉs, (c) Pocomans, making the Huastecan group.

The Aztecs were the dominant race in Mexico prior to their conquest by Spaniards. Although the name is usually extended to all the semi-civilized tribes of Nahuatlan (Aztlan, “heron clan”) stock, it properly belongs only to a small group of seven related clans. The principal tribe had its capital at Tenochtitlan, now the city of Mexico. They developed a form of astronomy which was mainly astrological, and could take accurate observations, not only of lunations, but also of the periods of Venus. They divided the solar year into eighteen months of twenty days each and named each day by consecutive hieroglyphics. Their writing system was mainly pictorial. The Aztec monuments, however, or pyramids surmounted by temples, were not to be compared with those of Yucatan, while the finest in Mexico itself (Teotihuacan, Colula, Papantla) were the work of their Toltec predecessors.

Possessed of a high degree of culture, the Aztecs were also notorious for their cruelty and the barbarous character of their religious rites. Some of their descendants, comparatively pure in blood and retaining the ancient language, are still to be found in the neighborhood of the city of Mexico.

Incas (ing´kÄz).—The reigning and aristocratic order in ancient Peru from the thirteenth to the sixteenth century. They were originally a tribe or family of the QuichÉs who inhabited certain valleys near Cuzco and first became dominant under Manco Capac about 1240. Their own traditions described Manco Capac as a child of the Sun. From him descended the twelve other historical sovereigns of Peru, the last reigning one being Huascar, though the lineage was preserved long after. These sovereigns (the Incas in a restricted sense) always married their own sisters, and the throne was inherited, in general, by the oldest son proceeding from this marriage. Children by their other wives could not, by custom or law, receive the crown, though this rule was broken when Atahualpa inherited a part of the empire in 1523. The rule of the Incas was absolute, but very mild. They had attained to a high state of civilization before the arrival of the Spaniards. They cultivated many of the arts, and had some knowledge of astronomy. They had domesticated the llamas and alpacas, had brought under cultivation maize, potatoes and other edible roots, understood mining and the working of metals, and excelled as masons, weavers, potters, and farmers. They brought the science of government to a high pitch of perfection. The Incas composed songs and dramas; and as soldiers their skill and prowess enabled them to conquer and consolidate a vast empire. Three centuries of oppression under Spanish rule have deteriorated the character of the Inca Indian, but he is still industrious and honest, and retains some of the virtues of his ancestors.

Israelites.—See Hebrews.

Japanese.—The Japanese and Koreans form the easternmost group of the great Sibiric branch, which, with the Sinitic branch (Chinese, etc.,) constitutes the Mongolian race. The Japanese and Koreans stand much nearer than the Chinese to the Finns, Lapps, Magyars, and Turks of Europe, who are the westernmost descendants of the Mongolian race. The languages of all these peoples belong to the agglutinative family, while Chinese is monosyllabic.

Although many people may mistake a Japanese face for Chinese, the Mongolian traits are much less pronounced. The skin is much less yellow, the eyes less oblique. The hair, however, is true Mongolian, black and round in section, and the nose is small. These physical differences no doubt indicate that the Japanese are of mixed origin. In the south there is probably a later Malay admixture. In some respects their early culture resembles that of the Philippines of today.

Then there is an undoubted white strain in Japan. The Ainos, the earliest inhabitants of Japan, are one of the most truly Caucasian-like people in appearance in eastern Asia. They have dwindled away to less than 20,000 under the pressure of the Mongolian invasion from the mainland, but they have left their impress upon the Japanese race. The “fine” type of the aristocracy, the Japanese ideal, as distinct from the “coarse” type recognized by students of the Japanese of today, is perhaps due to the Aino.

The race, as a whole, is physically under-developed, the men being small, and harsh in feature, while the women lose their good looks after the first bloom of youth is over. The girls, with their rosy cheeks, fascinating manners, and exquisitely tasteful dress, are, however, particularly attractive, and the children are bright and comely, being allowed full liberty to enjoy themselves—indeed Japan is the paradise of children.

The Japanese have many excellent qualities, they are kindly, courteous, law-abiding, cleanly in their habits, frugal, and possessed of a high sense of personal honor which makes sordidness unknown. This is associated, moreover, with an ardent patriotic spirit, quite removed from factiousness. On the other hand the people are deficient in moral earnestness and courage, which leads to corruption in social life and institutions.

The people of Japan are noted for their love of things beautiful. The above scene is a typical picture of an exquisite garden, presided over by several picturesquely gowned Japanese girls.

The town costume of the Japanese gentleman consists of a loose silk robe extending from the neck to the ankles, but gathered in at the waist, round which is fastened a girdle of brocaded silk. Over this is worn a loose, wide-sleeved jacket, decorated with the wearer’s armorial device. White cotton socks, cleft at the great toes, and wooden pattens complete the attire. European costume has been prescribed by government as the official dress, and the empress and her suite have recently adopted foreign costume, being followed to a certain extent by the fashionable ladies of the capital. Hats are not generally worn, except by those who follow European fashions or in the heat of summer.

The women wear a loose robe, overlapping in front and fastened with a broad heavy girdle of silk (obi), often of great value. In winter a succession of these robes are worn, one over the other. The formerly universal chignon coiffure of the women, stiff with pomatum, which was done up by the hair-dresser once or twice a week, is rapidly yielding to the simpler Grecian knot.

Mode of Living.—Japanese houses are slight constructions of wood. In the northern districts at least two sides of the house are closed in with walls of mud plastered on wicker-work. The floors are covered with thick soft straw mats, measuring six by three feet, and the accommodation of the houses is reckoned by the number of these mats. On them the inmates sit, eat and sleep, the bed-clothes—heavily padded quilts—being kept during the day in adjoining closets. Rice is the staple food of the people, but in the poorer mountainous regions millet often takes its place. Fish, seaweed, and beans in all forms are served with the rice, especially in the soups, which likewise contain bean curd, eggs, and vegetables. Chestnuts and hazel-nuts are also largely eaten, and the walnut is made into a sweetmeat. Shoyu (soy), a sauce made of beans and wheat, is the universal condiment. Fowls are now pretty widely used for the table, and pork and beef, as well as bread, are increasingly eaten.

Manners and Customs.—The social position of women is more favorable than in most non-Christian countries, but still leaves much to be desired. Marriages are arranged through an intermediary, and both sexes marry at an early [287] age. As the continuance of families is a point of great importance, adoption is largely resorted to in order to prevent families dying out. Great respect is paid to the dead, and posthumous names are conferred after death, some of the most celebrated names in Japanese history being posthumous titles. Heavy sums are lavished on funerals.

The Jinrikisha (jin-rik´i-shaw) or two-wheeled carriage generally in use in Japan.

Until lately the only vehicles in Japan were two kinds of palanquin; but in all the more level districts these have now been superseded by the jinrikisha (man-power-carriage), a sort of two-wheeled perambulator drawn by a man who runs between the shafts. In many of the more mountainous regions the roads are impracticable even for the jinrikisha.

The Japanese are essentially a pleasure-loving people, and spend comparatively large sums upon amusements. The theater, though formerly despised by the samurai class, who refused to enter its doors, forms one of the chief national resorts. The time of greatest festivity is the New Year, now held contemporaneously with our own, when pinetrees are planted before the doors, the houses are gay with decoration, and presents are lavishly made. The favorite game at this season is oyobane, a kind of battledore and shuttlecock. January is the kite season; the smaller kites are of various fantastic shapes, while the larger and more powerful ones are usually rectangular. Wrestling, juggling, and archery are favorite sports.

Religions of Japan.—There are two prevailing religions in Japan—Shintoism (The way of the gods), the indigenous faith; and Buddhism, introduced from China in 552.

The characteristics of Shintoism in its pure form are the absence of an ethical and doctrinal code, of idol-worship, of priestcraft, and of any teachings concerning a future state, and the deification of heroes, emperors, and great men, together with the worship of certain forces and objects in nature.

Of Buddhists there are no fewer than thirty-five sects. The monks have assumed the functions of priests, and Japanese Buddhist worship presents striking resemblances to that of the Roman Catholic Church. Notwithstanding the increased patronage recently bestowed upon Shintoism by the government, Buddhism is still the dominant religion among the people.

Japan is a land of temples, but many are now falling into decay, while others are turned into schoolhouses. Every grove has its shrine and torii, a structure in wood or stone, consisting of two upright pillars joined at the top by two transverse beams or slabs; metal torii are also not unknown. The Buddhist monasteries in the Japanese middle ages were undoubtedly wonderful centers of civilization, and the priests for long commanded reverence by their self-denial.

Latins, or Latini (la-ti´ni), or Romans.—The ancient Latins inhabited Latium, on the west coast of central Italy, before the existence of Rome. It would seem that they had branched off from the Aryan stem next after the Celts, and upon entering Italy soon united with the primitive Liguirians, later forming a confederation or league of which Alba Longa became the head.

Out of the Latins, Etruscans (which see) and Sabines (another primal stock), the Roman people were originally formed, each speaking a most marked variety of the original Italic mother-tongue. The principal element was Latin, as the language shows. The next in importance was the Sabine, and the third, in order both of time and of influence, was the Etruscan. But with the spread of the Roman arms (the Romans were Latins), all were absorbed by the Latin variety, which still lives in its modern progeny—Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Langue d’Oc (South France), Langue d’OÏl (North or Standard French), Roumanian, Walloon of Belgium, Rumansch or Ladin and Vaudois of Switzerland. Thus half of Europe has been Latinized, while the different nationalities still retain their distinctive physical and mental characters.

Malays (malaz´).—Blumenbach, the father of ethnology, regarded the Malays as one of the five grand divisions of mankind; but the weight of modern authorities is in favor of considering them as a branch of the Mongolian race. They are distinguished in color by a variety of shades of brown, and are native to the Malay Archipelago and Peninsula and the Island of Madagascar, with perhaps a few related remnants of tribes in Indo-China. The Malay Archipelago includes the Philippines, but not New Guinea on the east. Within this archipelago there is no other native race with the exception of the small groups of pigmy Negroes called Negritos distantly related to the Papuan of New Guinea, if not to the Australian.

All the languages spoken by the Malay race belong to the great Malayo-Polynesian family of languages, which are found everywhere among Polynesians; that is, as far east as the waters of South America and northward to include the Hawaiian Islands. The term Malay is also applied in a narrower sense to that part of the Malay race called the “true Malay” or “Orang [288] Malaya,” that is, the section speaking the standard Malay tongue and which lived originally in and about the Malay Peninsula.

While linguistically the Malays are radically distinct from the Mongolians, physically they approach them more nearly than any other great race. The lighter brown color found in some sections approaches the yellow of the Chinese, and the slanting eye or “Mongol fold” of the upper lid is frequently found where no intermixture can be assumed. The appearance of the face and head is also somewhat similar in these races. In temperament and native civilization, however, the Malay is quite distinct. He has primitive, cruel instincts more like those of the American Indian. He has nowhere accepted the Mongolian type of civilization so much as the Caucasian type. The Filipinos are far in advance of any other Malay people in the latter respect, although the earlier Malayan civilization was most highly developed in Java. Buddhism has here been replaced by Mohammedanism, which has extended even into the southern Philippines.

The question of their origin has been much discussed, some fixing the cradle of the race on the Asiatic mainland, others in Sumatra.

The Malay intellect is of a low order, and the race has never developed a native culture, their civilization being entirely due to foreign influences, chiefly Hindu and Arab.

Mongolian (mon-go´li-Än).—The second in Blumenbach’s classification of the races of mankind. The chief characteristics are broad cheekbones, low, retreating forehead, short and broad nose, and yellowish complexion. It included the Chinese, Japanese, Turks, Tartars, Indo-Chinese, Lapps, etc. The Mongolian and the Caucasian are the two largest races, or divisions, of mankind,—the latter being somewhat the larger because it includes the greater part of the population of India.

Finish girl of to-day—a descendent of Mongolian ancestors who settled in Europe centuries ago.

Just as the Caucasian race extends into southwestern and southern Asia, so the Mongolian race extends far into Europe, embracing not only the Lapps of Scandinavia, the Finns, Cossacks, and many other peoples of Russia, and the Turks of southern Europe, but even the Magyars of Hungary, the most advanced of all the Europeans of Mongolian origin. The main western branches of the Mongolians, although Europeanized in blood as well as in culture, still possess a Mongolian speech.

Brinton divides the Mongolian race into two great branches, the Sinitic and the Sibiric.

The word “Sinitic” is derived from the late Latin Sina, China. It comprises that branch of the Mongolian race of which the Chinese, Indo-Chinese, and Tibetan groups are the chief representatives.

The Sibiric branch of the Mongolian race comprises the Japanese, Arctic, Tungusic, Finnic, Tataric, and Mongolic groups, and therefore all the Mongolian peoples which have invaded Europe, such as the Finns, Lapps, Magyars, and Osmanlis or Turks.

Moor is a term applied to very different peoples of northwestern Africa. In Roman history it is applied to inhabitants of Mauretania (Morocco and Algeria), who were in part Phoenician colonists. In Spanish history the “Moors” and “Moriscos” were mainly Berbers rather than, as commonly supposed, Arabs. Today the word is wrongly applied to the Riffs of Morocco and to the town dwellers of Algeria and Tunis. The latter call themselves generally “Arabs,” although often in part of Berber blood. The Moors, in a stricter racial sense, are the mixed Trarza and other tribes on the western coast, from Morocco to the Senegal, mainly of nomadic habits. They are of mixed Berber, Arab, and often Negro blood. Many speak Arabic.

Negro.—The only negroes to whom practically all ethnologists are willing to apply the term are those inhabiting the central and western third of Africa, excluding even the Bantus, who occupy practically all Africa south of the Equator. The Bantus, well typified by the Zulu subdivision, are lighter in color than the true negroes, never sooty black, but of a reddish-brown. From the negroes proper of the Sudan have descended most American negroes.

To some extent the northern Negro stock has become intermixed with the African Caucasian, especially about the Upper Nile, in Abyssinia, and in Gallaland and Somaliland farther east. Keane’s theory is that the Australians and Africans represent the earliest offshoots of the precursors of man who inhabited the continent now submerged in the Indian Ocean. In line with this theory is the claim that the Veddahs and Dravidians of India are still more divergent branches toward the north which have become more affected by Caucasian or, perhaps, Mongolian elements.

The Papuans and Nigritos of Australasia, having all or most of the characteristics of the African negroes, are classed with them.

There is a bewildering confusion in the terms used to indicate the different mixtures of white and dark races in America. Thus, all natives of Cuba, whether colored or white, are called “creoles,” as this word is loosely used in the United States; but creole, as more strictly defined, applies only to those who are native-born but of pure European descent. This is the use of the word in Mexico. In Brazil and Peru, on the contrary, it is applied to those possessing colored blood in some proportion; in Brazil to Negroes of pure descent; and in Peru to the issue of whites and mestizos. “Mestizo” is the Spanish word applied to half-breeds (white and Indian.)

Slave Traffic in America.—The importation of Negroes into America has been going on steadily since the early years of the sixteenth century, when it was begun by the Spaniards, even the good Las Casas recommending it in the interest of the native Indians. Both Queen Elizabeth and King James I. issued patents to English slave-trading companies operating between the coast of Guinea and the American colonies. Britain, by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, engaged to carry out the contract of the old French Guinea Company, and to import into the New World one hundred and thirty thousand slaves in the course of the next thirty years, and is said to have more than made good the engagement.

In the United States the traffic was open and active until the passage of the Act of 1794 prohibiting the importation of slaves into any of the federal ports. Long after this it continued to be [289] a brisk business in the West Indies and South America. As late as 1840 there were seventy-five ships plying constantly between Brazilian ports and the African coast, bringing cargoes of three or four hundred slaves at each trip. The principal points at which the slaves were obtained were along the coast of Guinea, especially on what was known as the Slave Coast, between the rivers Lagos and Assinie, where were the crowded marts of Waidah and Anamaboe, and again along the Angola coast. In these two regions the traders encountered two quite different branches of the African race, and their human wares in America show that they were derived from different sources. Along the Guinea coast, whence most of the slaves brought to the United States were derived, the population belongs to the true negro type.

In Brazil and other parts of South America the preponderance of importations was from the negroid stock of the equator, whose dialects and physical traits are allied to those of the Kaffirs and Zulus of the east coast (Bantus). The slaves in all parts, however, being from mixed stocks, their descendants do not present any well-marked peculiarities inside those of the race. As a rule, they are in strength equal to the whites, and in endurance of exposure and labor under a tropical sun are superior to all other immigrants.

It is usually held that the negro is not naturally industrious; but this seems to some extent answered by the severe field labor of many tribes, both men and women, in their native continent, and by the official reports of the United States government showing a greater acreage of land under cultivation in the former slave states and a larger crop of cotton than before the Civil War. When under the control of a strong social organization, and with obvious motives for industry and economy before his eyes, the American negro is both industrious and provident, and the instances are numerous where members of the race have accumulated fortunes of respectable size. Their vitality appears on the whole to be about the same as the whites, except in the more northern states, where it is unquestionably much less. In New England and Canada negroes gradually but surely perish.

Negro Characteristics.—The negro is a tireless talker and story-teller. Many of them reveal a high stage of the art of story-telling, as the Georgia tales collected from the southern states by various writers attest. Many of them belong to the class of “beast-fables,” similar to some which have been collected among the American Indians and the natives of the African continent, and such as were favorite staples of amusement in Europe during the middle ages.

One of the principal figures is the rabbit—the “brer rabbit” of the “Uncle Remus” tales. He figures conspicuously not only in the southern United States, but in the West Indies and on the Amazons, and in the folklore of the Venezuelan negroes.

Along with story-telling, singing and music are favorite diversions of the colored population. This tendency is a direct inheritance from their African ancestry, as throughout that continent the natives are passionately fond of these diversions. In Central America the negroes still employ the marimba, a native African instrument with wooden keys placed over jars or gourds, the keys being struck with a stick. In the United States the violin, the fife, and the guitar are used, but the favorite is the banjo, an instrument of African derivation, modified from the guitars with grass strings still in use on the Guinea coast. With these simple means they produce music of pleasant though not artistic character. In individual instances (as Blind Tom, born in Georgia in 1849) members of the race have attained remarkable skill on the piano and organ, rendering the most difficult compositions with spirit. No negro composer, however, has attained wide celebrity. Their songs are numerous, many of them of a religious character, others turning on the incidents of daily life. They are generally defective in prosody and without merit, being often little more than words strung together to carry an air.

Persians (per´shanz).—The natives or inhabitants of ancient or of modern Persia. The Persian race or people is quite different from the Persian nationality. The latter includes several very different peoples, as will presently be seen. Linguistically the Persian is the chief race of Persia speaking an Iranic language, that is, one of the Aryan tongues most nearly related to the Hindi. Physically, the race is of mixed Caucasian stock. It is almost entirely composed of Tajiks. The small section known as “Parsis” or, incorrectly, “Fire worshipers,” have for the most part emigrated to India. The Armenians are so closely related to the Persians as to be put with them by some into the Iranic branch. The Kurds, the Beluchis, and the Afghans also belong to the latter.

Of the 9,500,000 estimated population of Persia about two-thirds are true Persian or “Tajik.” The other third is also Caucasian for the most part, including Kurds (400,000), Armenians (150,000), and other Iranians (820,000), and the non-Aryan Arabs (350,000). There are 550,000 Turks and 300,000 Mongols in the Empire. The only Christians are the Armenians and a small group of 25,000 “Chaldeans,” “Assyrians,” or “Nestorians,” really eastern Syrians, about Lake Urmia, on the northwestern border.

In intellect, if not in civilization the Persian is perhaps more nearly a European than is the pure Turk. He is more alert and accessible to innovation. Yet he is rather brilliant and poetical than solid in temperament. Like the Hindu he is more eager to secure the semblance than the substance of modern civilization.

MODERN RUSSIAN POLICE OFFICER

Slavs (sl?vz).—Peoples widely spread in eastern, southeastern, and central Europe. The Russian and Polish are its leading tongues. The Slavs are divided into two sections—the southeastern and the western. The former section comprises the Russians, Bulgarians, Serbo-Croatians, and Slovenes; the latter, the Poles, Bohemians, Moravians, Slovaks, Wends, etc.

RUSSIAN POSTMAN

Physically, and perhaps temperamentally, the Slavs approach the Asiatic, or particularly the Tartar, more closely than do the peoples of western Europe. In language they are as truly Aryan as ourselves. Of course, languages do not fuse by interbreeding; physical races do. There is some truth in the old saying, “Scratch a Russian and you find a Tartar,” especially if he come from southern Russia, where once lived the Mongol conquerors of the Russians.

Yet the common conception of the Slav as dreamy and impractical does not seem to fit with the greatness of the new nation which impresses the imagination of the beholder more than any other in Europe. The fact is that we do not know the Slav. Unfortunately the unlikeness of the language to those of western Europe, perhaps even the unfamiliarity of the alphabet used, has delayed the study of what must soon be regarded as one of the great languages and literatures of civilization. Its spread, like that of the Russian Empire, has been more rapid than that of any other in the present century.

If the Slav be still backward in western ideas, appliances, and form of government, it is nevertheless conceivable that the time is not far distant when he will stand in the lead. The race is still young. Its history is shorter than that of any other important people of Europe.

Turning to the physical characteristics of the Slavs, it is found that there is not, properly speaking, a Slavic race. Deniker says that no fewer than five European races are represented among the Slavs, besides Turkic and Ugric or Mongolian elements. These are the fair, but broad-headed and short races, in Poland and White Russia especially; the dark, very broad-headed, and short peoples among the Little Russians of the south, the Slovaks, and some Great Russians; and the taller, but still dark and broad-headed races among the southwestern Slavs or Serbo-Croatians and some Czechs and Ruthenians. In the northwest the Russians have been modified by the blond or Teutonized Finns, in the northeast by the dark Finns, and in the southeast by the Tartars; but all such alike are broad-headed Mongolians in origin. With the exception of these Asiatic remnants and the related Magyars and Turks, and the Greeks, all of Europe east of Germany is filled with Slavs. They occupy more than one-half of the continent of Europe, and their presence has been a fertile source of political and governmental dissensions for many centuries, particularly in the Balkan countries. Indeed the scourge of war which has been ravaging all Europe, since 1914, is traceable in no small degree to this admixture of racial elements.

Servian Slav woman showing the native costume worn by the Servian women on feast days.

Russian Slavs, in native costumes, from a southern province on the Black Sea.

Teutonic.—This great branch of the Aryan family of languages and “races,” includes all those of northwestern Europe excepting the Celtic. The Teutonic was the second Aryan swarm in Western Europe, that which came after the Celts, and is the one with whose history we are more concerned than with that of any other; for it is the branch of the Aryan family to which we ourselves belong. The Teutons were the forefathers of the Germans and the English, and of the Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians in Northern Europe. They do not appear in history till a much later time than the Celts, and then we find them lying immediately to the east of the Celts, chiefly in the land which is now called Germany. From this they spread themselves into many of the countries of Europe; but in most cases they were absorbed into the earlier inhabitants, and learned, like them, to speak the language of the Romans. The chief parts of Europe where Teutonic languages are now spoken are Germany, England and Scandinavia.

In Scandinavia we cannot doubt that the present Teutonic inhabitants were the first Aryan settlers; for they found a Mongolian people there, some of whom still remain, by the name of Lapps and Finns, in the extreme north of Sweden and Norway and on the eastern coast of the Baltic. But in most places the Teutons, as the second wave, came into land where other Aryan settlers had been before them. Sometimes they may have simply come in the wake of the Celts as they were pressing westward; but, sometimes they found the Celts in the land and drove them out, as was specially the case in Britain. Of the first coming of the Teutons into Europe we can say nothing from written history, any more than of the first coming of the Celts.

The Teutonic stock of nations, as they exist at the present day, is divided into two principal branches: (1) The Scandinavian, embracing Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders; and (2) the Germanic, which includes, besides the German-speaking inhabitants of Germany proper and Switzerland, also the population of the Netherlands (the Dutch), the Flemings of Belgium, and the descendants of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes in Great Britain, together with their offspring in North America, Australia, and other British colonies—the English-speaking peoples of the world. It is necessary in this case, as in all similar cases, to guard against making language the sole test of race. In many parts of Germany, where German now prevails, Slavic dialects were spoken down to recent times, and in some places are not yet quite extinct. And in Great Britain it is unreasonable to suppose that the Anglo-Saxon invaders exterminated the native Celtic population, or even drove more than a tithe of them into Wales and the Highlands.

THE TEUTONIC RACIAL GROUP

LOW GERMAN.

NORSE.

W. Branch.

Old Norwegian.

Icelandic.

W. Dalecarlian.

JÄmetlandish.

Faroic.

E. Branch.

Danish.

Bornholm.

Normanno-Jutish.

Dano-Jutish.

Swedish.

E. Dalecarlian.

Gothic.

Scanian.

NIEDER-DEUTSCH.

Frisic.

W. Fr. Groningen.

E. Fr. Saterland.

N. Fr. Helgoland, Sylt, etc.

Continental Saxon.

Old Saxon of the “Heliand.”

Westphalian.

Hanoverian.

Brunswick.

Pomeranian, etc.

Anglo-Saxon (English).

Anglisc (Northern).

Northumbrian.

Lowland Scotch.

Shetland, etc.

Midland.

Lincoln.

Yorkshire.

Derby, etc.

Saxon (Southern).

Cornish.

Somerset.

Dorset.

Kent, etc.

HIGH GERMAN.

MITTEL-DEUTSCH.

Salic Frankish (extinct).

Riparian Frankish.

Rhenish.

E. Frankish.

Hessian.

Thuringian.

Upper Saxon.

Erzgebirge.

Transylvanian.

Meissen.

OBER-DEUTSCH.

Burgundian.

Swiss.

Bernese.

Hazli.

Appenzell.

Alemanno-Suabian.

Neuhochdeutsch (literary standard).

Alsatian.

Wurtemberg.

Baden.

Bavarian.

Tyrolese.

Styrian.

Austrian.

Carinthian.

Zips, etc.

GROUP OF OLD SCHOOL TURKISH GENTLEMEN OF CONSTANTINOPLE

The modern Turk is very far from being of purely Mongolian stock. In truth the mixed blood of practically all the peoples of southeastern Europe and western Asia courses in his veins.

Turks (tÈrks) or Ottomans, the race now dominant in Turkey, lived originally in central Asia. They belong to the Sibiric or Tartar division of the Mongolian race, and reached Europe, probably in straggling bands, before the Christian Era (See Mongolian). To the same race division belong the European Finns, Lapps, Hungarians, Bulgarians, and Basques. Physically and in culture the Turks have become Europeanized, though to a less degree than the related Finns and Magyars. Instead of becoming blond, as the Finns, they have approached the brunette type of southern Europe, probably in part through their frequent intermarriages with the Circassian and other Mohammedan peoples of the Caucasus. In fact, today they are not so much Turkish by blood as Arabian, Circassian, Persian, Armenian, Greek, and Slavic. They prefer to be considered as Arabo-Persian in culture rather than as Turkish. In religion they are almost universally Mohammedan.

The Turks are in the minority in their own country, especially in the European part of Turkey, where the Turks, Greeks, Albanians, and “Slavs” (Bulgarians and Servians) are to be found in nearly equal parts. The first three named have been estimated to constitute seventy per cent of the population. No census of Turkey has ever been taken. The following estimates are compiled from various sources. The entire Ottoman Empire, excluding states practically independent, has a population of about 24,000,000. Of these 10,000,000 are Turks. In European Turkey, 1,500,000 out of a population of 6,000,000 are Turks. Here they are without doubt decreasing in numbers. In Macedonia the Turks number about 500,000 out of a population of 2,200,000. Of the latter number, however, only about 1,300,000 are Christians. In the capital itself, Constantinople, the Turks constitute only about one-half of the population of 1,200,000. In Turkey in Asia, on the other hand, the Turkish race is in the majority. The Mohammedans number perhaps 10,000,000 in a total population of 13,000,000 in Asiatic Turkey and Armenia. There are about 500,000 Turks in Bulgaria out of a total population of 4,000,000. The Mohammedan population of Bosnia and Herzegovina—550,000 out of a total of 1,600,000—is mainly Slavic rather than Turkish.

COMPARATIVE CLASSIFICATION OF RACES AND PEOPLES

Showing also the latest estimated population of the various subdivisions throughout the world, together with a view of the numerous races entering into the population of the United States.

Race	Stock		Group		Peoples and Tribes		Estimated Total Population				Races Represented in the United States

Caucasian Race (White)	-	Hamitic	-	Egyptians	-	Copts	800,000					-	500
				Egyptians	-	Fellaheen	5,000,000			( )		-	500

				Lybians	-	Berbers (modern)	7,500,000				...
						Etruscans
						Assyrians (early)
						Hittites

				East Africans		Somalis			1,000,000		...

		Semitic	-	Arabians	-	Arabs		-	5,000,000		500
				Arabians	-	Bedouins		-	5,000,000

				Abyssinians		Ethiopians	9,000,000				...
				Chaldean	-	Assyrians (later)
						Babylonians
						Hebrews	11,000,000				2,050,000
						Arameans (Syrians)	2,000,000				50,000
						Samaritans

		Aryan	-	Iranic, or Persic	-	Hindus			225,000,000		10,000
						Medes
						Persians	6,500,000				300
						Gypsies	800,000				4,000

				Armenic		Armenians	4,000,000				30,000
				Celtic	-	Britons		-	Celtic population of Europe, 3,200,000; of the world, 9,200,000		Scotch: 660,000 Irish: 4,600,000 Welsh: 250,000
						Scotch (part)
						Irish (part)
						Welsh
						Gauls
						Picts

				Italic	-	Latins (Romans)
						Italians (part)			38,000,000		2,100,000
						Roumanians			10,000,000		90,000
						Spanish			50,000,000		1,375,000
						Portuguese			5,000,000		115,000
						French			45,000,000		300,000

				Hellenic		Greeks			6,000,000		110,000
				Illyric		Albanian			1,500,000		3,000
				Teutonic	-	Scandinavian			13,000,000		...
						Danish			2,800,000		450,000
						Norwegian			3,000,000		1,010,000
						Swedish			5,500,000		1,450,000
						German			85,000,000		8,300,000
						Dutch			6,300,000		300,000
						English (part)			126,000,000		2,250,000
						Flemish			4,000,000		100,000
						Swiss (part)			2,300,000		300,000
						Austrians (part)			10,000,000		2,000,000

				Lettic		Lithuanians			4,000,000		225,000
				Slavonic	-	Russians			84,000,000		100,000
						Polish			17,000,000		1,725,000
						Czech:
						Bohemian			4,000,000			-	550,000
						Moravian			2,000,000			-	550,000
						Serbs, Croatians (Servia, Montenegro, Bosnia, Croatia, Slavonia, Dalmatia, Herzegovina)		-	10,000,000		125,000

				Caucasic	-	Georgians			1,200,000		...
				Caucasic	-	Circassians			500,000		...

Mongolian Race (Yellow and Brown)	-	Sibiric	-	Finnic	-	Finns			6,000,000		200,000
						Lapps			30,000		...
						Magyar (Hungarian)			8,500,000		700,000
						Bulgarian			5,000,000		25,000

				Tartaric	-	Turks			10,000,000		125,000
						Cossacks			4,000,000		...
						Kalmucks			200,000		500

				Iberian		Basques (in Spain)	800,000				...
				Japanese	-	Japanese			48,000,000		75,000
				Japanese	-	Korean			10,000,000		...

		Sinitic		Chinese	-	Chinese			305,000,000		75,000
						Indo-Chinese			35,000,000		...
						Siamese			1,600,000		...
						Burmese			10,000,000		...

		Malay	-	Polynesian	-	New Zealand (Maoris)			45,000		...
						Philippines (part)			7,600,000		7,600,000
						Hawaiians (part)			40,000		40,000
						Samoans			40,000			-	500
						Javanese			25,000,000			-	500

				East Indian	-	Dravidians			65,000,000			-	10,000
						Madagascar (part)			2,000,000
						Sumatra (part)			3,000,000
						Borneo (part)			1,500,000


Negro Race (Black)	-	Tribes and peoples whose real homes are (1) Central and Southern Africa; (2) Malay Peninsula, Andamans, parts of the Eastern Archipelago and Philippines, New Guinea, Australia; (3)America					-		(1)180,000,000		...
									(2)185,000,000		...
									(3)125,000,000		9,850,000


American or Indians (Red)	-	Tribes comprising: (1) North American Indians; (2) South American Indians; (3) Central American Indians; (4) Patagonians; (5) Eskimo					-		(1)180,500,000		270,000
									(2)186,000,000		...
									(3)187,500,000		...
									(4)180,190,000		...
									(5)180,040,000		...

N.B.—Races in italic are either now non-existent or have merged with later peoples thus forming mixed races.

NAPOLEON AT THE BURNING OF MOSCOW IN 1812

The disastrous Russian campaign of Napoleon in 1812, which resulted in the destruction of the city of Moscow by its own inhabitants to prevent it from falling into the hands of the French, was the virtual turning point in European history. From that time Napoleon’s star declined, and Europe was reconstituted a few years later practically as it is today.

Clyx.com

Race		Group		Peoples and Tribes		Estimated Total Population				Races Represented in the United States

Caucasian Race (White)	Hamitic	-	Egyptians	-	Copts	800,000					-	500
			Egyptians	-	Fellaheen	5,000,000			( )		-	500

			Lybians	-	Berbers (modern)	7,500,000				...
					Etruscans
					Assyrians (early)
					Hittites

			East Africans		Somalis			1,000,000		...

Caucasian Race	Semitic	-	Arabians	-	Arabs		-	5,000,000		500
			Arabians	-	Bedouins		-	5,000,000

			Abyssinians		Ethiopians	9,000,000				...
			Chaldean	-	Assyrians (later)
					Babylonians
					Hebrews	11,000,000				2,050,000
					Arameans (Syrians)	2,000,000				50,000
					Samaritans

Caucasian Race	Aryan	-	Iranic, or Persic	-	Hindus			225,000,000		10,000
					Medes
					Persians	6,500,000				300
					Gypsies	800,000				4,000

Caucasian Race	Aryan		Armenic		Armenians	4,000,000				30,000
Caucasian Race	Aryan	-	Celtic	-	Britons		-	Celtic population of Europe, 3,200,000; of the world, 9,200,000		Scotch: 660,000 Irish: 4,600,000 Welsh: 250,000
					Scotch (part)
					Irish (part)
					Welsh
					Gauls
					Picts

Caucasian Race	Aryan	-	Italic	-	Latins (Romans)
					Italians (part)			38,000,000		2,100,000
					Roumanians			10,000,000		90,000
					Spanish			50,000,000		1,375,000
					Portuguese			5,000,000		115,000
					French			45,000,000		300,000
Caucasian Race	Aryan		Hellenic		Greeks			6,000,000		110,000
Caucasian Race	Aryan		Illyric		Albanian			1,500,000		3,000
Caucasian Race	Aryan	-	Teutonic	-	Scandinavian			13,000,000		...
					Danish			2,800,000		450,000
					Norwegian			3,000,000		1,010,000
					Swedish			5,500,000		1,450,000
					German			85,000,000		8,300,000
					Dutch			6,300,000		300,000
					English (part)			126,000,000		2,250,000
					Flemish			4,000,000		100,000
					Swiss (part)			2,300,000		300,000
					Austrians (part)			10,000,000		2,000,000
Caucasian Race	Aryan		Lettic		Lithuanians			4,000,000		225,000
Caucasian Race	Aryan	-	Slavonic	-	Russians			84,000,000		100,000
					Polish			17,000,000		1,725,000
					Czech:
					Bohemian			4,000,000			-	550,000
					Moravian			2,000,000			-	550,000
					Serbs, Croatians (Servia, Montenegro, Bosnia, Croatia, Slavonia, Dalmatia, Herzegovina)		-	10,000,000		125,000

Caucasian Race	Aryan	-	Caucasic	-	Georgians			1,200,000		...
Caucasian Race	Aryan	-	Caucasic	-	Circassians			500,000		...

Mongolian Race (Yellow and Brown)	Sibiric	-	Finnic	-	Finns			6,000,000		200,000
					Lapps			30,000		...
					Magyar (Hungarian)			8,500,000		700,000
					Bulgarian			5,000,000		25,000

Mongolian Race	Sibiric	-	Tartaric	-	Turks			10,000,000		125,000
					Cossacks			4,000,000		...
					Kalmucks			200,000		500

MAN AND THE HUMAN FAMILY

HOW MAN DIFFERS FROM OTHER ANIMALS

BRAIN-POWER THE SUPREME DIFFERENCE

MAN AND HIS DEAD

THE GREAT QUESTION OF MAN’S ORIGIN

MAN’S PRIMEVAL HOME AND HIS EARLIEST KNOWN REMAINS

PROBABLY THE FIRST MIGRATIONS OF MAN

WHEN THE WORLD WAS FIRST PEOPLED

EVIDENCES OF MAN’S ADVANCEMENT IN PREHISTORIC AGES

MAN IN THE OLD STONE AGE

MAN IN THE NEW STONE AGE

THE AGE OF LETTERS OR PICTOGRAPHS

HOW THE RACES ARE CLASSIFIED