  ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS AND DEGREES LETTER WRITING AND CORRESPONDENCE DICTIONARY OF CLASSIC WORDS AND PHRASES WORDS AND PHRASES FROM MODERN LANGUAGES DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE CHARTS OF ENGLISH AND AMERICAN AUTHORS DICTIONARY OF LITERARY ALLUSIONS PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY CHART OF GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHS BOOK OF LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE HOW TO SPEAK CORRECT ENGLISH—Fundamental Rules—The Organ of Speech—Vowels—Consonants—Table of Consonants—Rules of Pronunciation—Common Errors in Pronunciation—Expression—Inflection of the Voice—WRITTEN ENGLISH—Rules Relating to Style—Grammatical Construction—Right and Wrong Use of Words in Speaking and Writing—Use of Capital Letters—Abbreviations, Contractions and Degrees—Punctuation—Rhetorical Figures of Speech—FORMS OF WRITTEN ENGLISH—Letter Writing or Correspondence—Official and Titled Salutations—Narration—(Biography—Fiction and Drama—News)—Exposition—(Essay—Editorials)—Description—Argument—Poetry and Poetics—PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF CLASSIC WORDS AND PHRASES—PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF WORDS AND PHRASES FROM THE MODERN LANGUAGES—ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE—OUTLINE CHARTS OF ENGLISH AND AMERICAN AUTHORS—DICTIONARY OF LITERARY ALLUSIONS: Famous Books, Poems, Dramas, Literary Characters, Plots, Pen Names, Literary Shrines and Geography, and other Miscellany—PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY: Gods, Heroes, and Mythical Wonder Tales—CHART OF GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHS, their Origin, Relationship and Descent. HOW TO SPEAK CORRECT ENGLISHCorrectly spoken English is quite as important as correctly written English. Errors in pronunciation, modulation and general expression are of frequent occurrence, and it sometimes seems that the erroneous utterance of whole classes of words league the tongue and ear against their right use. An improved standard of pronunciation, therefore, is the safest bulwark against a permanent deterioration of our language, as well as a positive influence in advancing individual culture of speech. Five Fundamental Rules.—The essential steps toward securing the unconscious ability to speak correctly may be set down as follows: 1. To thoroughly study the elementary sounds, and their mode of representation. 2. To observe the current usage of the best speakers with regard to such words as are most liable to be mispronounced. 3. To note the standard of pronunciation and expression of the best dramatic theaters. 4. By forming the habit of frequent reference to the dictionary and learning to interpret at sight the authorized pronunciation. 5. Ample practice in the reading and application of the leading principles of pronunciation that give words their true spoken values. The Organ of Speech.—The mouth is the organ of speech; and the manner of production of the various sounds is of the first importance in the cultivation of correct pronunciation. The sound uttered depends upon the form of the mouth. Change the form and you change the sound. Each particular sound is produced from a particular position. Not more than one sound can be produced from one position of the mouth. To produce a different sound you must change the position. Each sound should be clear and precise. There should be no slurring. The muscles must be under perfect control so that the mouth (lips and tongue included) may readily assume the position necessary for the emission of the required sound. The proper use of the lips is the great factor in fluent speech. It is from inability to use or negligence in using the muscles of the organ of speech that Americans are such indifferent linguists and frequently even incapable of distinct utterance of their own language. The manner of production of the various sounds is of the first importance in the cultivation of correct pronunciation. Vowels.—Pronounce the following words: moor; meer; merry; marry; mar; more. The whole compass of the mouth is brought into exercise by these words. The first sound is produced from the lips. The second comes from a point just inside the mouth. The third sound point is farther back still. The last vowel is uttered from the throat. If the sound a (long) as in bare, fair, is included, we have a scale of seven sounds produced by a gradual opening of the mouth, the sound point receding note by note from the front of the lips to the back of the throat, thus: moor, meer, merry, Mary, marry, mar, more. In cultured English centers and in some parts of New England, the long sound of Ä, No. 4, appears in such words as dance, France, glass, castle, cast, past, grasp, grant, etc. In pronouncing the four words—meer merry, marry, mar—the mouth is gradually opened. The four separate “sound points” may be clearly recognized. Repeat slowly:
O is a single sound. In conversation, however, it usually becomes double, being combined with the sound—oo (as in too, tooth, woo)—thus:
The short o sound is pronounced as in hot, pot, nod, God. O followed by a double consonant is short:
The sound oo unites with the open sound Ä to form the double sound in such words as—cow, how, now:
The sound u is a peculiar combination of at least three sounds. It is really a continued flow from ee to oo. The letter is pronounced exactly as the word you. Speak the vowel very slowly. The intermediate sound of Û may be represented thus:
The same sounds occur in such words as few, new, mew. The middle sound is the most important, and the first and last must be cut very short for a good style. Ru and lu. When u is preceded by r or l, the first portion of the triple sound is omitted and a double vowel sound is heard—the last part also being cut very short. Consonants.—Speak slowly and pronounce every letter. Initial Consonants.—Of these only two require special attention: th and sh followed by r. Children frequently say:—one, two, free; and grown-up people will speak of—shrimps as srimps. Examples: three, shrimp; thread, shrill; throat, shrink; thrush, shroud; through, shrew. Final Consonants.—The slurring or omission of final consonants is a greater fault than the mispronunciation of vowels, for it points directly to carelessness and indolence on the part of the speaker. R. It is sometimes stated that there is no r sound in English. In singing the r is always made distinct. It should also be apparent in conversation. Thus: father and farther are quite distinct. So, too, ma and mar. The t belongs to the preceding syllable and the words should be pronounced thus: nat-ure, feat-ure, pict-ure, premat-ure, creat-ure, fut-ure, indent-ure, nurt-ure. The consonant values of w and y are never terminal in a syllable, but are followed in the same syllable by a vowel. In attempting, for phonic practice, to sound either of these consonants apart from its vowel, make it continuous, not abrupt. H cannot be separated from its accompanying vowel. Pronounce ha, he, hi, ho, hu, hy. Notice that the office of h is to cover the following vowel with breath. It will be seen, on careful examination, that any attempt to sound h alone will result in whispering a vowel with it. Wh has for its initial sound simply unvocalized breath, poured through the lips placed in position for w. As a whole the digraph is sounded as it would naturally be if the order of the letters were reversed, thus, hw; as, when, while, whip, pronounced hwen, hwile, hwip. Lisping children and Germans need to carefully observe the sounds of s and th. The sound of s is formed by forcing unvocal breath between the tip of the tongue and the upper gum. Th is produced by placing the tip of the tongue between the teeth or against the upper front teeth, and forcing vocal or unvocal breath between the tongue and the teeth. If vocal breath is used, sonant th is heard, as in this; if unvocal breath, then non-sonant th is produced, as in thin—this last is the sound made for s by those who lisp (lithp). TABLE OF CONSONANTS
ACCENT OF WORDSOne syllable of every word with two or more syllables receives, in pronouncing, more force than another. This stronger force is called Accent, and the syllable which receives this force is said to be accent´ed. Marks of Accent.—The primary accent is marked with a firm oblique stroke, thus: ob´ject, object´, discov´er. The secondary accent is marked by a similar but lighter stroke, or sometimes by two light strokes, thus: lem´on-ade´ (or lem´´on-ade´). Unaccented Vowels.—Every vowel, when under either the primary or the secondary accent, is distinct; that is, the exact sound of the vowel is evident, as short a, long i, broad o, etc. In an unaccented syllable, the vowel sound is sometimes doubtful; in most instances, however, it is not. For instance, a correct speaker says: atten´tive, an´ecdote, comprehend´, allega´ti?n, chap´el, pres´ent, em´inent, prai´rie, a?u´dience, cal´lous. RULES OF PRONUNCIATIONRule I.—The letter u should not be sounded as oo, except when immediately preceded by the sound of r. Exceptions: sure and its derivatives, also sumac, tulle, hurrah, pugh. Pronounce rule, fruit, garrulous, ruin, sure, tune, mule, institute, constitution, suture, duty, lucid. Rule II.—A constituting or ending an unaccented syllable is short Italian a. Examples: c?nine´, l?pel´, ?gain´, ?las´, f?tal´ity, al´k?li, or´n?ment, pal´?t?ble. When the a of terminal ary or any is immediately preceded by an accented syllable, it has the sound of short Italian a; thus, pri´m?ry, epiph´?ny. Rule III.—E or o constituting or ending a syllable is long. Examples: event, memento, locomotion, society, notoriety, sobriety, superior, inferior, theories, coterie, loco-foco. Rule IV.—I constituting or ending an unaccented syllable not initial, is always short, and is usually short even in initial syllables, if unaccented. Examples: Divide, direct, finance, philosophy, imitate, piazza, tirade, intimate, indivisible, nobility. In the initial syllables i, bi, chi, cli, cri, pri, tri, however, i is generally long. Examples: idea, idle, isothermal, biology, Chinese, chirurgery, climatic, criterion, primeval, triangular, tripod. Rule V.—E before terminal n should always be silent in participles, and also in most other words. Examples: given (giv n), taken (tak n), bitten (bit n), broken, spoken, riven, fallen. But in the following words e must be sounded: Aspen, chicken, gluten, kitchen, lichen, linden, marten, mitten, sudden. It must also be sounded in any word (not a participle) in which terminal en is immediately preceded by l, m, n, or r. Examples: women, linen, omen, barren, Helen, Allen, Ellen, woolen, pollen. Rule VI.—E before terminal l should usually be sounded. Examples: level, bevel, novel, nickel, cancel, vessel, chapel, gravel, hovel, camel, channel, kernel, Abel, Mabel, panel, model, funnel, flannel. But in the following words the e before terminal l must not be sounded: Betel (be´tl), chattel (chat´tl), drivel, easel, grovel, hazel, mantel, mussel, navel, ravel, shekel, shovel, shrivel, snivel, swivel, teasel, weasel, and their derivatives. Rule VII.—In all but the following words, i before terminal l or n must be sounded: devil, evil, weevil, basin, cousin, raisin. Pronounce Latin, satin, matin, spavin, anvil, civil, cavil, council, peril, javelin, lentil, pistil, resin, fusil, coffin, codicil, axil. Rule VIII.—The eight words, bath, cloth, lath, moth, mouth, oath, path, wreath, and these only, require sonant ths in the plural. Pronounce moths, paths, truths, oaths, heaths, cloths, baths, laths, deaths, wreaths, mouths, Sabbaths, sheaths, piths, plinths, lengths, widths, depths, breadths, earths, myths, Goths, fourths, breaths. Rule IX.—O in a final unaccented syllable ending in a consonant, frequently verges toward the sound of short u; as in custom, felon, bigot, bishop, method, carol, Briton. But it has its regular short sound in pentagon, hexagon, octagon, etc. When, however, the termination on is immediately preceded by c, ck, s or t, the o is commonly suppressed. Examples: bacon, beacon, beckon, benison, button, cotton, crimson, damson, deacon, garrison, glutton, lesson, mason, mutton, parson, person, poison, prison, reason, reckon, season. Rule X.—I accented in most words from the French has the sound of long e. Examples: pique, caprice, guillotine, quarantine, routine, suite, fatigue, valise, antique, Bastile, critique, palanquin, tambourine, regime (ra-zheem´), cuisine (kwe-zeen´), unique, intrigue, magazine. Rule XI.—Ou in most words from the French has the value of oo, but in Anglo-Saxon words it has the sound of ow, as in cow. Examples: bouquet, contour, croup; out, bound, sound. Note.—Ou has also other values, as in soul, rough, adjourn, could, ought, hough (hok), trough. Rule XII.—X followed by an accented vowel, or by an accented syllable beginning with a silent h, has the sound of gz. Examples: luxu´rious, exam´ple, exhaust´, exhale´, exhib´it, exam´ine, exalt´, exec´utive. Rule XIII.—The termination tion is always shun, except when it follows the letter s or x, as in question (kwestyun), bastion, combustion. Examples: notation, completion, equation, relation, suggestion, transition (tranzish´un). Rule XIV.—The termination sion immediately preceded by an accented vowel is zhun; when not so preceded it is shun. Examples: expulsion, immersion, mansion, excursion, diversion, explosion, adhesion, delusion. Rule XV.—C is soft (s) before e, i and y, and hard (k) in other positions. Examples: ca, ce, ci, co, cu, cy. Exceptions: c is hard (k) in sceptic and scirrhus; and in the following words it has the sound of z: sacrifice (fiz), sice, suffice, discern, and their derivatives. It is silent in czar, victuals, indict, and their derivatives, and also in the termination scle, as in muscle, corpuscle. Rule XVI.—G is generally soft (j) before e, i and y, and always hard (g) before other vowels. Examples: ga, ge, gi, go, gu, gy. Note.—The exceptions to the rule that g is usually soft before e, i and y are many; but they are nearly all common Anglo-Saxon words, such as get, give, gild, girl, girdle, giddy, foggy, gimlet, geese, gig, giggle, gift, gills, begin, gimp, beget, gird, gear, gizzard. Rule XVII.—In an accented syllable of any primitive word, a vowel before r followed by a syllable beginning with a vowel or another r has its short sound. Examples: Arab, arabesque, arid, Aristotle, Saracen, beryl, peril, delirious, irritate, miracle, delirium, abhorrence, florid, coroner, foreign, turret, burrow, curry, courage, furrow, py?rrhic, empy?real. Rule XVIII.—N ending an accented syllable has the sound of ng, if immediately followed by hard g or k, or any equivalent of k (c, q, or x). Examples: co_n_´gress, ga_n_´grene, co_n_´cord, tra_n_´quil, u_n_´cle, a_n_´ger, hu_n_´ger, mo_n_´key, sa_n_´guine, si_n_´gle, cla_n_´gor, exti_n_´guish, bla_n_´ket, twi_n_´kle, co_n_´course, Li_n_´coln. Exceptions: concrete, penguin, mangrove, Mongol, pancreas, and some others. Rule XIX.—C, s, or t, when immediately preceded by an accented syllable and followed by e, i or u, has usually the force of sh, and is said to be “aspirated,” as in ocean, nauseate, Asiatic, negotiation. Rule XX.—In pronouncing the terminal syllables, ble, cle, dle, fle, gle, kle, ple, stle, tle, and zle, no vowel sound is heard. Terminal cre, however, is pronounced ke~r. The combination of any of these terminations with ing forms but one syllable. Examples: quibbling, doubling, circling, meddling, huddling, ruffling, shuffling, giggling, struggling, pickling, trickling, coupling, rippling, battling, whittling, whistling, jostling, puzzling, muzzling, massacring. COMMON ERRORS IN PRONUNCIATION1. Do not pronounce ing like in; as eve´nin for eve´ning, writ´in for writ´ing. Pronounce the following: Speak´ing, read´ing, talk´ing, walk´ing, stop´ping, smok´ing, suppos´ing, expect´ing, cel´ebrating. 2. Do not pronounce ow like ur or uh; as hol´lur or hol´luh for hol´low, shad´ur or shad´uh for shad´ow. Pronounce the following: Bor´row, to-mor´row, nar´row, yel´low, fel´low, wid´ow, pil´low, mel´lowing, swal´lowing. 3. Do not pronounce ed like id or ud; as unit´id or unit´ud for unit´ed, provid´id or provid´ud for provid´ed. Pronounce the following: Rest´ed, resid´ed, decid´ed, regard´ed, exhib´ited, cel´ebrated, excit´ed, delight´ed, support´ed. 4. Do not pronounce ess like iss; as good´niss for good´ness, bold´niss for bold´ness. Pronounce the following: Hard´ness, bad´ness, harm´less, care´less, clear´ness, ful´ness, seam´stress, host´ess, em´press. 5. Do not pronounce el like il, nor et like it, nor est like ist; as cru´il for cru´el, bask´it for bask´et, for´ist for for´est. Pronounce the following: Fu´el, du´el, bush´el, yet, get, mark´et, hatch´et, rock´et, rack´et, riv´ulet, hon´est, bold´est, larg´est, small´est, young´est, strong´est. 6. Do not pronounce ent like unt, nor ence like unce; as si´lunt for si´lent, sen´tunce for sen´tence. Pronounce the following: Pru´dent, de´cent, mo´ment, gar´ment, mon´ument, gov´ernment, superintend´ent, par´liament (par´li-ment), pa´tience, expe´rience, superintend´ence. 7. Do not insert the sound of short u before a final m; as hel´um for helm, chas´um for chasm. Pronounce the following: Spasm, rhythm, phan´tasm, bap´tism, pa´triotism, elm, film, overwhelm´, worm. 8. Do not give the drawling sound aoo for ou (i. e. Äoo); as caoo for cow, haoos for house. Pronounce the following: How, now, ground, sound, bound, found, town, gown, pound, confound´, around´, astound´. 9. Do not sound sh before r like s; as srub for shrub, srink for shrink. Pronounce the following: Shred, shrine, shriek, shroud, shriv´el, shrunk´en. 10. Do not sound wh like w; as wen for when, wat for what. Pronounce the following: Where, wheat, wharf, whale, whine, white, whim´per, whis´per, whip´ping, whit´tle. 11. Do not omit to give the sound of r after a vowel in the same syllable, as in arm, form, etc., not ahm, fawum, etc. Pronounce the following: Dark, hark, start, chart, are, tar, remark´, course, for, nor, door, floor, lord, hon´or, do´nor, short, support´, report´, pa´per, or´der, horse, purse, warm, alarm´ing, return´ing, reform´ing. 12. Do not add the sound of r to a final vowel or dipthong; as lawr for law, ide´ar for ide´a. Pronounce the following: saw, draw, paw, claw, pota´to, toma´to, com´ma, Em´ma. 13. Do not shorten the sound of long o in certain words by leaving off its vanishing element oo. Pronounce the following: Boat, bone, broke, choke, cloak, colt, comb, dolt, hole, home, home´ly, hope, jolt, load, on´ly, road, rogue, smoke, spoke, spok´en, stone, throat, toad, whole, wrote, yoke, bolster. 14. Do not omit the sound of d when preceded by n; as stan for stand, frenz for friends. Pronounce the following: Stands, bands, winds, winds, depends´, defends´, demands´, blind´ness, grand´mother, grand´father, hand´ful. 15. Do not omit the sound of d in the terminal letters lds; as wilz for wilds, felz for fields. Pronounce the following: Folds, holds, scolds, builds, scalds, unfolds´, child´s. 16. Do not omit the sound of t when preceded by c hard in the same syllable; as aks for acts, exak´ly for exact´ly. Pronounce the following: Facts, tracts, com´pacts, inspects´, respects´, inducts´, instructs´, correct´ly, direct´ly, ab´stractly, per´fectly. 17. Do not omit the sound of t in the terminal letters sts; as fis´s for fists, pes´s for pests. Pronounce the following: Posts, boasts, coasts, hosts, ghosts, accosts´. 18. Do not improperly suppress the vowel sounds in unaccented syllables; as ev´ry for ev´er-y, his´try for his´to-ry. Pronounce the following: Belief´, crock´ery, fam´ily, fa´vorite, des´perate, des´olate, nom´inative, mis´ery, li´brary, sal´ary, com´pany, com´fortable, perfum´ery, mem´ory, vic´tory, slip´pery, part´iciple, sev´eral, bois´terous. 19. Do not suppress the sound of e or of i before l or n in those words in which it should be articulated; as lev´l for lev´el, civ´l for civ´il, kitch´n for kitch´en, Lat´n for Lat´in. Pronounce the following: Trav´el, nov´el, bar´rel, par´cel, hov´el, chap´el, quar´rel, sor´rel, pen´cil, chick´en, lin´en, sud´den, mit´ten, sat´in. 20. Do not sound e or i before n or l in those words in which it is properly silent; e´ven for e´vn, heav´en for heav´n, ba´sin for ba´sn, haz´el for ha´zl, e´vil for e´vl. Pronounce the following: Ha´ven, sev´en, gold´en, o´pen, short´en, wood´en, wak´en, wid´en, fro´zen. 21. After r, ch, or sh do not give the sound of long u when the simple sound of oo (long or short) should be heard; as rule for rool, fruit, for froot. Pronounce the following: True, truth, grew, chew, sure, sug´ar, tru´ly, crew, brute, bru´tal, rude, through, cru´el, ru´by, ru´bicund. 22. Do not substitute the sound oo for that of long u; as toon for tune, doo´ty for du´ty. Pronounce the following: Tube, duke, mute, nude, mu´sic, Tues´day, du´bious, lute, blue, illume´, illude´, in´stitute. 23. The vowel a, when unaccented, at the end of a word has the sound of Ä (as in far) somewhat shortened; as com´ma not com´mi nor comma. Pronounce the following: Dra´ma, da´ta, pi´ca, so´fa, al´gebra, Chi´na, Amer´ica, dilem´ma, mi´ca, alpac´a, a´rea, neb´ula. 24. Give to the vowel a in the unaccented terminal syllables al, ant, ance, its short sound, but do not make it prominent. Pronounce the following: Na´tional, par´tial, fi´nal, eter´nal, ig´norant, ty´rant, in´stant, fla´grant, vig´ilance, ig´norance, in´stance, fra´grance. 25. Do not give to the vowel a (as in far), when unaccented and made brief, the sound of short u; as ubase´ for abase´, urouse for arouse´. Pronounce the following: Abound´, abate´, above´, about´, abridge´, amuse´, fanat´ic, ag´gravate, traduce´. 26. Do not give to long e, when unaccented and slightly abridged, the sound of short u; as uvent´ for event´, soci´uty for soci´ety. Pronounce the following: Emo´tion, vari´ety, sobri´ety, sati´ety, anxi´ety, impi´ety. 27. Do not give to long o, when unaccented and slightly abridged, the sound of short u; as ubey´ for obey´, prupose´ for propose´. Pronounce the following: Opin´ion, obe´dience, provide´, promote´, provoke´, pota´to, tobac´co, posi´tion, soci´ety, el´oquence, disposi´tion, mel´ody, composi´tion. 28. Do not sound short o, when unaccented, as short u; as ubscure´ for obscure´, cummit´tee for commit´tee. Pronounce the following: Observe´, oppose´, command´, conceal´, condi´tion, contain´, content´, possess´. 29. Do not lay too much stress on an unaccented syllable or a syllable having a secondary accent; as pri´ma´ry for pri´mary, ex´act´ly for exact´ly. Pronounce the following: Gigan´tic, precise´ly, salva´tion, loca´tion, vaca´tion, ter´ritory, sec´ondary, mat´rimony, prom´issory, vac´cinated. 30. In unaccented syllables do not bring out the quality of the vowel too distinctly. In many words, “there would be pedantry in scrupulously avoiding the short and easier sounds which the organs are inclined to adopt.” For instance, cab´bage in common conversation might be cab´bij, pal´ace, pal´as, etc. a. When a at the end of an unaccented syllable is followed in the next syllable by n or r, it has nearly the sound of short e, as in mis´cel-la-ny, cus´tom-a-ry. b. In the unaccented final syllable ate, of adjectives and nouns, the vowel a generally has a sound verging toward short e, as in del´i-cate, con-sum´mate (adj.). EXPRESSIONSpeak firmly; take time. Articulate clearly; do not slur. Correct pronunciation: requires—1. Exact vowel sounds. 2. Distinct terminal consonants. Read just as you would speak under the same circumstances, so that if you could be heard without being seen, it would be impossible to tell whether you were reading or talking. Avoid a monotone. Dull repetition of words in the same pitch is disagreeable. Enter into the spirit of what you read, and give expression to your natural feeling. The simplest way to emphasize a word is to pause after it. The word may be spoken a little louder or may be pronounced more slowly than the other words in the sentence. When speaking in public, address the person standing just behind the back row. INFLECTION OF THE VOICERising inflection is used in incomplete thought, or thought carried through consecutive phrases. It is used to express emotion, surprise, prayer. Falling inflection denotes complete thought. It expresses command, authority. The voice has three pitches:—upper, middle, lower. The upper register is the medium for the expression of excitement and earnestness. It must be used with care and artistic moderation, otherwise it is unpleasant. Use it rarely. Be careful of straining the voice. The middle register is used in familiar speaking, and general conversation. It is the most durable, and is the vehicle for everyday use. The lower register is suited to grave, solemn, impassioned utterances. It should be used cautiously. Practice will mellow the voice. WRITTEN ENGLISH.Written English is the art of putting words together in order to convey our thoughts to others. Good composition conveys our thoughts correctly, clearly, and pleasantly, so as to make them readily understood and easily remembered. To express ourselves well we must first have something to say. If we have not been able to come to any definite conclusion about a subject, we should be silent. We must next choose the right names for the things or actions of which we are going to speak. This is not always easy, for we are apt to talk loosely of quantities and qualities; to say there are “thousands” when there are only hundreds, to call an event “marvelous” when it is only unusual, or to refer to “ages” when there are only years. Again, we must arrange our words in the right way, so that they shall fit one another and combine to make good sense, just as we must put bricks or stones together properly to make a building stand. All language is a construction; it is the building or binding of words. There are many forms of written English, or composition—from a simple letter to the most elaborate treatise—but all are made up of the same elements, namely: words, sentences and paragraphs. It is essential, therefore, that these elements be thoroughly mastered at the outset. Beyond this comes the matter of style, the essentials of which may be summed up in four words: Accuracy, Clearness, Strength and Grace. Accuracy and Clearness are requisite in all kinds of writing to insure the faithful presentation of thought. Strength and Grace are more especially applicable to the higher branches of prose composition and to poetry. Grammatical Connections.—No expression can form part of a good composition unless it be constructed in accordance with correct grammar. Every sentence is inaccurate which gives wrong forms of the parts of speech, or violates the rules of syntax. The most common errors are of two kinds: (1) Errors in the use of single words or forms. (2) False concords, that is, wrong genders, numbers, cases and tenses. (See Right and Wrong Use of Words.) RULES RELATING TO STYLE
Choice and Use of Words.—Good usage—the usage of the best writers and speakers—sanctions only words that are in reputable, national, and present usage. The term Barbarism is applied to unauthorized language. Some offenses against good usage are the following: 1. Obsolete words, words gone out of use. 2. Provincialisms, words peculiar to some locality. 3. Colloquialisms, words peculiar to familiar conversation. 4. Solecisms, ungrammatical expressions. 5. Archaisms, expressions which would be obsolete except for their occasional use in poetry. The term Impropriety is used to designate reputable words misapplied. Slang is a general name for current, vulgar, unauthorized language. It may take the form of barbarism or impropriety. Use the fewest and simplest words that the subject will bear. Specific words are usually more forcible than general terms. Foreign and technical terms should be used with care. Use idioms wherever it is possible. Coherence demands that the parts shall be so connected that the thought will be clear and compact. The length of sentences is governed by the effect to be produced. Short sentences give vigor, emphasis, and rapidity. Long sentences give weight and rhythm. A well-constructed sentence keeps the same subject as long as possible. All modifying elements should be placed as near as possible to the words they modify. A Dangling Element—one that modifies nothing—must be avoided. Example: Looking into the water, a fish was seen. A “Squinting Construction” is one that is so poorly placed in the sentence as to modify equally well the part preceding and the part following. Example: Will you say to Mr. Brown, when he comes, I will be ready. Redundancy—A weak repetition of an idea—must be avoided. Pleonasm consists in the addition of words which can be omitted without affecting the construction or the meaning of the sentence. Tautology, or repeating a thought that has just been stated. Verbosity or Prolixity is the fault in sentence-making caused by using needless words. Don’t begin a sentence with—and, but, also, so, then, next, however, after this, of course, in consequence, as a matter of fact. The Paragraph.—A Paragraph is a division in composition treating only one part of the subject. A paragraph must conform to the same rules that should govern the whole composition; that is, it must show unity, massing, and coherence. Unity demands that all the thoughts in a sentence, in a paragraph, or in the whole theme shall cluster about one main idea. Massing demands that the important thoughts shall be placed in prominent places. Coherence demands that thoughts shall be closely connected. The length of paragraphs is not to be regulated absolutely: the subject-matter to be treated, the appearance of the page, and the comfort of the reader must all be considered. In a dialogue a new paragraph is begun with each change of speaker. The Sentence.—Rhetorically, sentences may be classified as periodic, loose, and balanced. A Periodic sentence is one that holds the thought in suspense until the end. Example: In all his long life, from the time when, as a twelve-year-old boy, he was roaming in the fields and fishing the streams, to the days of his manhood, when he was upholding the honor of his state in the Senate, he showed the same simple, democratic nature. A Loose sentence is one in which there is no attempt to show suspense; the different parts may come in where natural ease of expression suggests. A Balanced sentence is one in which contrasting thoughts are stated in similar forms. Example: God made the country and man made the town. The periodic and the balanced sentence are likely to result in artificiality of expression unless used with care. The loose sentence gives ease and naturalness, but these desirable qualities may easily change to slovenliness of expression in the hands of a careless writer. Sentences, like paragraphs, should show unity, massing, and coherence. Unity demands that the sentence shall have one main idea. The unity of a sentence is destroyed by putting together ideas that should be separated, by making the wrong idea subordinate, or by making ideas coÖrdinate that are not of equal importance. Examples of lack of unity:— 1. The words are very simple and I think it very strange that a tinker could write such a good book. 2. We went up the main road about half a mile, when we came to a pasture. Massing in the sentence demands that the main thought shall be placed where it will “readily catch the eye.” RIGHT AND WRONG USE OF WORDS IN SPEAKING AND WRITINGA and An.—a is used before a consonant sound; an, before a vowel sound; as, “a boy;” “an eye;” when a vowel has a consonant sound, as in the word eulogy, a, and not an, is required. In the case of words beginning with h, an is always required when h is silent; as, “an heir;” when h is aspirated, a is required, unless the accent is on the second syllable, when an is used; as, “a history;” “an historian.” Abbreviations.—Such abbreviations or contractions as e’er, ne’er, o’er, e’en, ’tis, ’mid, and ’neath, are legitimate in verse, but should not be used in prose. Ability for capacity.—Ability is the power of doing; capacity the faculty of receiving. “The ability is in me to do him good.” “Man’s capacities have never been measured.” Abortive.—That is abortive which is premature, not brought to completion. A plan may be abortive but not an act. We may speak of an abortive effort. About.—Not to be used as almost. “The day is almost gone,” not “The day is about gone.” Above is an adverb, not an adjective. Say “The address given above,” not “The above address;” the “foregoing section,” not the “above section.” Accept of.—Never use the preposition after this verb. We accept invitations, presents, hospitality, and the like. Accept and Except.—Accept means to take when offered; except means to leave out, to exclude. I accepted the gift. All except two will go. Accord.—To accord means to render or bestow upon another, as honor: therefore one should never say, “The information he desired was accorded him.” Administer.—The man died from blows administered by the policeman. Oaths, medicine, affairs of state are administered. Blows are dealt. Affect, Effect.—To affect means to influence or to pretend. To effect means to bring about. “He affected intoxication.” “He affected the audience strongly.” “I shall effect a reform.” Afraid.—The adjective afraid should not be used for the verb fear; thus: we say, “I am afraid of fire,” but “I fear I cannot go,” not “I am afraid I cannot go.” Aggravate means to heighten, intensify, or make worse. Do not use it for annoy or provoke. Ain’t.—This is illiterately employed as a contraction for are not, am not, is not. Even as a contraction of am not it is censured by many critics, the form I’m not being universally preferred. “Am I not?” is required in interrogative sentences. Allow.—This word is frequently misused for think, as “I allow that I shall go to town.” Say, “I think that,” etc. Allude means to refer to indirectly, and not the same as mention. “By mentioning his lifelong companion he alluded to his wife.” Almost.—Careless speakers sometimes err in saying most for almost, as, for example, “I have read most all the books in the library,” for “almost all.” Among and Between.—Among is distributive, and may apply to any number more than two; between is used of only two persons or things; as, “They discussed this among themselves;” “This is between us two.” Among One Another.—“Among one another” is censured by critics, “with one another,” or “among themselves” being suggested as preferable. And should not be used instead of to in such sentences as “I’m going to go and get it,” for “I’m going to get it”; “Try and do it,” for “Try to do it.” Angry At and Angry With.—“Angry at” is used when expressing anger for an animal or an inanimate object; “Angry with,” for a human being; as, “He is angry at his dog;” “He is angry with his brother.” Anybody else’s, Anybody’s else.—The predominance of usage seems to be in favor of the first form, which is correct according to analogy of similar cases, which “throw” the apostrophe and s to the last word of the unified expression, generally nouns in apposition. Any One, One, anybody, each, any one, everybody, either, neither, one, some one, somebody, should be followed by singular pronouns, or verbs. Any one, anybody, each, every one, everybody, either, neither, nobody, some one, somebody, may be followed by he or his. “Any one of these patterns is suitable.” “Every one of the ladies is here.” “Each one of the soldiers has a new uniform.” “If any one wishes to make a suggestion, I wish he (or she, or he or she) would make it.” “Anybody in his senses would have done it.” One should be followed, by one or one’s. “One dislikes to be told of one’s errors.” Appreciate means to estimate justly. “I appreciate his ill-will.” means “I am fully aware of the extent and intensity of his ill-will.” Apt, Likely, Liable.—Apt means quick or skillful. “He is apt to learn,” means that he learns readily. “He is likely to learn,” means that he will probably learn. “He is liable to learn,” is incorrect. Liable for means responsible for; liable to means subject to. “He is liable for the entire sum, and liable to imprisonment if he does not pay.” Apprehend and Comprehend.—Apprehend means to perceive; as, “I apprehend danger.” Comprehend means to understand; as, “I comprehend your meaning.” As should not be used for that in such constructions as, “I do not know that I do.” As—As, So—As.—Use the former in affirmative and the latter in negative propositions. “We are as wise as our teachers.” “I am not so young as I used to be.” As If It Was.—Were, and not was, is required after as if, for the reason that the supposition is not known; thus: “It looks as if it were all right,” not “it looks as if it was all right.” As though is often used for as if. In the sentence “He walked as though he were lame,” if the ellipsis is supplied the error will be evident. “He walked as (he would walk) though he were lame.” As though is seldom correct. At, At and To, At All.—The presence of at improves such constructions as “He is at home,” instead of “He is home.” At and to are superfluous in such sentences as, “Where is he?” and “Where has he gone?” hence, their use should be avoided. At all is superfluous in such sentences as, “There is no use in your going;” “I do not know him.” Authoress, Actress.—The terms “authoress,” “doctress,” “editress,” “poetess,” “lecturess,” are no longer used, author, doctor, etc., being correct for both sexes. Actress, not actor, however, is the required form for the feminine gender. Avocation, Vocation.—Avocation should not be used for vocation. Vocation is one’s employment; avocation, one’s diversion from that employment. Awful, Awfully.—Do not use these words as intensives or for supposed force. Awful should mean that which inspires awe. “The awful mysteries of the world unseen.” Bad, Badly.—Bad is not to be used for severe, as “I have a bad headache.” Badly is also inelegantly used for very much, as “I need money badly.” Character.—It is in general wrong to speak of a person as a character. Character is justly applied to the ideal personages delineated by novelists. Possessing no real personality, they are characters and nothing more. Character, Reputation.—One’s character is what one really is; one’s reputation is what people think of one. We may have a good character and a poor reputation, and vice versa. Choose, Chosen.—“She has chose the blue silk.” Say “has chosen.” But say, in the imperfect, “she chose him in preference to the others.” Combine together.—“He combined them together.” Omit together. Commence, Begin.—Begin, when followed by a verb, takes to and the infinitive after it. Commence should take the present participle. We “begin to do,” we “commence working.” Begin may take the participle, but commence should take the infinitive. Consonant.—“It is consonant to our nature,” is a more usual expression than “it is consonant with.” But consonant with is not improper. Contractions, while not permissible in dignified utterance or in formal writing, are in accordance with the conversational employment of the language. The following is the list: I’m not, you’re not, he’s not, we’re not, they’re not are used in the declarative form, and isn’t he (she, or it), aren’t you (we, they) in the interrogative. In the declarative form, You’re not, he’s not, etc., are preferable to you aren’t, he isn’t, etc. Am I not is not contracted, ain’t being regarded as objectionable for am I not, and as a vulgarism for isn’t. [See “He (she or it) don’t” for He (she or it) doesn’t is always incorrect. I don’t, you don’t, he doesn’t, we don’t, you don’t, they don’t, are in accordance with the conversational employment of the language. Mayn’t I (or may I not) is correct in the interrogative form; you can’t (or you can not) in the declarative form. In this connection note that may is used when asking and granting permission, and that can, which ordinarily expresses ability, is used in the declarative form when denying permission; thus: “May I go.” “No, you can not.” The contractions shan’t and won’t are in accordance with conversational usage. Conversant.—We are conversant with men and in things. Conversant about things is improper. Converse together.—“They conversed together for more than an hour.” Omit together. Copy.—We copy after a person; we copy after actions. We copy from things, as from a picture, or from a statue. In such case, a copy from the work is also said to be a copy after the artist. Correspond.—Correspond, meaning to hold intercourse by means of letters, is followed by with. “I have corresponded with him for several years.” With is also used with correspond, to signify consistent with. Correspond is frequently followed by to, when it expresses adaptability or appropriateness. “His style of living corresponded to his means.” Cover over.—“He covered it over.” Say “he covered it.” Dead corpses.—“Evil spirits are not occupied about the dead corpses of bad men.” Omit dead; it is implied in corpses. Dependent.—“He is dependent of his father.” Say “dependent on.” But with independent say of. Derogate.—Say derogate from, derogatory to, “derogation from,” or to. Depot, Station.—A depot is properly a place where goods or stores are kept. The place where a railway train stops for passengers may better be called a station. Did, Done.—“Who done it?” Say “who did it?” “who has done it?” Differ.—We differ with a person in opinion. One differs from another in other respects. The English barbarism of differ to, different to, is intolerable, and reverses the meaning of the word to. Direct, Address.—We address a letter to a person. We direct it to his post office, to the point at which, or to the person through whom, he will receive it. A letter addressed to the president may be directed to his secretary. Disappointed, Agreeably Disappointed.—It is better to say agreeably surprised. The meaning most closely associated with disappointment is that it is not agreeable. Dissent.—We dissent from, not with. Distinct, Distinctly.—“The girl speaks distinct.” Say “speaks distinctly.” Divide.—We divide things between two, among many. Drank, Drunk.—“He was very thirsty, and drunk eagerly.” Say “drank.” “He has drank three glasses of soda water.” Say “has drunk.” “Drunken,” the ancient form of the participle, is not now used. Drove, Driven.—“They have drove very fast.” Say “they have driven.” But, using the imperfect, say “They drove the people out, and locked the gates.” Dry.—“I am dry, let me have a glass of water.” Say “I am thirsty.” Using dry in this sense suggests the dramshop. Each, Either.—“A row of trees stood on either side of the river.” The use of either in such cases is disapproved by some writers, but it is sanctioned by long and unexceptional usage, and by the deliberate judgment of well-informed critics. The use of each—“a row of trees stood on each side of the river” is indisputably correct. Each, Every, Either are singular, and take the verb in the singular number. Such errors as the following should be guarded against: “Each of the daughters take an equal share.” Say “takes.” “Every leaf, every twig, every blade, every drop of water, teem with life.” Say “teems.” Also, instead of “one of those houses have been sold,” say “has been sold.” Eat, Ate, Eaten.—Say “I ate my breakfast at five o’clock this morning,” not “I eat it,” or “I et it.” “I have eaten my dinner,” not “I have ate it,” or “I have et it.” Either is followed by or. “I shall either send it or bring it myself.” Either and Neither are used when two objects are mentioned, or two assertions are made; when there are more than two objects or assertions, they need not be employed. In such case, instead of either, no pronoun or conjunction need be used; instead of neither, no or not may be employed. When two persons are mentioned, “Either you or I must go.” In case of three persons, “You or I or John must go.” With two assertions, negative, “He will neither do it himself nor let any one else do it.” With three negative assertions, “He will not publish the accounts of his office, or allow the public access to them, or permit them to be examined by competent, impartial parties.” Usage on the last point is not uniform. Very many good writers use neither, nor, nor, with three or more negative assertions. Emigrant, Immigrant.—An emigrant is a person who goes out from a country or a state to reside in another; an immigrant is one who comes into the state to live, from abroad. Equally as.—As should not be used after equally. Say equally high, equally dear, equally handsome, etc.; not equally as high, equally as dear, equally as handsome. Equally as well as.—“I can do it equally as well as he.” Omit equally; it is implied in the words as well as. Equally the same.—“It is equally the same.” Say “it is the same.” Everybody, Anybody.—Refers to male and female. For want of a pronoun of common gender, use the masculine—he, his, him—unless the other sex is specified. “They” is plural and must not be used. Anybody can do what they like. (wrong.) Anybody can do what he likes. Everybody will have to make up their minds. (wrong.) Everybody will have to make up his mind. Everybody has their faults. (wrong.) Everybody has his faults. If anybody calls, let them wait. (wrong.) If anybody calls, let him wait. Exceeding, Exceedingly.—“He was exceeding kind to me.” Say exceedingly kind. “She was exceeding careful.” Say exceedingly careful. Except, Unless, are often used confusedly. “I shall go except I am ill.” Say “unless I am ill.” “I saw them all unless two or three.” Say “except two or three.” The correct usage is easily learned by observing that except should be used as a preposition, unless as a conjunction. Fall.—We fall under reproach, notice, censure, etc. We fall from our friends, from virtue; we fall upon our enemies, among evil associations, into bad habits. Farther, Further.—Farther refers to space; further to time, degree, and extensions of thought. The distinction is not a necessary one, but it is now very generally observed. Fewer, Less.—Fewer relates to numbers, less to quantities. “No man had less friends,” should be fewer friends. But say less money, less strength, etc. Few, Little, Many, Much.—Few and many refer to number; little and much to quantity. In speaking of articles that are rated by counting, use few and many; in speaking of articles which are rated by measure, use little and much. “A few potatoes,” “so many days.” First.—“The two first” should be “the first two.” There can be only one first. Fluent, Fluently.—“He speaks very fluent.” Say very fluently. Forward, backward, toward, upward, onward, downward, hitherward, thitherward, afterward, heavenward, earthward, etc., should be written without the final s which is often added to them. Funeral obsequies.—Say obsequies. The sense of funeral is contained in this word. It would be as proper to speak of a “wedding marriage-ceremony” as of “funeral obsequies.” Generally, always, never, often, rarely, seldom, sometimes, are adverbs which generally come before the verb. Gentleman friend, Lady friend.—Instead of “my gentleman friend,” say “my friend Mr. ——.” Instead of “my lady friend,” say “my friend Miss ——,” or Mrs. ——. Gentleman, Lady.—These titles have been applied without discrimination till they have lost almost all the meaning they once had. Many persons have ceased to use them entirely, and employ man and woman as good enough titles for anybody. There are no nobler titles than man, woman; no higher expressions for qualities of grace or virtue than manly, womanly. Get.—“I am afraid Mary is getting crazy.” Say “is growing,” or “is becoming crazy.” “John got left by the train.” Say “was left.” We get anything that we come in possession of. We may also get a disease. But get must be followed by a noun as its object. Good for Well.—“He can do it as good as any one else can.” Say as well. Got.—I have a pen. Not I have got a pen. Gratuitous.—“That is a gratuitous assumption.” It is better to say “unfounded,” “unreasonable,” or “unwarranted.” Guess.—Guess is commonly used in the United States to mean think, as in “I guess you are right” for “I think,” etc. Had ought.—Provincial and incorrect. Had or any form of the verb to have cannot correctly be used as an auxiliary with ought. Use should or ought not. Not “He hadn’t ought to have gone,” but “He should not have gone.” Hain’t.—A vulgarism. There is no such contraction for have not or has not. Hang, Hanged.—The verb hang has two forms for the past participle, hanged and hung. Hanged is used for persons; hung for other objects. “The man was hanged.” “The coat was hung on the rack.” He, Him.—It is him whom.—“It is him whom you said it was.” Say “it is he.” Healthy, Healthful.—That is healthy which is in good health; that is healthful which promotes health. “Bread and milk is a healthful food which makes healthy children.” I and Me.—“They went with James and I.” Say “with James and me.” If I was.—Use the subjunctive in all cases where the conditions are contrary to fact. “If I were you, I should go.” “If I were a man, I should practice law.” I am not you, and I am not a man. Use the indicative in cases of uncertainty. “If I was in town that day, I did not see you.” I am uncertain as to whether I was or not. In, Into.—Use in to signify rest in a place; use into to signify motion toward a place. “He was standing with his hands in his pockets.” “I put my hands into my pockets.” “I came in an automobile.” “The stranger walked into the room.” Indeterminate possessive.—“Every child should obey their parents.” Say “his parents.” “No one should incur censure for being careful of their good character.” Say his, or her if talking more particularly of women. “Let each of us mind their own business.” Say “his own business.” Their is frequently used improperly, as a substitute. In such cases, his or her should be used, according as the object most prominent in the expression, or in the speaker’s thought, is masculine or feminine. In cases of doubt or indifference, use his. In the nominative we may say one. But in the possessive and objective we must say his, him or her. Indifferent, indifferently.—“He was indifferent honest.” Say “indifferently honest.” Infinitive.—See Split Infinitive. Ingenuous, Ingenious.—Ingenuous is simple, honest, open, unaffected. Ingenious is skillful, versatile, ready in contriving. Jew, Hebrew, Israelite.—A Jew is a member of the Hebraic division of the Semitic race; in consequence Hebrew is the linguistic name of the Jews. Historically, under the theocracy, they were known as Hebrews; under the monarchy, as Israelites; and during foreign domination, as Jews. The modern representatives of this stock call themselves Hebrews in race and language, and Israelites in religion, but Jews in both senses. Jewelry, Jewels.—Jewelry is a collective noun, and jewels is a plural noun. In nice usage the term jewelry designates the stock of a jeweler; jewels, the articles of adornment worn by a lady. Join issue and Take issue.—In nice usage, “join issue” means to admit the right of the denial of a statement. “Take issue” means merely to deny. Kind of should not be used for somewhat. Instead of “I am kind of tired,” one properly says, “I am somewhat tired.” Kind of a.—A is superfluous in such constructions as, “What kind of man is he?” (not “kind of a”). The same rule applies to sort. Kind and Kinds.—See These and This. Know, Knew, Known.—“I knowed it.” Say “I knew it.” “I have knowed it all along.” Say “I have known it.” Latter end.—“I expect to get through by the latter end of the week.” Say “by the end of the Learn, Teach.—These words are often confounded. The pupil learns, the instructor teaches. One person cannot learn another, but must teach him. Leave, Lief.—Say “give me leave to tell you,” not lief. But “I would as lief do it as not,” not leave. Leisure upon one’s hands.—“If you have any leisure upon your hands.” Say “if you are at leisure.” Lend, Loan.—“Loan me five dollars.” Say “lend me five dollars.” The money having been lent him, the borrower has obtained a loan of that sum, or has borrowed it. Lengthways, Sideways, Otherways.—These forms are erroneous. Say, and write, lengthwise, sidewise, otherwise. Lie, Lay.—Distinguish between the verbs:— lie—to tell lies Present Tense—He lies like truth. Present Tense—He is lying. Past Tense—But he lied unto him. Past Tense—Wherefore have ye lied to me? Past Tense—Why have you been lying to me? lie—to lie down Present—The dog lies under the table. Present—The dog is lying under the table. Past—He lay upon the bed. Past—He has lain there for hours. Past—He has been lying there for hours. lay—to put a thing down Present—The boy lays his books on the table. Present—The boy is laying his books on the table. Past—He laid his head upon the block. Past—The hen has laid an egg. Past—The hen has been laying all the winter. Liable, Apt.—Apt means fit, ready, quick to do a thing, or to be subjected to certain conditions. It generally implies willingness. Liable signifies bound to duties, subject or exposed to inconveniences or dangers, and implies no regard to the will of its subject. “John will be apt to catch the fever if he goes into that house,” should be “John will be liable,” etc. A person who is studious may be spoken of as apt to learn, and liable to become dyspeptic. Like.—“We don’t do that like you do.” Say “as you do.” This misuse of like is common with English women novelists. As should be used when a verb follows, or is understood to follow. Where no verb is implied, like may be employed. Like for As.—Like should not be used as a conjunction. Say: “Do as I do,” not, “do like I do,” or, “do like me.” Like, Love.—Love is often used instead of like, and is thereby made to lose all its force. We love what the heart goes out to, that for which we entertain a fond and lasting affection. We love wives, husbands, parents, children, near friends. We like what we have a taste for, what pleases us in passing, or what is generally agreeable to us, as acquaintances, sweetmeats, pleasant weather, music, painting, reading. We regret for a long time the loss of what we love, we soon cease to be troubled at missing what we like. Limb.—“She fell, and bruised her limb.” Say what limb. The arm is a limb, as well as the leg. The foolish shame which avoids mentioning the leg by name, is not modesty, but prudery. Lit.—Not to be used for lighted. Instead of saying “He lit the gas,” say “he lighted the gas.” Do not say “He lit on his feet,” but “he lighted on his feet.” Locate.—“I shall locate in Iowa.” Say settle. Locate has acquired a certain technical currency. The purchaser of land warrants locates by selecting a particular tract to claim under it. Place, settle, fix, establish, can be substituted for it in most cases, and are better. Mad.—Should not be used for angry. Mail man.—An inelegant form for postman. Me being.—“Me being absent, the young folks lived high.” Say “I being absent,” or “while I was absent,” or “during my absence.” Me, I.—“Is it me you mean?” Say “is it I?” or “do you mean me?” Me, My.—“In consequence of me neglecting.”—“The horse got away in consequence of me neglecting to fasten the gate.” Say “in consequence of my neglecting,” etc. Monstrous.—Monstrous does not mean large. It means ill-formed, misshapen, deviating from the course of nature, of a character to inspire unpleasant feelings. But an object so unusually large as to appear terrible may be figuratively styled monstrous. More—than, not more—as. “He was more beloved but not so much admired as his brother.” This sentence must be recast. “He was more beloved than his brother, but not so much admired.” Or, “Though not so much admired as his brother, he was more beloved.” Mortgagor, Mortgagee.—The mortgagor is the debtor, who pledges the property which is in mortgage. The mortgagee is the creditor, to whom the mortgage is made. Most.—Not to be used for almost; as “He is here most every day.” Mutual.—Does not mean common, but reciprocal. “We may have a common friend, but a mutual dislike”; that is, a dislike for each other. Myself.—Not to be used for I. Do not say “John and myself are friends”; but “John and I,” etc. Near, Nearly.—“I lost near twenty pounds.” Say “nearly twenty pounds.” Neither for Either.—“That is not the case, neither.” Say “either.” The double negative is wrong. Neither, Nor.—Negatives other than neither may take or or nor as their correlative. With subjects connected by “either—or,” “neither—nor,” the verb must be singular:— Neither he nor his brother were trained for the ministry. should be Neither he nor his brother was trained for the ministry. Either the master or his servant was responsible. Neither ignorance nor negligence has been the cause of his ruin. New beginner.—Say beginner. When one begins anything, he is new at it of course. Nice.—A very generally misused word. Properly nice means delicate, discriminating, fastidious. The works of a watch show nice construction; a man may be nice in his manners. The word should not be used to mean agreeable or charming as “I had a nice time.” Nicely.—Do not use nicely for well, as “The sick man is doing nicely.” Nobody else.—“There was nobody else but him.” Omit else. No for Not.—“I cannot tell whether this is correct or no,” is wrong. Say, “I cannot tell whether this is correct or not.” None, is the same as no one, and is properly singular. It is, however, used in both numbers, according as the context seems to make appropriate. Not as I know of.—Incorrectly used for not that I know of. Not me.—“Who made that noise?” “Not me.” Say “not I.” “It wasn’t me.” Say “it wasn’t I.” The use of me is defended by some writers. Not only—but also.—Correlatives must be placed immediately before the words connected. “He not only lent me his horse but also sent his carriage.” “He lent me not only his horse but also his carriage.” Number, Quantity.—Number should be used in Of.—“A child of four years old.” Say “a child four years old,” or “a child of four years.” Off of.—“There were ten yards of the cloth before I cut this piece off of it.” Say “before I cut this piece off it,” or “from it.” One.—One is the only singular personal pronoun of common gender. “One must not forget one’s duty to one’s country.” This frequent repetition is disagreeable. “No man must forget his duty to his country.” “A man must not forget his duty to his country.” Only is best placed immediately before the word it modifies. In case there can be no ambiguity it may be placed immediately after the word it modifies. Only I wrote to him to-day. (No one else wrote.) I only wrote to him yesterday. (I did not telephone.) I wrote only to him to-day. (I wrote to no one else.) I wrote to him only to-day. (No longer ago than to-day.) I wrote him to-day only. (I had not written before.) This car for members only. (For none but members.) Only, Alone.—“He alone can do it,” implies that he can do it without help. It would be better, “He can do it alone.” “He only can do it,” signifies that he, and no other person, can do it. Using alone in the sense of only may lead to ambiguity. Onto.—We get on a horse and on a chair, not onto. Orate.—An unauthorized form commonly used to mean to give an oration. Over.—Do not use over in the sense of more than; as, “I have over a hundred dollars”; “The stick is over a yard long.” Over a bridge.—“He went over the bridge.” It is more exact to say, “he went across the bridge.” A bird may fly over a bridge, if it does not touch the bridge. Overhead and ears.—“We went in overhead and ears.” Say overhead. The head carries the ears. But “overhead and ears in debt” is a phrase which it will be hard to abolish. Partial, Partially.—“This view is partially correct.” “Partly correct,” or “in part correct,” is better. Partially means, properly, one sided, with bias. Persuasion, in the sense of religious denomination or belief, is objectional. Sect, denomination, belief, or “school of belief,” are proper substitutes. Plunge down.—“He plunged down into the stream.” Omit down. Possessives.— Rule.—Use the apostrophe and the letter s (or change the form) only when the noun (or pronoun) itself represents the possessor. This is a photograph of my uncle. She is a servant of my aunt’s. This is a criticism of John. (Some one else wrote it about John.) This is an opinion of John’s. (John’s opinion; that is, John uttered it.) This is an opinion of John. (Some one else uttered it.) Plural and Singular Words.—Molasses is singular. The habit of giving it a plural construction is an error. Say “that molasses is souring,” not “them molasses are souring.” Words like scissors, snuffers, tongs, trousers, etc., denoting articles which are paired or coupled, are plural, and take a plural verb. “The scissors are dull,” not “is dull.” This is the birthplace of the President. (Not President’s.) This is the private office of the Secretary. (Not Secretary’s.) He is a friend of the Bank’s. (One of several friends.) He is an enemy of mine. (One or more possessed by me.) He is a brother of mine. (One or more possessed by me.) He is a friend of hers. (One or more possessed by her.) I cannot endure that rasping voice of Bridget’s. (One voice.) Prepositions.—Never use a preposition to end a sentence: For whom is that? To whom are you writing? The matter to which I am referring. Two prepositions should not come together, as: “That is the man I went to for advice.” But, “That is the man to whom I went for advice.” Previous, Previously.—“He wrote me previous to his coming.” Say “previously to his coming.” Quantity, Number.—Quantity is used of that which can be measured; number, of that which can be counted; as, “There is a large quantity of sugar on hand”; “There are a large number of eggs in the basket.” In connection with the use of the singular or the plural verb with the word number, note that the plural verb is used when number means several; the singular, when number is used to stand for a unit; as, “A number of persons are going” (several); “The number is limited to five.” Quite.—“There are quite a number of Americans here.” Say “there are several.” One is quite a number. It is correct to say “there are quite twenty” to express that the number is completely made up—which is the meaning of quite. Raised.—“I was raised in the South.” Say “brought up.” “I was raised in Mr. Stephens’ family.” Say “taken care of,” “brought up,” “instructed,” or “trained.” We “raise” horses, cattle, sheep, swine, poultry and crops, but apply a more refining process to human beings. Ran, Run.—Say “this horse has often run a mile in two minutes and a half; yesterday he ran a mile in two minutes and three-quarters.” Rang, Rung.—“I have rang the bell half a dozen times.” Say “have rung.” But say in the imperfect, “they rang the bells merrily for Christmas day.” Rather—than, Prefer—to.—“He preferred doing nothing rather than run the risk of doing wrong,” should be “He preferred doing nothing rather than running the risk of doing wrong”; or “He preferred to do nothing rather than to run the risk of doing wrong.” Receipt and Recipe.—One properly says, “The receipt calls for three cupfuls of flour,” recipe being restricted in its use as a medical term. Century gives the following: Receipt is distinguished from recipe by the common restriction of that word [recipe] to medical and relative uses; as, “A receipt for a pudding.” Reckon.—Provincial for think. “I reckon he will come soon.” Say “I think” or “I believe.” Reference, Recommendation.—A person seeking employment or position, names certain persons who know him as his references. They may, if they are so disposed, and can do so with truth, give him their recommendation. Regard.—“In regard of this matter.” Say “in regard to,” or “with regard to.” Regarded from that standpoint, but looked at in that light. Relations, Relatives, Kin, Kindred.—It is better to speak of ones relatives than of his relations. Relations has other meanings. Kin and kindred are old English words, which deserve to be more in fashion than they are. Relative Pronouns.—Who is used exclusively with persons, which exclusively with things, and that Examples of the correct use of the relative pronouns, who, which, that, and what: I gave the money to the driver, who will give it to his employer. I brought her a book, from the library, which she enjoyed very much. This is the house that she bought. I do not want you to repeat what I have told you. (1) In the last sentence what is equivalent to that which or the thing which. It differs from the other relative pronouns in that its antecedent is never expressed, it being implied in the word itself (that which). (2) What is always of the neuter gender, and is used in only the nominative and the objective case. Who, whose, and whom are either masculine and feminine (common gender) and are used, respectively, in the nominative, the possessive, and the objective case. (3) Which is neuter and may be used in either the nominative or the objective case. (4) Whose is the form of the possessive for either who or which. Remarkable, Remarkably.—“She is a remarkable pretty girl.” Say remarkably pretty. Reside and Live.—The simple word live is preferable to reside when referring to one’s place of residence, reside being reserved for more stately occasions. Respect.—Instead of “in respect of,” say “in respect to,” or “with respect to.” Respectfully and Respectively.—Respectfully mean in a respectful manner; respectively refers to persons or things thought of singly; as, “He behaved respectfully toward his parents”; “The names of the boys are, respectively, John, Henry, and James.” Rise up.—“He rose up and left the room.” Say “he rose”; say also, raise, lift, hoist; not raise up, lift up, hoist up. Saw, Seen, See.—“I see him last Monday.” Say “I saw him.” “I seen him yesterday.” Say “I saw him.” “I haven’t saw him for along time.” Say “I haven’t seen him.” See is present, saw imperfect, seen the participle. The habit of confusing them prevails widely. Section.—“Mr. —— does not live in this section.” Say “in this neighborhood,” “vicinity,” or “part of the country.” A section, in geography, is one square mile, or six hundred and forty acres of land, which has been laid out by the government. Shall and Will.—Shall in the first person and will in the second and third persons denote mere futurity. Will in the first person and shall in the second and third denote volition. In asking questions shall must always be used with a subject in the first person. In the second and third persons we use shall and will according to the answers that we expect. When we expect the answer shall, we use shall in asking the question. When we expect the answer will, we use will in asking the question. Similar statements are true of should and would. The proper use of shall, will, should, and would in indirect discourse may be determined by turning the sentence into the direct discourse and choosing the proper word according to the rule. With all three persons, we may use would to express a wish. Also we may use would without regard to future time, to denote that an action is customary; as, “He would often fish for days in succession.” Should is sometimes used in its original sense of ought; as, “You should not do that.” The forms given below are examples of the simple future statement. Examples:
If we wish to add the idea of a compelling force, or of determination or obligation, the proper auxiliary for the first person is will; for the second and third persons, shall. Examples:
I shall have satisfaction means that the satisfaction will come in the course of time. I will have satisfaction means I am determined to have it. Sink down.—“The stone sunk down in the water.” Omit down. Some for Somewhat.—“He is some better today.” It is better to say “he is somewhat better.” Split Infinitive.—To explain, to thank (infinitive). These words should not be separated (split). “Have the goodness to clearly explain,” should be “Have the goodness to explain clearly.” “I want to personally thank you,” should be “I want to thank you personally.” Tenses.—In subordinate clauses the tense of the verb is relative to the tense of the principal verb. “He intended to have done so,” should be “He intended to do so.” The imperfect tense, I did is used in speaking of events which took place before a time that is past. The perfect tense, I have done, is used in speaking of events which have been completed before the present time. Than me.—“He is taller than me.” The word after than should be in the same case with the word before it. Than him.—“You are stronger than him.” Say “than he.” That.—See Relative Pronouns. Thee and You.—“I owe thee a heavy debt of gratitude, and you will not permit me to pay it.” Avoid such confusion of numbers. Use the same word—either thee or you—in both clauses. Them, They.—“It was them.” Say “it was they.” These, This.—I don’t like these sort of folks (this sort). Those kind of boots—that kind (those kinds). These kind, Those sort.—Kind and sort are singular nouns, and should be modified by singular adjectives. Say “this kind,” “that sort.” They, Everyone.—Do not use they indefinitely instead of everyone, as, “They are always in a hurry in the city”; better say “Everyone is in a hurry in the city.” Though is followed by yet. “Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor.” Through.—Often misused in the sense of finished. “I am through with my breakfast,” instead of “I have finished my breakfast.” To be.—The verb “to be” takes the same case after it as before it. Example: “Who is there?” “It is I.” Say “It was I who rang the bell.” Trousers, Waistcoat, Gown, Petticoat, are good old respectable English words, which point out particular garments without possibility of mistake. They are better than the new ones, pantaloons, vest, dress, skirt. Try and.—“I will try and do it.” Say “I will try to do it.” Unique is not properly modified by very, unique meaning the only one of its kind. Use to.—Used to, not use to, is the correct form; as, “I used to go there very often.” In negative constructions “didn’t used to” is always incorrect. View to and View of.—One properly says, “With a view to finding out.” or “With the view of finding out.” Visit with.—Visit is improperly followed by with in such constructions as, “I am visiting with friends in New York,” “I am visiting friends,” etc., being the correct form. Vocation.—A man’s vocation is his calling, his regular business. His avocation is something outside of his business with which he occupies himself incidentally. My friend’s vocation is the practice of law; his avocation is photography. Still, while avocation, in the sense of vocation, is usually avoided by good writers, such use has some sanction of authority. Want.—Avoid want in the sense of “ought” or “had better,” as, “You want to hurry if you are going to catch the car”; better say “You had better hurry if you expect to catch the car.” Was, Were.—“Was you?” “You was.” Say “were you?” “You were.” Way, Away.—Way should not be used for away. “I saw him away (not way) down the road.” What for Who, Which, and That.—See Relative Pronouns. Where for In which.—“It is a cause where justice is particularly concerned.” Say in which. “We presented a paper where his case was fully explained.” Say “a paper in which.” But where may be used instead of which and a preposition when place is the predominant idea. “The old house where I was born.” Whether is followed by or. “Whether he will go or not, I cannot tell.” Which.—See Relative Pronouns. Who.—See Relative Pronouns. Without, Unless.—Without must not be used for unless. “You won’t catch the train without you run,” should be, “You won’t catch the train unless you run.” “My uncle would not take me without my mother wished it,” should be “My uncle would not take me unless my mother wished it.” Wrong and Wrongly.—Wrong is an adverb as well as an adjective. For this reason, wrong is often interchangeably used with wrongly; as, “The mail was sent off wrong” (or wrongly). When preceding the verb, wrongly is required; as “The letter was wrongly addressed.” USE OF CAPITAL LETTERSThe following are the general rules for the use of capitals, together with the abbreviations most commonly used. Many special uses of capital letters are also insisted upon by writers which cannot be reduced to general rules. Rule 1.—The first word of every sentence should begin with a capital letter. A sentence preceded by an introductory word or clause such as Resolved, Be it enacted, etc., begins with a capital notwithstanding the introductory word. Rule II.—The first word of a direct quotation, of an important statement, and of a direct question, should begin with a capital. Examples: One truth is clear: Whatever is, is right.—Pope. Ask yourselves this question: Are you doing right? Rule III.—The first word of every line of poetry should begin with a capital. Rule IV.—All proper names begin with capitals. If the proper name consists of several words, all are capitalized except articles, prepositions, and conjunctions. Examples:—San Diego, Burton-on-Trent, the Grand Army of the Republic. The words street, road, lake, river, mountain, etc., should begin with capitals when used in connection with proper names. Examples:—Crawford Road, Prospect Street, Lake Erie, Cuyahoga River, Little Mountain. North, South, East, and West, should begin with capitals when they mean sections of the country and not points of the compass. Example:—Chicago, the largest city of the West, is south of Lake Michigan. Capitalize city only when part of the corporate name, New York City, Washington City. Rule V.—Names of days and months always take a capital; but the names of seasons of the year are not commonly capitalized. Rule VI.—Titles of office before personal names, and other titles so placed which are not mere common names of vocation, are written with capitals. Examples:—Senator Jones, Doctor (or Dr.) Brown, Aunt Jane, Miss or Master Gray; but coachman Smith, barber Harris, etc. Titles of dignity are also commonly capitalized when used alone, as in address, or with the definite article. Examples:—the President, Senator, Judge, the Judge, District Attorney. When title, with or without Christian name, precedes “de,” use lower-case “d”; this rule applies also to “la,” “di,” “von,” “van,” etc. Examples:—Marquis de Lafayette, Di Cesnola, Prince von Moltke, Von Humboldt, Dr. la Mond, De Chaulnes, Mr. van Renssalaer. Rule VII.—Many special names of a common kind are, in particular uses, treated as proper nouns and capitalized. Examples:—Congress, Parliament, Senate, House of Representatives, State (for one of the United States), Hudson River Railroad, Aldine Printing Company. Capitalize the names of political parties; as, Republican Party, Democratic Party, Progressive Party, etc. Capitalize Christmas Day, New Year’s Day, Lincoln’s Birthday, Washington’s Birthday, Good Friday, Decoration Day or Memorial Day, Fourth of July, Labor Day, Election Day, Thanksgiving Day, etc.; a noted day, as Black Friday, etc.; but blue Monday. Capitalize Northerner, Southerner, Northern gentleman, Southern blood, etc. Capitalize names of important events and periods: as, the Creation, the Fall, the Flood, the Reformation, the Revolution (French or American), Civil War (American), the Middle Ages, the Union, Reconstruction. Capitalize religious denominations; as, Methodist, Episcopal Church, St. Mark’s Church, Church and State, etc. Church is without the capital always when used alone or when meaning congregation or building; as, a Methodist church in Hoboken. Capitalize College, Club, Society, etc., when referring to that particular body, in by-laws, proceedings, or other publications of a college, club, society, company, etc. Capitalize Monsieur, Madame, Signor, etc. Capitalize State only when referring to one of the United States. Rule VIII.—Adjectives and nouns derived from proper names are written with capitals. Examples:—Jacksonian, New Yorker, Congressman (if Congress has a capital). Names of countries and places, and adjectives derived from them. Examples:—a German dictionary. The best Spanish wines. But such words used in some other common way are not capitalized. Examples:—morocco leather, russia leather, india rubber, plaster of paris, etc. Rule IX.—Names of families and larger groups in natural history, and of genera, are written with capitals; also botanical specific names derived from proper names, and those that have formerly been genus-names, though zoÖlogical usage gives a small initial to every specific name. Examples:—Asplenium Trichomanes (a fern). Menticirrhus americanus (a fish). Carya alba (a hickory tree). Rule X.—In headings the important words only should be capitalized. Titles of books, newspapers, plays, and the like, are written with capitals beginning the important words, most commonly nouns, principal verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. The word the is capitalized as part of the title if the title is quoted exactly. Examples:—A History of the Rebellion. Examples:—Free Trade and Protection. Examples:—Put Yourself in his Place. Examples:—Milton’s Select Poems. Examples:—The Beginnings of Poetry. Rule XI.—The pronoun I and the interjection O are capitalized. Rule XII.—All names of God, all words that may be regarded as titles of the Deity, should begin with capitals. Rule XIII.—In compound words, as vice-president, ex-president, etc., the prefix (vice) should not be capitalized. Rule XIV.—In personification it is usual to capitalize the personified words. Examples:— ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS AND DEGREESMilitary or naval and some professional titles preceding names are nearly always abbreviated; as Capt. Jones, Dr. Brown, Rev. Dr. Smith. Titles of collegiate degree are abbreviated; as, William Lee, Ph. D., LL. D. In general writing, it is better to avoid abbreviation as far as possible.
The Parliament House of Peers— 1. My Lords, May it please your Lordships. 2. To the Right Honorable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, in Parliament assembled. House of Commons— 1. May it please your Honorable House. 2. To the Honorable the Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The Speaker of Ditto— 1. Sir, or Mr. Speaker. 2. To the Right Honorable James W. Lowther, the Speaker of the House of Commons. A Member of the House of Commons Not Ennobled— 1. Sir. 2. To Thomas Hughes, Esq., M.P. NARRATIONNarration is a species of composition which relates the particulars of a real or fictitious event in the order of their occurrence. In a wider meaning, narration is the statement of successive facts. In a story or drama the plot is the series of incidents which form the skeleton of the story. If the subject deals with real facts, as in biography, or history, or news, the rule of fidelity to the truth is essential. It requires that not only the main facts shall be true as they are narrated, but also that all the striking and important details be faithfully stated as they are known to have occurred or happened. Biography.—After the letter, the simplest form of composition is biography. The order of events from youth to age is established. This style of composition is strongly to be recommended for beginners. It affords excellent practice for all. It promotes a habit of putting things in order. Outline scheme of biography:—
Answer each question in a complete sentence. You have nine statements in chronological order. Each of these can be expanded into one or more paragraphs. Fiction and Drama.—If the composition is a story or drama, the principal requirements involve the following: The story should develop one or more of the following: plot, situation, character. The story should have interest. 1. It should begin attractively and as directly as possible. 2. It must move, and not simply “mark time.” 3. It may be made effective by dramatic situations and turning points. 4. It may use description, but the description must be closely connected with the story and must not hinder the movement. 5. It should discriminate in the number and the importance of details. 6. It may make effective use of suspense and suggestion. 7. It should have no inconsistency in the speech or the actions of the characters. 8. It should have an effective ending. News, or the Newspaper “Story,” is another very important form of narrative. The newspaper is the great popular educator of the day, and in its columns are found not only excellent examples of vivid and telling narratives, but frequently excellent types of spontaneous writing. News and news reporting require accuracy, clearness, brevity, and a style that either charms, or compels interest. Indeed, it too frequently happens that to secure the element of interest practically all else is sacrificed. Reporting and news writing are best learned by careful study of the daily papers, and from constant practice. Shorthand is an invaluable The relation of the “facts” and “story” may be illustrated in the following: Report of exact words of the speaker:— “I assure you, my friends, that I for my part, will do all I possibly can to resist this measure. You know that I have always been opposed to it; as recently as yesterday I spoke against it here in this very hall. Do you think that the people of this country will tolerate such injustice? I am sure they will not.” How the newspaper report appeared:— He assured his friends that he for his part would do all he possibly could to resist that measure. They knew that he had always been opposed to it; as recently as the day before he had spoken against it there in that very hall. Did they think, he asked, that the people of this country would tolerate such injustice? He was sure they would not. EXPOSITIONExposition is a form of composition designed to explain. Its important characteristic is clearness, and it, therefore, makes large use of illustration. The main points may be stated in various ways in order to make them clear. Essays and editorials are among the best known forms of exposition. Essay.—An essay is a short composition upon any subject. The subject may be of any kind whatever, one fit for treatment, and with great fulness, in any of the species of discourse described above, or one without sufficient dignity for such treatment. No other species of writing ranges over so wide and varied a field of topics—nothing less than that of all others combined—and none other allows such freedom and diversity in the handling. In style of thought the essay may be dreamy and semi-poetical, and charm by its beauty, it may be simply instructive or critical, it may blaze with its brilliancy, sting with its satire, convulse with its humor, convince with its logic, inflame with its appeal and move to instant duty. The author may wander off in leisurely excursions to the right and the left, and load his pages with gleanings by the way; or, like the orator, he may keep his eye on the point he would reach, and move, with the directness of an arrow’s flight, toward it. The style of expression should fit the thought, and October woods are not more varied in color than this department of literature in utterance. Outline of the Essay.—1. Give a clear definition of the subject or proposition to be discussed, amplified, paraphrased, or explained. 2. Set out the reason for, or the truth of, the proposition. 3. Add the confirmation of further proofs, including demonstration of the unreasonableness of the contrary. 4. Illustrate the truth of the proposition by comparison or analogy from nature or art. 5. Give direct examples or instances to corroborate the truth. 6. Quote the testimony of standard authors. 7. Conclude by summing up, with pertinent observations. Remember that all this working to a formula is only a training in the habit of clear thinking—a mental discipline. When you can do without the formula, and not till then, you will begin to be a writer. Editorials are, in point of fact, simply little essays, usually following closely the news or issues of the day. Their function is to elucidate, summarize, inform, persuade, or merely comment. In their highest form they are to prose writing what the sonnet is to verse; but it must be confessed that numerous editorials are so completely dominated by the so-called “editorial policy” of newspaper owners, or colored by one of the various hues of partisanship, that their otherwise beneficent influence and power are largely neutralized. Description.—We mean by a description the delineation of some object or scene. Narration deals with successive facts; description with objects that exist at the same time. We rarely find any literary production of great length which is entirely descriptive; but descriptions are often introduced into narratives with happy effect. Sometimes they serve the purpose of making the narration impressive, by moving the passions of the reader. At other times they are intended to make the events more intelligible. Thus we have seen that some narratives of battles are hard to follow because the writer has neglected to give us a clear description of the battle-field. Descriptions frequently serve as ornaments, affording an agreeable variety to the narration, and presenting scenes of striking interest to the imagination. Rules.—The governing rules in description are the following: 1. In every good description a point of view should be established. 2. The description should be governed by the point of view. 3. The general outline of the picture should, ordinarily, be given first. 4. The number of details should be so few and so insignificant as to make a vivid picture. 5. The order of the details should be determined by the character of the object described. Argument.—This form of composition is designed to prove the truth or the falsity of a proposition. A brief is a summary of an argument showing the development of the argument by a series of headings and sub-headings. The first step in the argument should be to define the terms of the proposition or to determine the facts in the case. State reasons to establish facts. The conclusion should be warranted by the premises. Illustrations may be used effectively, but not conclusively. Analogy should be used for illustration, not as a basis for conclusions. Arguments should usually be arranged in the order of their strength, the strongest last. POETRY AND POETICSPoetry is usually classified as epic, lyric, dramatic, and didactic. Epic Poetry is that which deals with the life and adventures of some real or mythic personage, called a hero. 1. The great epic is considered the highest effort of poetic talent, on account of the loftiness of its conceptions, the dignity of its character, and the difficulty of its execution. Few 2. The Metrical Romance differs from the great epic in its theme, which is less serious; its metre, which is lighter; and its control of events, which is mainly human; the love element is more prominent in this form of the epic. Examples: Scott’s Marmion and The Lady of the Lake. 3. The Tale is a simple form of narrative poetry telling a complete story. Examples: Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales; Tennyson’s Enoch Arden. 4. The Ballad is a direct, rapid, and condensed story, having peculiarities of phrase and poetic accent. Examples: Chevy Chase; Coleridge’s Ancient Mariner. 5. Pastorals and Idylls have a great deal of description, often of simple country scenes, mingled with the narrative. Examples: Goldsmith’s Deserted Village; Tennyson’s Idylls of the King. Dramatic poetry tells a story by means of characters speaking and acting in such a way as to develop a plot. The drama is divided into acts, often five, the fifth act showing the results of the plot which has been developing. The classes of dramatic poetry are tragedy and comedy. Tragedy deals with the grave situations and problems of life and engenders in the spectator noble emotions. Comedy deals with the pleasanter and more trivial side of life and chooses its subjects from everyday follies, accidents, or humors. Lyric poetry expresses the deepest emotions of sentiment of the poet. The lyric, as the word suggests, was originally designed to be sung to the music of the lyre. Lyric poetry includes five classes, as follows: Song may be either sacred or secular. The Ode is the loftiest form of lyric, and expresses great range and depth of feeling. This range of emotion often varies the metre. Examples: Tennyson’s Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington; Lowell’s Commemoration Ode. The Elegy laments the fleeting condition of human affairs. Examples: Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard; Milton’s Lycidas; Tennyson’s In Memoriam. The Sonnet is a short poem of fourteen iambic pentameter lines, and had originally a prescribed arrangement of rhyming lines. The great English sonnet writers are Shakespeare, Milton, Wordsworth, and Mrs. Browning. Many lyrics have none of the special aims already mentioned. These may be called Simple lyrics. Example: Burns’s To a Daisy. Didactic verse is not the highest type of poetry. Its aim is not to give pleasure, but to instruct. Example: Pope’s Essay on Man. POETICSPoetry differs from prose in three particulars: in its purpose, in its style, and in its form. The chief object of poetry is to give pleasure. Of all literature it is the most spontaneous because addressed particularly to the feelings. It has its own diction and imagery, conforming to the order, gradations and subtleties of its thought. Like other forms of genius, too, it is permitted certain liberties and variations of language or expressions in order to avoid monotony and maintain the life and music of the verse. These are more strictly rhetorical, however, and next in importance to the poetic content is poetic form. By poetic form we mean the mould and measure whereby, in English, poetry gets itself into the expression adapted to produce its designed effect. Metre.—All impassioned language, as in eloquence for instance, tends to fall into a more or less regular rhythmic swing. In poetry, which is both impassioned and imaginative, this rhythm is timed to definite lengths and called metre, which is the Greek word for measure. The unit of poetic measure is the foot. A foot is a combination of syllables, two or three distinguished, after the Greek, as long and short, but more truly accented and unaccented, because our syllabic values, unlike the Greek, are more accentual than quantitative. A variety of poetic feet are employed in English, whose names and values are derived from Greek prosody. Poetic Feet.—For brevity of description a notation is used to designate the foot: the sign (—) for a long, and (?) for a short syllable. The kinds of feet in most common English use, here marked by their signs and illustrated by a word, are: Iambic or Iambus, a short and a long (?—, e. g. forbid); Trochaic or Trochee, a long and a short (—?, e. g. lightly); Spondaic or Spondee, two longs (——, e. g. all day); Anapestic, two shorts and a long (?? —, e. g. arabesque); and Dactylic, a long and two shorts (—??, e. g. silently). Other feet, such as Tribrach, three shorts (?? ?, e. g. rapidly); Amphibrach, short long short (?—?, e. g. tremendous), and Amphimacer, long short long (—?—, e. g. undismayed), are used less frequently, and only as blends with other measures. Verse.—The first combination of poetic feet results in the verse or line, somewhat analogous to the clause in a prose sentence. The word verse means by derivation a turning; perhaps because where it reaches a certain designed length the writer turns back and begins a new line. The kinds of verse employed are named by Greek names according to the number of feet they contain; and along with this, if the measure is fully described, is named the kind of foot. The same notation as given above is kept up through the line, the feet being separated by an upright line. Thus, taking the Iambic foot as unit, we note: Monometer, one-measure, or one foot long (?—); Dimeter, two-measure (?—" ?—); Trimeter, three-measure (?—" ?—" ?—); Tetrameter, four-measure (?—" ?—" ?—" ?—); Pentameter, five-measure (?—" ?—" ?—" ?—" ?—); and Hexameter, six-measure, (?—" ?—" ?—" ?—" ?—" ?—). English names are sometimes used, as 8 and 7, or fourteeners. A few poetic lines may here be given, with their notation, by way of illustration:
At some place within a long line, pentameter or hexameter, occurs a natural pause, called the cÆsura. The continual varying of the place of the cÆsura is one means of breaking up the monotony to which blank verse (Iambic pentameter unrhymed) tends. Stanzas.—The next step of procedure as the combination of poetic elements goes on from the single verse, is some form of stanza structure. The simplest approach to the stanza, employed principally in what is called Heroic verse, is the couplet (also called the Heroic couplet), two lines, Iambic pentameter, rhymed, and generally pausing at the end of the second line. They form only partially a stanza, however, because these couplets go on, according to the requirements of the thought, to group themselves in paragraphs after the manner of prose. Pope is the great master of the heroic couplet. Sometimes, if the lines are long, a poem is made up of couplet stanzas, as in Tennyson’s Locksley Hall. There are certain standard stanza structures, such as the Elegiac stanza, four lines Iambic pentameter, rhymed either in pairs or alternately, of which Gray’s Elegy (rhymed alternately) is the type; the Ballad stanza, four lines Iambic pentameter and trimeter alternating, with second and fourth lines rhymed together, sometimes also first and third; various hymn stanzas, designated Long Metre (L. M.), Common Metre (C. M.), Short Metre (S. M.), 8 and 7, 6 and 4, etc., which can be studied in any hymn-book; and most elaborate of all, the Sonnet, a fourteen-lined stanza which is also a whole poem, with a rather intricate rhyme scheme. Generally speaking, however, the liberties and varieties of stanza structure, as to kind of measure, length of line and stanza itself, combination of long and short line, and rhyme scheme, is almost unlimited. Rhyme.—A new poetic element enters into the stanza: the element of rhyme. The most prominent regulative feature of English lyric verse, perhaps, is the rhyme by which recurring periods are grouped. Technically speaking, there are three kinds of rhyme, only one of which plays an important, or at least essential part, in modern English poetry. 1. Beginning rhyme, or alliteration (e. g. the mother of months), which in Anglo Saxon poetry was the main principle of verse, but is now introduced only furtively and delicately. 2. Middle rhyme, or assonance, wherein only the vowels rhyme (e. g. blarney, charming), which is introduced with even more caution than alliteration. 3. End-rhyme, which is so constant and essential a principle of the stanza that it needs no further definition here. In the skillful management and disposition of the end-rhymes, to produce its poetic effects without monotony or undue obtrusiveness, there is room for the finest poetic taste and workmanship. On single rhymes (e. g. face, embrace), double rhymes (e. g. rally, sally), and triple rhymes (e. g. pentameter, sham metre), which explain themselves, there is no occasion to enlarge. The arrangement of lines in a stanza is indicated, in brief notation, by letters of the alphabet. Thus a a b b indicates a four-line stanza in which the first and second lines rhyme, and the third and fourth; ab ab, a stanza in which the rhymes alternate; a b b a, a stanza like that of Tennyson’s In Memoriam, in which this arrangement is reversed. In this way, with the use of the other notation mentioned, a complete description of poetic construction, from foot to stanza, may be made in very short space. How Rhythm is Applied.—Lyric poetry, of which the type is the song; was originally designed to be associated with music. It is in this class of poetry, especially, that the stanza form and the rhyme system prevail; but besides the song and the ballad, which most suggest musical accompaniment, there are the ode, the elegy, the sonnet, the didactic poem, and many others, with which music, except in the natural melody of the verse, has little to do. In epic poetry, the vehicle of great national deeds and ideals, and the enshrining of deep religious and moral truths, the verse employed is generally blank verse (i. e. unrhymed verse), in paragraphs instead of stanzas, and generally Iambic pentameter. For less sublime or universal purposes, however, this epic class has been enlarged to include narrative and romantic poetry, often rhymed, as in Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales and Scott’s The Lady of the Lake; and sometimes in stanzas, as in Spencer’s Fairy Queene. Dramatic poetry, designed for representation on the stage, and written in blank verse of a less severe and rigid artistic kind than in the epic, is modeled more after the natural rhythm of impassioned speech. The range and tone of such dramatic verse is very generous and elastic; from the free and colloquial, as in Browning’s dramatic monologues, up to the so-called closet drama, designed to be read rather than played, wherein the artistic demands are as subtle and exacting as in the epic, and the sentiment generally more intense. While, therefore, the ancient classification remains fundamental and true, the modern art of printing and the discontinuance of the custom of reading aloud, have operated to enlarge the scope of poetry within these elemental lines till every requirement of impassioned and imaginative utterance is freely open to it, in vital and enduring forms. WORDS AND PHRASES FROM THE MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGES.Including proverbs, maxims, quotations, mottoes, idioms, allusions, references, and numerous terms used in law, literature, cookery, the drama, social life, and everyday affairs. KEY TO PRONUNCIATIONÄ, as in farm, father; ?, as in ask, fast; a, as in at, fat; a, as in day, fate; Â, as in care, fare; e, as in met, set; e, as in me, see; e~, as in her, ermine; i, as in pin, ill; i, as in pine, ice; o, as in not, got; o, as in note, old; Ô, as in for, fought; oo, as in cook, look; oo, as in moon, spoon; u, as in cup, duck; u, as in use, amuse; Û, as in fur, urge; th, as in the, though; y, as in yet, you; ow, as in cow, now; ng, as in sing, ring; ch, as in church, choose. FOREIGN SOUNDSÖ cannot be exactly represented in English. The English sound of u in burn is perhaps the nearest equivalent to Ö. Ü cannot be exactly represented in English. The English sound of u in luke and duke resembles the original sound of Ü. N represents the nasal tone (as in French) of the preceding vowel, as in encore (ÄN-kÔr´). K represents ch, as in German ich, ach. zh, sound of s in pleasure. j and g before i or e in Spanish, strongly aspirated h. Phrases not designated are from the French; those from other languages are distinguished thus: (Ger.)—German; (It.)—Italian; and (Sp.)—Spanish. A a bas (? bÄ´), down. a bas le traitre (? bÄ´le tretr´), down with the traitor. a beau jeu beau retour (? bo zhÖ´ bo retoor´), one good turn deserves another. a bon chat, bon rat (? bÔN r?´), (to a good cat, a good rat), well matched; set a thief to catch a thief. a bon marchÉ (? bÔN m?r sha´), cheap. abonnement (? bÔn mÄN´), subscription. a bras ouverts (? br?zoo ver´), with open arms. abrÉgÉ (? bra zha´), abridgment. absence d’esprit (?p sÄNs des pre´), absence of mind. a causa persa, parole assai (It.), (Ä kÄ´ oo zÄ per´sa, pÄ rÔ´laÄsÄ´e), when the cause is lost, there is enough of words. accueil (? kÖ´e), reception; greeting; welcome. À charge (? sh?rzh´), at expense. À cheval (? she v?l´), on horseback. À compte (? kÔNt´), on account. À corps perdu (? kÔr per du´), headlong; neck or nothing. À coup sur (? koo sÜr´), with certainty; surely. À couvert (? koo ver´), under cover, protected, sheltered. acqua Tofana (It.), (Ä kwÄ to fÄ´nÄ), a subtle poison. À demi (? de mi´), by halves. À dessein (? de sÂN), designedly. À deux mains (? dÖ mÂN´), (for both hands), having a double office or employment. adieu (? deÖ´), (I commit you to God), good-bye. adieu, la voiture, adieu, la boutique (? deÖ´, l? vw? tÜr´, ? deÖ´ l? boo tek´), (good-bye, carriage; good-bye, shop), all is over. À discrÉtion (? des kra seÔN´), at discretion, unrestrictedly. À droite (? drw?t´), to the right. affaire d’amour (? fer d? moor´), a love affair. affaire d’honneur (? fer dÔ nÖr´), an affair of honor, a duel. affaire du coeur (? fer dÜ kÖr´), an affair of the heart, a love affair. affiche (? fesh´), a placard; a notice; bulletin. affreux (? frÖ´), frightful. À fin (? fÂN), to the end or object. À fond (? fÔN´), to the bottom; thoroughly. À forfait (? fÔr fe´), by contract, by the job. À gauche (? gosh´), to the left. À genoux (? zhe noo), on one’s knees. agneau (Ä-nyo), lamb. À grands frais (? grÄN fre´), at great expense. a haute voix (? ot vw?), loudly; openly. a huis clos (? we klo´), (with closed doors), secretly; in camera. aide-toi, et le ciel t´aidera (ed tw?´, a le seel ted r?´), help yourself, and Heaven will help you. air distinguÉ (er des tÂN ga´), a distinguished appearance. air noble (er nÔbl´), a distinguished, patrician air, manner, or presence. À la (Ä lÄ), au (o), aux (o).—With; according to; after the manner of; as huitres aux champignons, oysters with mushrooms. If a dish is cooked, or served, or made, with anything as an ingredient or garnish, the dish may be said to be “À la” that substance. So it may be possible to ascertain the meaning of phrases not given below by looking elsewhere in the vocabulary under the word used with the words “À la.” À l’abandon (? l? bÄN dÔN´), disregarded, uncared for. À la bÉarnaise (Ä lÄ ba-Är-naz´).—With a sauce of tarragon vinegar in which shallots have been boiled till it is reduced, then combined with egg yolks and butter, and beaten in a bain-marie, then seasoned with red pepper and lemon juice. À la bÉchamel (Ä lÄ ba-shÄ-mel´).—After the fashion of BÉchamel (a French gastronomer); said of a sauce (see Bechamel); also prepared or served with this sauce. À la belle Étoile (? l? be la tw?l´), under the canopy of Heaven; in the open air. À la Bercy (? l? bÂr-se´).—Served with bÉarnaise sauce, stuffed green pepper and stuffed tomato. À la bigarade (? lÄ be-ga-rÄd´).—Flavored with (Seville) orange juice or peel. À la bonne femme (? l? bÔn f?m).—Of, or in the style of, the housewife; specifically said of a kind of maigre soup made with fish, bouillon, legumes, and an assortment of vegetables. À la bonne heure (? l? bÔ nÖr´), well-timed, in good time; favorably; good. À la bordelaise (Ä lÄ bÔr-de-laz´).—With Bordeaux wine; said of various preparations containing it; as of a sauce, with garlic, shallots, or onions, chopped mushrooms, and a piece of marrow; also with sauce a la bordelaise. À la bourguignotte (a lÄ boor-ge-nyot).—Generally prepared with the addition of red wine of Burgundy, or of Bordeaux, or of the Midi (i.e., meridional provinces of France). At Bordeaux, or when made elsewhere with Gironde wine, the dish would be À la bordelaise. À la caledo´nian (Ä lÄ).—Boiled slowly in plain water and then baked with dressing of butter, chopped parsley, and a little lemon juice; said of finnan haddie when so cooked. À la Camerani (Ä lÄ kÄ-ma-rÄ´ne).—After the fashion of Camerani; said of a kind of rich chicken-liver soup. À la campagne (? l? kÄN pÄny´), in the country. À la carte (? l? k?rt´), by the card. À la Chateaubriand (Ä lÄ shÄ-to-bre-ÄN´).—With maitre d’hotel butter. À la chevreuil (Ä lÄ she-vrÛ´y´).—Served with a savory sauce; said of fillets of beef. À la chipolata (Ä lÄ che-po-lÄ´tÄ).—Containing an addition of the strongly flavored Italian sausages, or the mince with which they are filled. À la chiffonade (Ä lÄ she-fo-nÄd´).—See chiffonade. À la cocotte (Ä lÄ ko-kot´).—Baked (as eggs) in a cocotte, with butter and cream, or with cheese, or the like, and served in a cocotte. À la crapaudine (Ä lÄ krÄ-po-den´).—Like a crapaudine (the flat piece of iron on which a grate pivot rests;) said of grilled chicken, pigeon, etc., when prepared by boning, removing the legs and wings, and pressing flat. À la CrÉole (Ä lÄ kra-ol).—With tomatoes. À la Croissy (Ä lÄ krwÄ-se´).—Containing carrots in quantity, or at least strongly flavored with them; said specifically of a puree of onions, carrots, turnips, and parsnips stewed in coulis. According to others, containing turnips in quantity, or strongly flavored with them. À la daube (Ä lÄ dob).—Stewed in daube; said specifically of dishes cooked with small square pieces of salt pork, the round slices of carrots, glaced onions, and turnips. À la DauphinÉ (Ä lÄ do-fe-na´).—With various vegetables, spinach, lettuce, leek, onions, sorrel, beets, etc.; said of a kind of soup. À la Dauphinoise (Ä lÄ do-fe-nwÄz´).—Generally, sauced over with a thick sauce (or with egg yolk), bread-crumbed, and then fried. À la dÉrobÉe (? l? da rÔ ba), stealthily. À la diable (Ä lÄ de-Ä´bl).—Deviled. À la faveur (? l? f? vÖr´), by the favor of. À la financiÈre (Ä lÄ fe-nÄN-syÂr´).—With extract of truffles (literally, after the style of a financier); said À la Flamande (Ä lÄ flÄ-mÄNd´).—Containing cabbage, but more particularly Brussels sprouts, and, usually turnips and carrots cut in big slices. À la Florentine (Ä lÄ flo-rÄN-ten´).—See À l’Italienne. À la FranÇaise (? l? frÄN sez), in French fashion. À la GÉnevoise (Ä lÄ zha-ne-vwÄz´).—Cooked with champagne; said of certain dishes of fish. À la godiveau (Ä lÄ go-de-vo).—With balls made of mincemeat, usually of veal. À la Grecque (? l? grek´), after the Greek fashion. À la Holstein (Ä lÄ hol´ stin).—Fried, and served with a fried egg, sardelles, capers, pickled beets, and pickles, and sometimes scraped horse-radish. À la jardiniÈre (Ä lÄ zhÄr-de-nyÂr´).—Made with a typical collection of cooked vegetables, as soups, ragoÛts, and removes. See jardinere. À la julienne (Ä lÄ zhÜ-lyen´).—With various vegetables sliced in strips, as carrots, turnips, leeks, onions, celery, lettuce, tarragon, sorrel; said especially of a kind of rich stock soup. Also said of potatoes cut in very slender strips and fried crisp floating in hot fat. À l’AlgÉrienne (Ä lÄl-zha-re-en´).—Cooked with slices of raw ham; said of a preparation of fowl. À la Languedoc (Ä lÄ lÄNg-dok´).—Cooked with or in olive oil; with olive oil. À l’Allemande (Ä lÄl-mÄNd´).—Having a German provincial peculiarity of preparation, as a garnish of sauerkraut, prunes stewed in wine, quenelles of potatoes, etc. À la Loren´zo (Ä lÄ).—Made of minced crab meat, put on toast spread with anchovy paste, then all covered with parmesan cheese and bread crumbs, buttered, browned in the oven, and served. À l’Alsacienne (Ä lÄl-sÄ-syen´).—With pork and frankfurters; also with onions and pork. À la lyonnaise (Ä lÄ le-o-naz´).—With flaked or sliced fried onions; as, potatoes À la lyonnaise, or lyonnaise potatoes; sauce À la lyonnaise, or Lyons sauce, that is, espagnole sauce with flaked onions fried in oil. À la macedoine (Ä lÄ mÄ-sa-dwÄn´).—Made with or of a typical collection of green vegetables, mostly in white sauce; also applied to collections of ripe fruit imbedded in jellies, etc. À la Maintenon (Ä lÄ maN-te-nÔN´).—A term variously used to designate a mode of cooking mutton or lamb chops; as, (a) wrapped in caul; (b) garnished with cockscombs and truffles; (c) served with a soubise; (d) served with financiÈre sauce; (e) served with d’Uxelles sauce, etc. À la maÎtre d’hÔtel (Ä lÄ ma´tr do-tel´).—Prepared by a substantial, but homely, modest sort of cooking. Also served with maitre d’hotel butter. À la Marengo (Ä lÄ mÄ-ren´go).—With some garlic and oil. À la Marseillaise (Ä lÄ mÄr-say-az´).—With Marsala wine. À la Ma´ryland (Ä lÄ).—With a sauce of butter and cream, with or without wine. It is like À la Newburgh, but less rich. À l’AmÉricaine (? l? ma re ken´), after the American fashion. À la Meyerbeer (Ä lÄ mÂ-Ûr-bÂr´).—Shirred and served with broiled kidney and truffle sauce; said of eggs. À la Milanaise (Ä lÄ me-lÄ-naz´).—See À l’Italienne. À la mode (? l? mÔd´), in the fashion; according to the custom or fashion. À la mode de CaËn (Ä lÄ mod de kÄN).—A term used to designate tripe prepared with vegetables, leeks, wine, cognac, etc. À la Napolitaine (Ä lÄ nÄ-po-le-tan´).—See À l’Italienne. À la neige (Ä lÄ nazh´).—In some form that suggests snow, as with white-of-egg froth, or in balls of white boiled rice, or the like. À la New´burgh (Ä lÄ).—With a sauce made of cream, egg yolks, Madeira or sherry wine, and butter shaken in a dish over a slow fire until they thicken. Said also of this sauce. À l’Anglaise (? lÄN glez´), after the English fashion. À la nivernaise (Ä lÄ ne-vÂr-naz´).—Containing a nivernaise; said of a kind of soup À la julienne. See nivernaise. À la Normande (Ä lÄ nÔr-mÄNd´).—Generally, with apples in the composition of the dish in some shape or other. À la Parisienne (? l? p?-re-zeen´), after the Parisian fashion. À la PÉrigord (Ä lÄ pa-re-gÔr´).—Flavored with, or consisting of, truffles—alluding to the circumstance that these mushrooms grow of excellent size and quality in the province of Perigord. À la Polonaise (Ä lÄ po-lo-naz´).—Having red beets or red cabbage, so as to have their juice, color, and taste, as Polish ragoÛt, or borsh, which is the type of dishes À la Polonaise. À la poulette (Ä lÄ poo-let´).—With white veloutÉ sauce. À la printaniÈre (Ä lÄ praN-tÄ-nyÂr´).—Made with a typical collection of cooked early or spring vegetables; of a somewhat wider application than À la jardiniÈre. À la ProvenÇale (Ä lÄ pro-vÄN-sÄl´).—Generally, prepared with more or less of olive oil, and flavored with garlic. À la Reine (Ä lÄ ran).—Of, or after the style of, the queen; said specifically of a kind of chicken soup [potage À la reine, (po-tÄzh´ Ä lÄ ran)] containing white meat of chicken pounded and rubbed to a powder. À la Ro’land (Ä lÄ).—Made of minced lobster meat in the same manner as À la Lorenzo dishes of crab meat. See À la Lorenzo. À la Saint Cloud (Ä lÄ saN´kloo).—With sliced truffles; said of a kind of veloutÉ sauce. À la serviette (Ä lÄ ser-vyet).—Served in or on a napkin as braised truffles. À la Soubise (Ä lÄ soo-bez´).—Generally containing onions in quantity; or, at least, strongly garnished and flavored with them; especially, served with a white onion sauce used with lamb or mutton. À la Sourdine (? la soor den´), silently; with bated breath. À la tartare (Ä lÄ tÄr-tÄr´).—With tartare sauce, or a sauce of similar ingredients. Also, said of a steak chopped and garnished with onions, pickles, pickled beets, sardelles, and yolk of egg, to be eaten raw. À la Tartufe (? l? t?r tÜf), like Tartufe, the hypocritical hero of MoliÈre’s comedy, Tartufe, hence hypocritically. À la turque (Ä lÄ tÜrk).—Shirred and served with chicken livers and mushrooms; said of eggs. Also boiled with rice and saffron; said of chicken. À l’Aurore (Ä lo-ror´).—With a pink sauce made by coloring veloutÉ sauce with lobster coral or Armenian bole. Also said of sliced hard-boiled eggs put in a dish, covered with veloutÉ, sprinkled with grated egg yolk, and baked. À la vert prÉ (Ä lÄ vÂr pra).—Colored green with vegetables, as with a puree of spinach. À la Viennoise (Ä lÄ vya-nwÄz´).—Applied to dishes usually and typically prepared in the Austrian capital, such as the dumplings termed nockerlin, quenelles of potatoes, and others. À la Villeroi (Ä lÄ vel-rwÄ´).—With atelets sauce. Also, said of a poached egg put in a thick white sauce, then covered with egg yolk and bread crumbs, and fried. À la vinaigrette (Ä lÄ ve-ne-gret´).—With vinaigrette sauce. al buon vino non bisogna frasca (It.), (Äl bwÔn ve´ no non be zÔ´ nyÄ frÄs´kÄ), good wine needs no bush. À l’envi (? lÄN ve´), with emulation. À l’espagnole (Ä la-spÄ-nyol´).—Made savory with espagnole sauce; specifically, served with a garnish of onions, garlic, green peppers, mushrooms, tomatoes, and minced ham cooked together, and bound with espagnole sauce. a l’extremite (? lek stra me ta´), at the point of death; without resource. al fresco (It.), (Äl fras´ko), in the open air. alguazil (Sp.), (Äl gwÄ zel´), a Spanish constable. À l’huile (Ä-lwel).—In olive oil; with olive oil dressing. Alici (Ä-le´che).—Anchovies, or a similar small fish preserved in oil according to the Italian fashion. À l’imperatrice (Ä lÂN-pa-re-tres´).—Said of shirred eggs served with a slice of patÉ de fois gras upon each egg. À l’improviste (? lÂN prÔ vest´); unawares, on a sudden. À l’Irlandaise (Ä ler-lÄn-dez´).—Containing potatoes in some form, and often cabbage, etc., in mass or as a prevailing garnish. À l’Italienne (Ä le-tÄ-le-en´).—Generally made of, or garnished with, savory macaroni, or paste of that kind, or with ravioli; or made savory with Parma cheese. all’alba (It.), (Äl lÄl´bÄ), at daybreak. alla Siciliana (It.), (Äl lÄ se che le Ä´nÄ), in the Sicilian manner; in shepherd’s dress. allÉgresse (Á lÄ gres´), liveliness; geniality. allemande (Ál mÄN d´), a kind of German dance. Allemande sauce (Äl-mÄNd´).—Veloute sauce, with the addition of essence of mushrooms, cream, and a leason, or binding, of yolk of eggs. alles hat seine Zeit (Ger.), (Ä les hÄt zine tsit´), all in good time. allez-vous en (? la voo zÄN´), away with you, be off. allons (? lÔN´), come on. allons donc (? lÔN dÔN), nonsense. allzuviel ist ungesund (Ger.), (Äl tsoo fel´ist oon´ ge-zoont), too much of a good thing. al occorrenza (It.), (Ä lo ko ren´dzÄ), according to circumstances. À l’ordinaire (? lÔr de ner´), in the ordinary manner. alose (Ä-los´).—Shad. Á l’outrance (Á loo trÄNs´), to the death. aloyau (Ä-lwÄ-yo´).—Loin of beef; short rib of beef. al piu (It.), (Äl pyoo´), at most. alto rilievo (It.), (Äl to re lye´vo), in high relief. À main armÉe (? mÂN ?r ma´), by force of arms. am Anfang (Ger.), (Äm Än´fÄng), at the beginning. amar y saber no puede ser (Sp.), (Ä mÄr e sÄ var´no pooatha sar´), no one can love and be wise at the same time. Âme de boue (lit., soul of mud), (Äm de boo), a base minded person. amende honorable (? mÄN dÔ nÔ r?bl´), fit reparation; a satisfactory apology. À merveille (? mer vay´), marvelously, extraordinarily. ami du cour (lit., a friend of the court), (? me dÜ koor), a false friend; one who is not to be depended on. ami du peuple (? me dÜ pÖpl´), friend of the people. À moitiÉ (? mw? tea´), by halves. Amontillado (Ä-mon-tel-yÄ´do).—A cheaper variety of wine classed as sherry, but in reality a wine from Sicily or other Mediterranean or Atlantic islands, mixed with a little real sherry. amour propre (? moor prÔpr´), vanity, self-love. ananas (Ä-nÄ-nÄ´).—Pineapple. anchois (ÄN-shwÄ´).—Anchovies. anchovy (an-cho´vi).—A small fish of the herring family caught in the Mediterranean, and pickled for exportation. ancienne noblesse (ÄN se en nÔbles´), (the old nobility), French families ennobled before the revolution of 1792. ancien rÉgime (ÄN seÂN ra zhem), (the former government or administration), the rulers of the ante-revolution period. andouile (ÄN-doo´y).—Tripe. anguilles (Än-ge´y).—Eels. anguilles grillÉe (Än-ge´y gre-ya´).—Spitch-cocked, or grilled, eels. anisette´.—A cordial or liqueur flavored with anise seeds. À outrance (? oo trÄNs´), to the last extremity. À pas de gÉant (? pÄd zha ÄN), with a giant’s stride. À peindre (? pÂNdr´), worth painting. À perte de vue (? pert de vÜ´), till out of sight. À peu prÈs (? pÖ pre´), nearly. À pezzi (It.), (Ä ped´ze), by the piece. À piacere (It.), (Ä pyÄ´cha ra), at pleasure. À pied (? pea´), on foot. À plomb (? plÔN´), perpendicularly; firmly. À point (? pwÂN´), just in time; exactly right. appui (? pwe´), point of support; prop. À prima vista (It.), (Ä pre mÄ ves´tÄ), at the first sight. À prix d’or (? pre dÔr´), (at price of gold), very costly; fetching a fancy price. À propos (? prÔ po´), to the point. À propos de rien (? prÔ po de reÂN´), apropos to nothing; not pertinently. arc-en-ciel (?r kÄN seel´), rainbow. À rez de chaussÉe (? ra d sho sa´), even with the ground. argent comptant (?r zhÄN kÔN tÄN´), ready money. À rivederci (It.), (? re va dar´che), adieu until we meet again. À Rome comme À Rome (? rÔm´ kÔ m? rÔm´), at Rome do as Rome does. arriÈre pensÉe (? reer pÄN sa´), mental reservation; unavowed purpose. arroz À la Valencia´na (Är-ro´Ä lÄ).—Valencia rice, a farinaceous substance in grains like rice. artichaut (Är-te-sho).—Artichoke. asperge (Ä-spÂrzh´).—Asparagus. aspic (Äs-pek´).—A savory jelly made of calves’ feet, etc., or with extract of meat, flavored to suit the fancy, and stiffened with gelatine. assignat (? se nya´).—French paper money issued after the revolution at the end of last century. atelier (?t lea´), a work-shop; studio. À tort et À travers (? tÔr a ? tr? ver´), at random. À toute outrance (? too too trÄNs´), desperately; tremendously; with a vengeance. À tout hasard (? too ? z?r´), at all hazards; at all events. À tout prix (? too pre´), at any price. attachÉ (? t?sh´), an official belonging to an embassy. au (o).—See au beurre roux (o bÛr roo).—With browned butter. au bon droit (o bÔN drw?´), to the just right. au bout de son Latin (o bood sÔN l? tÂN´), at the end of his Latin; to the extent of his knowledge. au chingaras (o shaN-gÄ-rÄ´).—Sandwiched with ham and grilled; said of ox palates. au contraire (o kÔN trer´), on the contrary. au courant (o koo rÄN´), fully acquainted with matters. au dÉsespoir (o da zes pw?r´), in despair. au fait (o fe´), expert. au fond (o fÔN´), to the bottom; in the rear (of the stage). au four (o foor).—Baked in the oven, as a stuffed fish. au fromage (o fro-mÄzh´).—With cheese. auf Wiedersehen (Ger.), (owf ve´der za en), till we meet again. au gras (o grÄ).—Containing meat; said of soups so made. au gratin (o grÄ-taN´).—With a crust made by browning in the oven; as spaghetti is often served au gratin. au jus (o zhÜ).—In juice; in broth. au kirsch (o kËrsh).—With kirschwasser; as an omelet or a punch containing this liqueur is termed au kirsch. au levant (o le vÄN´), to the east; eastward. aumelette (om-let´).—Omelet. au naturel (o nÄ-tu-rel´).—In the natural condition; as, anchovies au naturel—i. e., without oil or seasoning. au pis aller (o pe z? la´), at the very worst. au reste (o rest´), as for the rest. au revoir (o re vw?r´), till we meet again. au rhum (o rÜm).—With rum. auro´ra sauce.—Sauce À l’aurore. See aussitot dit, aussitot fait (o se to de´, o se to fe´), no sooner said than done. au supreme (o sÜ-pram´).—With supreme sauce. autant d’hommes, autant d’avis (o tÄN dÔm´, o tÄN d? ve´), many men, many minds. auto da fe (Port.), (a oo to dÄ fa´), an act of faith; the burning of Jews and heretics. autre droit (otre drwÄ´), another’s right. autre fois (otre fwÄ´), another time. autre vie (otre ve´), another’s life. aut vincere aut mori (owt vin´kara owt mo´re), victory or death. au vert prÉ (o vÂr pra).—With sweet or fresh herbs, especially, when they give a green color to the dish. au vin blanc (o vaN blÄN´).—With white-wine sauce, as fillets of fish. aux (o).—See À la. aux armes (o z?rm´), to arms. aux cressons (o kres-sÔN´).—With watercresses. aux rognons (o ro nyÔN´).—With kidneys. avant-propos (? vÄN prÔ po´), preface; introductory matter. avec permission (? vek per me se ÔN´), by consent. À volontÉ (? vÔ lÔN ta´), at will; at pleasure. À vostra salute (It.), (Ä vos trÄ sÄ loo´ta), to your health. À votre santÉ (? vÔtre sÄN ta´), to your health. a vuestra salud (Sp.), (Ä vwes trÄ sÄ looth´), to your health. B bal champÊtre (b?l shÄN petr´), a country ball. ballon d’essai (b? loN de sa´), a balloon sent up to test the direction of air currents; hence anything said or done to gauge public feeling on any question. ballotine (bÄ-lo-ten´).—A shoulder of lamb boned, stuffed, larded, and braised. barbue (bÄr-bu´).—A kind of fish. bard (bÄr).—Barbel, a kind of fish. bardes de lard (bÄrd de lÄr).—Fat slices of bacon for covering meat to be braised. bar le duc (bÄr le dÜk).—A kind of jam of white gooseberries. bas bleu (bÄ blÖ´), a blue-stocking; a woman who seeks a reputation for learning. Bava´rian cream.—A cream jelly thickened with gelatine and set in a mold, and variously flavored and enriched; a Bavaroise; a kind of flummery. Bava´rian dumplings.—Boiled pudding, consisting of bread fried in fat, bread crumbs soaked in cream or milk, eggs, butter, flour, salt, and spice; or some other similar composition. Bava´rian sauce.—A modified Dutch sauce of vinegar, eggs, and butter flavored with crayfish butter. Bavaroise (bÄ-vÄ-rwÄz´).—Bavarian. See beau-idÉal (bo e da ?l´), a model of ideal perfection. beau monde (bo mÔNd´), the fashionable world. beaux esprits (bo zes pre´), men of wit or genius. beaux yeux (bo zeÖ´), handsome eyes; attractive looks. bÉcasse (ba-kÄs´).—Woodcock. BÉchamel (ba-shÄ-mel´), or more properly, BÉchamelle.—VeloutÉ white sauce mixed with cream; named after Louis de BÉchamel, a French gastronome. beignet (ba-nya´).—A fritter. bel esprit (be les pre´), a wit, a genius. bel Étage (be la t?zh´), the second story of a house. belles-lettres (bel´letr´), refined literature. benedetto e quel male che vien solo (It.), (ba na det´to a kwal mÄ´la ki vyan so´lo), blessed is the misfortune that comes alone. bÉnÉdictine (ben-e-dik´tin).—A cordial resembling chartreuse. ben-trovato (It.), (ban tro vÄ´to), well invented. bÊte noire (lit. a black beast,) (bet nw?r´), a bugbear. beurre (bÛr).—Butter. beurre fraÎs (bÛr fra).—Fresh (unsalted) butter. beurre liÉ (bÛr le-a´).—Dutch sauce with less butter than usual. beurre noir (bÛr nwÄr).—Butter browned without flour. beurre roux (bÛr roo).—Butter browned with flour. biensÉance (beÂN sa ÄNs´), good manners; decorum. bienvenue (beÂN ve nÜ´), welcome. bijou (be´zhoo), a jewel; a treasure. bijouterie (be zhoo tre), jewelry. billet doux, or billet d´amour (be ye doo´), a love letter. billets-d´État (be ye da t?´), a government paper; bank notes. biscuit (be-skwe´).—French sponge cake. bis´cuit À couper (Ä koo-pa´).—A form of sponge cake to be sliced and glacÉd with flavored sugar or sugar mixed with fruit juice. bis´cuit À la GÉnoise (Ä lÄ zha-nwÄz´).—Sponge cake with anise-seed flavor, to be cut and toasted. bis´cuit À l’Ursuline (Ä lÜr-sÜ-len´).—A sponge cake with rice and apple or apricot jam mixed into the paste, and grilled orange flower. bisque (bisk or besk).—A soup of crayfish, made by cooking them in broth with herbs, sliced roots, and seasoning; other similarly prepared shellfish soups or sauces are also called bisques. bizarre (be zar), odd; quaint. blancmanger (blÄN-maN-zha´) or blamange (blÄ-mÄnj´).—A jelly made with calves’ feet, or gelatine, and milk of almonds; also, a jelly made of milk and starch, isinglass, or sea moss, with or without added chocolate, grenetine, or the like. This latter dish is more properly called flummery. blanquette (blÄN-ket´).—A mince of white meat, as of chicken, warmed in veloutÉ sauce, and pointed with butter and lemon juice. It often has added to it mushrooms, morels, or truffles. blasÉ (blÄ za´), surfeited. blond (blÔN).—Concentrated juice or extract of some viand, used to add to certain sauces to give them body; as blond de veau (de vo), a rich broth of veal made by slowly stewing veal with accessories of ham, rabbit, or the like, with standard broth, shallots, cloves, etc. boeuf de chasse (bÛf de shÄs).—The sportsman’s round of beef—the biggest joint of the animal. bombe glacÉ (bÔNb glÄ-sa´).—A confection consisting of an ice casing frozen in the form of a truncaded cone with cream of some kind, as Bavarian cream, inside. bon ami (bÖ na mi´), good friend. bon bon (bÔN bÔN´), a sweetmeat; confectionery. bon diable (bÔN deÄbl´), a jolly good fellow. bon grÉ, mal grÉ (bÔN´gra mal´gra), with good or bad grace; willing or unwilling. bonhomie (bÔ nÔ me´), good nature; easy temper; credulity. bon jour (bÔN zhoor´), good day; good morning. bon mot (bÔN mo´), a witticism. bonne (bÔn), a nurse. bonne-bouche (bÔn boosh´), a luscious morsel; a toothsome tit-bit. bonne et belle (bÔ na bel´), good and handsome (said of a woman). bonne foi (bÔn fw?´), good faith. bon soir (bÔN sw?r´), good evening. bon ton (bÔN tÔN´), high fashion; first-class society. bon vivant (bÔN ve vÄn´), a good liver; a jolly companion. bon voyage (bÔN vw? y?zh´), a pleasant journey. Bordelaise sauce (bÔr-de-lÄz´).—Espagnole sauce with garlic, aromatic herbs, and Bordeaux wine. boudoir (boo dw?r´), a small private apartment. bouillabasse (boo-e-yÄ-bÄs´).—A soup made of fish broiled and seasoned with onion, orange peel, saffron, oil, and other seasoning to suit the taste. bouilli (boo-e-ye´).—Beef stewed, generally in one piece, and served with sauce. boulettes de hachis (boo-let´ de hÄ-she´).—Forcemeat balls. bouquet garni (gÄr-ne´).—A tied bunch of parsley, onions, bay leaf, and thyme, used to boil in soup to flavor it. bourgeoisie (boor zhwa ze´), the body of citizens; burgess; the shop-keeping class. bourguignonnes (boor-ge-nyon´).—Snails baked with a dressing of shallots, garlic, lemon juice, and butter. braise (braz), or braisÉ (bra-za´).—A piece of braised meat, or a dish prepared by braising; also a preparation mixed and prepared of various ingredients in or with which dishes are braised. braisÉ de Boulanger (bra-za´ de boo-lÄN-zha´).—A compound sauce in which meat is smothered when being braised. bretonne sauce (bra-ton´).—Espagnole sauce characterized by juice of fried onions or purÉe of onions. brevetÉ (brev ta´), patented. Brie cheese, or Brie (bre).—A soft, white cream cheese. bris´ket, or brisquet (bre-ska´).—The breast; the part of the breast next to the ribs. broccoli (brok´ko-li).—A kind of cabbage resembling the cauliflower. brochet (bro sha´).—Pike; luce—a kind of fish. brocheton (bro-she-tÔN´).—Pickerel. brusquerie (brÜs kre), rudeness. brut (brÜ).—An effervescent wine. bÜckling (bÜk´ling).—Red herring. buisson (bwe-sÔN´).—A dish disposed in a pyramid, and having a prickly appearance. bureau de la guerre (bÜ ro dl? ger´), the war office. bur´goo.—Oatmeal porridge. Burgun´dian sauce.—Espagnole sauce flavored with shallots and red Burgundy wine. C cabaretier (k? b?re tea´), an innkeeper. cabillaud (kÄ-be-yo´).—A fresh cod. cachot (ka sho´), a dungeon. cafÉ (kÄ-fa´).—Coffee. cafÉ au lait (kÄ-fa´ o la).—Coffee with hot milk; coffee to which milk is added during the process of infusion or boiling. cafÉ bavaroise (kÄ-fa´ bÄ-vÄ-rwÄz´).—Coffee with whipped cream. cafÉ noir (kÄ-fa´nwÄr).—Black coffee; that is, coffee without milk. cafÉ parfait (kÄ-fa´ pÄr-fa´).—A form of coffee ice cream. cafÉ turc (tÜrk).—Turkish coffee; that is, coffee prepared by pouring boiling water on very finely ground coffee in the cup. caille (kÄey).—Quail. calipash.—A part of a turtle next to the upper shell containing a dull greenish gelatinous substance, esteemed as a delicacy. calipee.—A part of a turtle attached to the lower shell. It contains a fatty, gelatinous substance of a light yellowish color, esteemed as a delicacy. camaraderie (ka ma ra dre), good fellowship. Camembert cheese (kÄ-mÄN-bÂr´).—A rich, sweet, cream cheese, of a yellowish color, made in the neighborhood of Camembert, in Normandy, France. canaÎlle (k? nÄ´ y), the lowest class of people; the rabble. canard (k? n?r´), a false story. canard (kÄ-nÄr´).—A duck. canellons (kÄ-ne-lÔn´).—Hollow sticks or rolls of baked puff paste. canelons (kÄ-ne-lÔN´).—Rugosities of ox palate, or preparations of them, covered with farce, rolled, and gratinated. caneton (kÄ-ne-tÔN)—Young duck; duckling. cannelon of meat (kÄ-ne-lÔN´).—A baked roll of highly seasoned mincemeat. cap-À-piÉ (k? p? pea´), from head to foot. ca´pers.—The pungent, grayish green flower buds of a trailing shrub (Capparis spinosa) of southern Europe. capilotade of chick´en (kÄ-pe-lo-tÄd´).—A kind of ragoÛt made of remains of fowl or game and some simple brown sauce. ca´pon.—A castrated cock. It fattens better and is tenderer than the uncastrated ones. carbonari (It.), (kÄr bo nÄ´re), members of a secret political society in Italy. car´dinal sauce.—VeloutÉ variously flavored and colored red, as with cochineal. carÊme (k?rem´), fast; Lent. carnichons (kÄr-ne-shÔN´).—Gherkins. carrÉ (kÄ-ra).—Breast. carrelet (kÄr-la´).—A fish, the sole or flounder. carte blanche (kÄrt blÄNsh´), full power. carte de visite (kÄrt de ve zet´), visiting card. cassareep´.—A brown, slightly sweet, aromatic thick extract made from the juice of the manioc. casserole (kas´se-rol; French pron. kÄs-rol´).—Stewpan. cas´serole of rice.—An ornamental pie case made of paste of prepared rice. cassis (kÄ-ses´).—Black currants; also, a kind of jelly, and a kind of liqueur or cordial, flavored with black currants. castello che da orecchia si vuol rendere (It.), (kÄs-tel´lo ka dÄ o rÄ´kyÄ se vwÔl ran da´ra), the fortress that parleys soon surrenders. causerie (ko-zre´), a familiar talk. caviare (kÄ-ve-Är´) or caviar (kav´i-Är).—Roe of sturgeon, and other large fish, prepared and salted, and used as a relish. They often resemble morning-glory seeds in appearance. champignons (shÄN-pe-nyÔN´).—Mushrooms. Champs ElysÉes (shÄN za le za´), Elysian Fields; a public park in Paris. cela va sans dire (that goes without saying), (se la v? sÄN der´), that is understood. ce n’est que le premier pas qui coÛte (se ne kle pre-mea pÄ´ke-koot´), it is only the first step that is difficult. cÈpes (sap), or ceps (sa).—An edible kind of mushroom. c’est À dire (se t? der´), that is to say. c’est une autre chose (se tÜ no tre shoz´), that is quite another thing. chacun À son goÛt (sh? koN ? sÔN goo´), everyone to his taste. chacun tire de son cÔtÉ (sh? kÖN ter´ de sÔN ko ta´), every one inclines to his own side or party. chanson (shÄN sÔN´), a song. chansons À boire (shÄN sÔN z? bw?r´), drinking songs. chapeau (sh? po´), a hat. chapeau bas (sh? po bÄ´), hats off. chapeau de bras (sh? po de br?´), a military cocked hat. chapelle ardente (sh? pe l?r dÄNt´), the chamber where a dead body lies in state. chapon (shÄ-pÔN´).—Capon. chapon au gros sel (shÄ-pÔN o gro sel).—Plain boiled capon; literally, capon served with a big lump of salt (placed upon it). chargÉ d´affaires (sh?r zha d? fer´), one intrusted with state affairs at a foreign court. charlotte russe (shÄr-lot´ rÜs), or charlotte À la russe (shÄr-lot´ Ä lÄ rÜs).—A dish of custard or whipped cream inclosed in a cup of sponge cake. chartreuse À la Parisienne (shÄr-trÛz´ Ä lÄ pÄ-re-syen´).—A showy entrÉe, consisting chiefly of quenelles of forcemeat, containing ragoÛt and kebobs; an entrÉe de force; entrÉe À surprise. chasse cafÉ (shÄs kÄ-fa´).—A drink of liqueur served after the coffee at dinner. chÂteau (shÄ to´), a castle. chÂteaux en Espagne (shÄ to zÄN nes p?yn´), castles in Spain. chÂteaubriand sauce (shÄ-to-bre-ÄN´).—See maitre d’hÔtel butter. chauffeur (sho for´), driver of an automobile. chaufroid sauce (sho-frwÄ´).—A white or brown jelly containing some sauce; a sauced jelly, or a gelatinized sauce. chef (shef), man cook. chef de bataillon (shef da b? tÄ yÔN´), a major. chef-d’oeuvre (sha dÖ vr´), a masterpiece. chemin de fer (lit. iron road), (she mÂNt fer´), a railway. chemin faisant (she mÂN fe zÄn´), by the way; in passing. chÈre amie (she r? me´), a dear (female) friend, a lover. cher´vil.—A plant (Anthriscus cerefolium) with finely divided leaves. Two curly varieties are used in soups and salads. che sara, sara (It.), (ka sÄ ra sa ra´), what will be will be. cheval de bataille (lit., a war-horse), (she v?l de b? tÄ´y) chief dependence or support; one’s strong point. chic (shek), stylish, smart. chiffonade (she-fo-nÄd´).—A salad preparation of lettuce, chervil, sorrel, and scallions, with fresh butter, and some bouillon poured over it. When milk or fresh cream is added, it is called potage À la chiffonade; otherwise potage de santÉ (po-tÄzh´ de sÄN-ta´). chil´i.—A kind of red pepper or capsicum. chil´i sauce.—A sauce condiment made with chilis, tomatoes, etc. Chinese´ stur´geon soup.—A soup of beef and veal, containing pieces of cartilage from the sturgeon’s head boiled tender. chi tace confessa (It.), (ke tÄ´cha kon fes´sÄ), he who keeps silent admits his guilt. chive.—A plant allied to the onion, of which the young leaves are used in omelets, etc. choucroute (shoo-kroot´).—French sauerkraut, or sauerkraut in general. chou-fleur (shoo-flÛr´).—Cauliflower. choux (shoo).—(a) Cabbages. (b) See choux de Bruxelles (shoo de brÜ-sel´).—Brussels sprouts. choux de mer (shoo de mÂr).—Sea kale, a kind of cruciferous pottage root. choux pÂtissiÈres (shoo pÄ-te-syÂr´).—SoufflÉs in small molds; small cakes of baked batter. ci git (se zhe´), here lies. (A common inscription on tombstones.) civet (se-va´).—A ragoÛt of hare [civet de liÈvre (lya´vr)], deer [civet de chevreuil (she-vrÛ´y)], or other game, into which wine and onions enter as ingredients. clare´mont sauce.—Butter sauce flavored by frying onions in it. The onions are removed after frying. cock´a-lee´kie.—Capon soup, boiled with leeks and prunes—a favorite Scotch dish. cock´tail of oysters or clams.—A dish containing oysters or clams seasoned with ketchup, pepper, etc., and served in a tumbler or glass. cocotte (ko-kot´).—A kind of iron casserole with two loop handles and a cover. coeurs d’artichauts (kÛr-dÄr-te-sho´).—Artichoke heads. cognac (ko-nyÄk´).—A brandy distilled at Cognac, in France; hence, loosely, any French brandy. coiffeur (kw?-fÖr´), a hairdresser. coiffure (kw? fÜr´), a headdress. coing (kwaN).—Quince. A liqueur, or ratafia, is made flavored with quince; and a jelly of quinces is called coing de tranches (de trÄnsh). collared.—This term is loosely used with no apparent definite meaning in the names of various dishes. col´lared beef.—A thin piece of beef, usually from the flank, rolled into a round form. col´lops.—Small pieces or slices. com´fit.—A dry sweetmeat; fruit, seed, or the like, preserved in sugar and dried. comme il faut (kÔ mel fo´), proper, as it should be. comment vous portez vous? (kÔ mÄN voo pÔr ta voo´), how are you? commis voyageur (kÔ me vw? y? zhÖr´), a commercial traveler. compagnon de voyage (kÔN p? nyÔN de vw? y?zh´), a traveling companion. compiÈgne cake (koN-pyan´).—A kind of cake intended to be drenched with liqueur, sliced, and sandwiched with apricot jam. com´pote (French pron. kÔN-pot´).—Cooked fruit; fruit preserved with sugar so as to preserve its form. Also, a savory dish of pigeons, quails or larks, mixed with peas or mushrooms. compte rendu (kÔNt rÄN dÜ´), an account rendered, a report. comptoir (kÔN tw?r´), a counting-house; a counter. comte (kÔNt), count. comtesse (kÔN tes´), countess. con amore (It.), (ko nÄ mo´ra), with affection, very earnestly. concierge (kÔN s erzh´), a door-keeper. conciergerie (kÔN se er zhre´), a door-keeper’s lodge; a noted prison in Paris. concours (kÔN koor´), competition for, or as for, a prize. con diligenza (It.), (kon de le dshen´dzÄ), with diligence. con dolore (It.), (kon do lo´ra), with grief; sadly. confit (kÔN-fe´).—A dry sweetmeat; fruit preserved in sugar and dried; a comfit. confiture (kÔN-fe-tÜr´).—Preserves. confrÈre (kÔN frer´), a colleague. conoscente (It.), (ko no shen´ta), a connoisseur. conseil de famille (kÔN se´y de f? me´y), a family council or consultation. conseil d’État (kÔN se´y da t?´), a council of state; a privy council. consommÉ (kÔN-so-ma´).—Strong broth of meat and vegetables, concentrated till slightly browned; in restaurants applied to thin soups such as would be made by this broth diluted. cor´dial.—A sweet and aromatic liquor. A liqueur is an alcoholic cordial. contretemps (kÔN tre tÄN´), an awkward mishap. cordon sanitaire (kÔr dÔN s? ne ter´), a line of sentries to prevent, as far as possible, the spread of contagion or pestilence. Used also of other precautionary measures. corps diplomatique (kor de plÔ m? tek´), a diplomatic body. cortÈge (kor tezh), a procession. cÔte (kot).—A rib. cÔtelette (kot-let´).—A small rib; part of a rib; a piece of meat with the rib attached; a cutlet. couleur de rose (koo lÖr de roz´), rose color. coup (koo), a stroke. coup de grÂce (koo d grÄs´), a finishing-stroke. (Formerly applied to the fatal blow by which the executioner put an end to the torments of a culprit broken on the wheel.) coup de main (koo d mÂN´), a sudden attack, enterprise, or undertaking. coup de maÎtre (koo d metr´), a master-stroke; with consummate skill. coup de pied (koo d pea´), a kick. coup de plume (koo d plÜm´), a literary attack. coup de soleil (koo d sÔ le´y), a sunstroke. coup d’essai (koo de sa´), a first attempt. coup d’État (koo da t?´), a stroke of policy; a sudden and decisive blow, usually inflicted by unconstitutional means. coup de thÉÂtre (koo da ta Ätr´), a theatrical effect. coup d’oeil (koo dÖ´y), a rapid glance. courage sans peur (koo r?zh sÄn pÖr) fearless courage. court bouillon (boo-e-yÔN´).—A very rich bouillon made by braising bouillon vegetables in butter, evaporating down, and then boiling in wine. It is added to sauces. coute qu’il coute (koot kel koot´), cost what it may. crÊme (kram, or krÂm).—A cordial of the relatively thick or visced kind, such as crÊme de la menth (cream of minth), crÊme de la moka (cream of mocha coffee), crÊme de cocoa (cream of cocoa), etc. crÊme bachique (kram bÂ-shek´).—A custard jelly with wine and egg-froth. crÊme brulÉe (kram brÜ-la´).—Brown sugar, or caramel, with cream. crÊme fouettÉe À la paysanne (foo-et-ta´ Ä lÄ pa-zÄn´).—Whipped cream. crÉole (kra-ol´).—See crÊpes (krap).—Small fried cakes; a form of French pancake. cressons (kra-sÔN´).—Cresses. crÈve-coeur (krev kÖr´), deep sorrow; grief. crevette (kra-vet´).—Shrimp. croquants (kro-kÄN´).—A piece of crisp pastry or confection which makes a crunching sound between the teeth, as a macaroon or a nougat. crouton (kroo-tÔN´).—Small pieces of bread fried in butter or oil, for use as a garnish to salmis, fricassees, etc., or to serve with soups. croquembouches (kro-kÄN-boosh´).—Small mounted pieces of crisp pastry, such as macaroons, nougats, gimblettes, etc. crum’pet.—A kind of large, thin, light cake or muffin cooked on a griddle. cuisine (kÜe-zen´), a kitchen; cookery. cuissot (kwe-so´).—Haunch. cul-de-sac (kÜl de s?k´), the bottom of the bag; a blind alley. cyg´net.—A young swan. D d’accord (d? kÔr´), agreed; in tune. dame d’honneur (d?m dÔ nÖr´), a maid of honor. dantesques (dÄN-tesk´).—Frozen custards. dariole (dÄ-re-ol´).—A piece of pastry consisting of a shallow cup of short paste, filled with a rich compound of cream or custard with macaroons, fruit, or the like. darne (dÄrn).—Slice; cut. das geht Sie nichts an (Ger.), (dÄs gat ze nikts Än´), that does not concern you. de (de).—Of. de bonne augure (de bÔ no-gÜr´), of good omen. de bonne grÂce (de bÔn grÄs´), with good will, willingly. dÉbris (da bre´), refuse. dÉbut (da bÜ´), first appearance. dÉbutante (da bÜ tÄNt´), a young lady just entering society. dÉcolletÉ (da kÔl ta´), open-breasted. dÉgagÉ (da g? zha), free, easy, without constraint. de gaietÉ de coeur (de ga ta d kÖr´), in sport, sportively. de haute lutte (de ot lÜt´), by a violent struggle. dehors (da Ôr´), without; out of; foreign; irrelevant. dÉjeuner À la fourchette (da zhÖ na ? l? foor shet´), a cold breakfast. de mal en pis (de m? lÄN pe´), from bad to worse. demeure (de mÖr´), dwelling; residence demi-jour (de me zhoor´), faint light. demi-tasse (da-me-tÄs´).—A small cup for black coffee. dÉnouement (da noo mÄN´), an unraveling or winding up. dÉpÊche (da pesh´), a dispatch; a message. dernier cri (der nea kre´), (the latest cry), the latest fashionable fad. dernier ressort (der nea re sÔr´), the last resource. dÉsagrÉment (da z? grad mÄN´), something disagreeable or unpleasant. dÉsorientÉ (da zÔ reÄN ta´), confused. dÉsossÉe (da-so-sa´).—Boned. dÉtour (da toor´), a circuitous march. de trop (de trÔ´), too much or too many; not wanted. devoir (de vw?r´), duty. diablotins (de-ab-lo-taN´).—(a) Frozen custards. (b) Neapolitan dragÉes. (c) Chocolate bonbons in paper. di buona volonta sta pieno l’inferno (It.), (de bwÔ nÄ vo lon’tÄ sta pya´no leN fer’no), hell is full of good intentions. Dieu est toujours pour les plus gros bataillons (deÖ e too zhoor´ poor la plÜ gro b? tÄ yÖN´), God is always on the side of the largest battalions; the largest army has the best chance. Dieu et mon droit (deÖ a mÔN drwÄ´), God and my right. Dieu vous garde (deÖ voo g?rd´), God protect you. di grado en grado (It.), (de grÄ’do an grÄ’do), step by step; gradually. dinde (daNd).—Turkey. dindonneau (daN-do-no´).—Young turkey; turkey pout. Dios me libre de hombre de un libro (Sp.), (de´os ma le´vra da om’vra da oon le vro), God deliver me from a man of one book. di salto (It.), (de sÄl’to), by leaps. di tutti novello par bello (It.), (de toot te no vel’lo pÄr bel’lo), everything new seems beautiful. divertissement (de ver tes mÄN´), amusement; sport. di zara (de zÄ´rÄ).—A less common name for maraschino. doctrinaire (dÔk tre ner´), a theorist. dolce far niente (It.), (dol´cha fÄr nyen´ta), sweet idleness. domino (It.), (do´me no), a mask robe. dorer la pilule (dÔ ra l? pe lÜl´), to gild the pill. double entente (doo blÄN tÄNt´), double meaning; a play on words. douceur (doo sor´), a bribe. doux yeux (doo zeÖ´), soft glances. drap d’argent (dr? d?r zhÄN´), silver lace. drap d’or (dr? dÔr´), gold lace. droit des gens (drwÄ da zhÄN´), the law of nations; international law. drÔle (drol), droll; funny. drÔle le corps (drol le kÔr´), a droll fellow; a punster. durante vita (Sp.), (doo r?n´ta ve´tÄ), during life. Dutch sauce.—Butter emulged with yolk of egg, or a sauce with this as a basis; Hollandaise sauce. E eau de cologne (o d kÔ lÔn´y), Cologne water. eau de vie (o d ve´), the water of life—applied usually to brandy. Ébauche (a bosh´), a rough drawing; a sketch. Éclanche (a klÄNsh´).—Shoulder of mutton. Éclat (a kl?´), splendor; brilliancy. École de droit (a kÔl de drwÄ´), law school. École de mÉdecine (a kÔl de mad sen´), medical school. École militaire (a kÔl me le ter´), military school. École polytechnique (a kÔl pÔ le tek nek´), polytechnique school. Écrevisse (Ä-kr-ves´).—Crayfish. Édition de luxe (a de seÔN´ de lÜks´), a splendid edition of a book, handsomely bound, and usually well illustrated. Égal (a g?l´), equal. ÉgalitÉ (a g? le ta´), equality. Égarement (a gÄr mÄN´), bewilderment. ehrlich wÄhrt am lÄngsten (Ger.), (ar´lik vert Äm leng´sten), honesty is the best policy. elle mit Weile (Ger.), (i le mit vi´le), the more haste, the less speed. eine Schwalbe macht keinen Sommer (Ger.), (i ne shwÄl´be mÄkt ki nen zÔ´mer), one swallow does not make a summer. ein gebranntes Kind scheut das Feuer (Ger.), (in ge brÄn tes kint´ zhÔit dÄs fÔi´er), a burnt child dreads the fire. el corazon manda las carnes (Sp.), (al ko rÄ thon´ mÄndÄ lÄs kÄr´nas), the heart bears up the body. ÉlÈve (a lev´), pupil. Élite (a let´), a select body of persons. Éloge (a lÔzh´), a funeral oration. Éloignement (a lw?n ye mÄN), estrangement. embonpoint (ÄN bÔN pwaN´), roundness, good condition. ÉmigrÉ (a me gra´), an emigrant. employÉ (ÄN plw? ya´), a person employed; a clerk. empotage (ÄN-po-tÄzh´).—ConsommÉ or gravy broth. empressement (ÄN pres mÄN´), ardor; zeal; interest. en ami (ÄN n? me´), a friend. en arriÈre (ÄN n? re er´), in the rear; behind. en attendant (ÄN n? tÄN dÄN´), in the meantime. en avant (ÄN n? vÂN´), forward. en badinant (ÄN b? de nÄN´), in sport, jestingly. en bagatelle (ÄN b? g? tel´), trifling; contemptuously. en ballon (ÄN bÄ-lÔN´).—Boned and stuffed with forcemeat, etc.—said of fowls´ legs so cooked. en bloc (ÄN blÔk´), in the lump. en brochette (ÄN bro-shet´).—On wooden skewers. en caneton (ÄN kÄ-ne-tÔN´).—A term used to designate fowls´ legs boned and stuffed with forcemeat, etc. en casserole (ÄN kÄ-s-rol´).—In a casserole. en coquille (ÄN ko-ke´y).—(Served) in shells, as oysters prepared as if to be escalloped and then baked in shells and served. en cracovie (ÄN krÄ-ko-ve´).—With salpicon wrapped in calf’s udder or pig’s caul—said of ox palates. en cueros, en cueros vivos (Sp.), (an kooa´ros, an kooÄ´ros ve vos), naked; without clothing. ende gut, alles gut (Ger.), (en´de goot, Ä´les goot), all’s well that ends well. en dÉshabillÉ (ÄN da z? be ya), in undress; in one’s true colors. en Dieu est ma fiance (ÄN deo´e m? feÄNs´), my trust is in God. en Dieu est tout (ÄN deo e too´), in God are all things. en Échelon (ÄN na sh lÔN´), in steps; like stairs. en effet (ÄN ne fe´), substantially, really, in effect. en famille (ÄN f? me´y), with one’s family at home. enfant gÂtÉ (ÄN fÄN gÄ ta´), a spoiled child. enfants perdus (lit., lost children), (ÄN fÄN per dÜ´), a forlorn hope. enfant terrible (ÄN fÄN te rebl´), (a terrible child), one that is apt to do or say something exceedingly ill-timed and embarrassing. enfant trouvÉ (ÄN fÄN troo va´), a foundling. enfin (ÄN fÂN´), in short, finally, at last. en flute (ÄN flÜt´), carrying guns on the upper deck only. en foule (ÄN fool´), in a crowd. en grand (ÄN grÄN´), of full size. en grande tenue (ÄN grÄNd te nÜ´), in full official, or evening, dress. en grande toilette (ÄN grÄNd tw? let´), full-dressed; in full rig. en haut (ÄN o´), on high; above. en masse (ÄN mÄs´), in a body or mass. ennui (ÄN nÜe´), weariness. en passant (ÄN pÄ sÄN´), in passing, by the way. en plein jour (ÄN plÂN zhoor), in open day. en queue (ÄN ko´), immediately after; in the rear. Used specially of persons waiting in line, as at the door of a theater, at the ticket-office of a railway station, etc. en rapport (ÄN r? pÔr´), in harmony, relation, or agreement. en rÈgle (ÄN regl´), regular; regularly; in order. en revanche (ÄN re vÄN sh´), in return; as a compensation for. en route (ÄN root), on the way. ensemble (ÄN sÄN bl´), the whole. en suite (ÄN sÜet´), in company; in a set. en tasse (ÄN tÄs´), in a cup. entente cordiale (ÄN tÄNt kÔr de?l´), a good understanding, especially between two states. entourage (ÄN too r?zh´), surroundings. en tout (ÄN too´), in all; wholly. entre deux feux (ÄN tre dÖ fÖ´), between two fires. entre deux vins (lit., between two wines), (ÄN tre dÖ vÂN´), half-drunk. entre nous (ÄN tre noo´), between ourselves; in confidence. entrepot (ÄN tre po´), a warehouse or magazine. entreprenant (ÄN tre pre nÄN´), enterprising. entrepreneur (ÄN tre pre nÖr´), a contractor; the chief director of an undertaking. entre-sol (ÄN tre sÔl´), a half story or mezzanine, especially one next above the ground floor. en vÉritÉ (ÄN va re ta´), in truth; really. en vigueur (ÄN ve gÖr´), in force. envoyÉ (ÄN vw? ya´), an envoy or messenger. escargots (as-kÄr-go´).—Snails. escarole (es-kÄ-rol).—A species of chicory used for salads; also, a variety of lettuce resembling this. es fehlt mir nichts (Ger.), (es falt mer nikts´), nothing is the matter with me. es freut mich sehr (Ger.), (es frÔit mik zar´), I am very glad. es ist nicht alles Gold, was glÄnzt (Ger.), (es ist nikt Ä les gÔlt´ vÄs glentst´), all is not gold that glitters. espagnol, (es p? nyol´), Spanish; a Spaniard. espagnole sauce (es-p?-nyol´).—Brown sauce made by boiling meat and flavoring vegetables and spices in normal broth to a glace, browning with roux, and removing the fat. esprit de corps (es pre d kÔr´), the spirit of honor, loyalty, or enthusiasm in an individual working for the good of a common body, society, or association, as a college class, a military company, fraternal or other association. esprit des lois (es pre da lw?´), spirit of the laws. es thut mir sehr leid (Ger.), (es toot mer zar lit´), I am very sorry. esturgeon (es-tÜr-zhÔN´).—Sturgeon. Etats-GÉnÉraux (a t? zha na ro´), the States-General. Ewigkeit (Ger.), (a´vik kit), eternity. exposÉ (ek spo za´), an exposition; a recital. F faÇon de parler (f? sÔN de p?r la´), manner of speaking; phrase; locution. fade (f?d), flat; stale; insipid. fainÉant (fe na ÄN´), idle. faire bonne mine (fer bÔn men´), to put a good face on the matter. faire l’homme d’importance (fer lÔm dÂN pÔr tÄNs'), to give one’s self airs. faire sans dire (fer sÄN der´), to act without ostentation or boasting. faire son devoir (fer sÔN de vw?r´), to do one’s duty. faisan (fa-sÄN´).—Pheasant. fait accompli (fe t? kÔN ple´), a thing accomplished; an accomplished fact. fanchonettes (fÄN-sho-net´).—Small cakes like tartlets covered with meringue froth, with jam, currants, etc. farcie (fÄr-se´).—Stuffing of forcemeat. farine de riz (fÄ-ren´ de re´).—Rice flour. faubourg (fo boor´), an outskirt of a town; a suburb. fausse tortue (fos tÔr-tÛ).—Mock turtle. fauteuil (fo tÖ´y), an easy chair. faux pas (fo pÄ´), a false step; an act of indiscretion. fÉcule de pommes de terre (fa-kÜl´ de pum de tÂr´).—Potato starch, used especially in making Savoy cakes, and others. femme couverte (f?m koo vert), a married woman. femme de chambre (f?m de shÄNbr´), a chambermaid. femme de charge (f?m de sh?rzh), a housekeeper. femme galante (f?m g? lÄNt´), a gay woman; a prostitute. femme sole (f?m sol´), an unmarried woman. fendre un cheveu en quatre (fÄN drÖN she vÖ ÄN k?tr´), to split a hair in four; to make subtle distinctions. fÊte (fet), a feast; festival; holiday. fÊte champÊtre (fet shÄN petr´), a rural out-of-door feast; a festival in the fields. fÊte Dieu (fet de o´), the Corpus Christi festival in the Roman Catholic church. feu de joie (fÖ d zhw?), a bonfire; a firing of guns in token of joy. feuilletage (fÛ-ye-tÄzh´).—Puff paste. feuilleton (fÖ y tÔN´), a small leaf; a part of a newspaper devoted to light, entertaining matter. filet (fe-la´), Eng. fil´let.—(a) The under cut of the loin of beef and venison. (b) Breast of fowl or game when cut out [the inner muscles near the bone being the filet mignons (fe-la´ me-nyÔN´)]. (c) Any longish strips of meat or vegetables. filet du dedans (fe-la´ dÜ da-dÄN´).—The under cut of the loin of beef; a filet. fille de chambre (fe y de shÄN br´), a chambermaid. fille d’honneur (fe y dÔ nÖr´), a maid of honor. fil´let.—See fils (fes), son. fin de siÈcle (fÂN d seekl´), the end of the century. Fin´nan had´die.—Haddock cured in peat smoke, originally coming from Findon (pronounced fin´an) in Scotland; also, haddock smoked in other ways. flageolets (flÄ-zho-la´).—Beans. flamms.—Pancakes. fleur-de-lis (flÖr de le´), the flower of the lily. fleur de terre (flÖr de ter), even with the surface of the ground. fleurons (flÛ-rÔN´).—Punched-out ornaments of bread (crusted or fried), or of paste (baked), or of other materials. Flor´ence cakes, or Flor´entines.—A kind of cake consisting of a thin shell of puff paste containing a composition of curds, butter, yolks, flour, bitter almonds, and lemon, or a very similar composition. flum´mery.—A cold, sweet dish chiefly of cereals, often with fruit in it, molded and to be eaten with wine, milk, or sauce. foie (fwÄ).—Liver. flux de bouche (flÜks de boosh´), inordinate flow of talk; garrulity. fond (fÔN).—The broth or juice from braised flesh or fish, usually served as a sauce. fondue (fÔN-dÜ´).—A preparation of cheese, eggs, and butter melted together. fra (It.), (frÄ), brother; friar. frais (fre), cost; expense. fraise (fraz).—Strawberry. framboise (frÄN-bwÄz´).—Raspberries. Fra Modesto non fu mai priore (It.), (frÄ mo des to non foo mÄ e pryo´ra). Friar Modest never became prior. franco (It.), (frÄng´ko), free from postage. frangipane (French pron. frÄN-zhe-pÄn´).—A kind of compound pastry cream flavored with almonds, with which pastry is garnished. frisch begonnen, halb gewonnen (Ger.), (frish be gÔ´nen, hÄlp ge vÔ´nen), well begun is half done. froides mains, chaude amour (frwÄd mÂN´ sho d? moor´), cold hands, warm heart. fromage (fro-mÄzh´).—Cheese. fromage À la Chantilly (Ä lÄ shÄN-te-ye´).—fromage de Chantilly (de shÄN-te-ye´).—Apricot jam. frondeur (frÔN dÖr´), a declaimer against the administration. front À front (frÔN t? frÔN´), face to face. fru´menty.—A food prepared by boiling wheat in milk to a jelly, usually with the addition of currants, sugar, egg yolk, and spice. fumet (fÜ-ma´).—A high-flavored substance, such as extract of game, for flavoring dishes of food; also, less properly, a ragoÛt of partridge and rabbits braised in wine. fuyez les dangers de loisir (fÜe ya la dÄN zhad lw?zer´), fly from the dangers of leisure. G gaietÉ de coeur (ga ta d kÖr´), gaiety of heart. galatine.—Boned fowl, veal, or the like, stuffed with pieces of meat and force, boiled, and served cold, with a garnish of jelly or aspic. gal’imaufry, or galimafrÉe (gÄ-le-mÄ-fra´).—A kind of ragoÛt of various kinds of meat highly flavored. garage (g? r?zh´), a place where automobiles are stored and kept in order. garbancas (gÄr-bÄn-sÄs´).—Chick-peas. garbure (gÄr-bÜr´).—A soup of bacon and cabbage or other vegetables sometimes with cheese added. garÇon (g?r sÔN´), a lad; a waiter. garde À cheval (g?r d? she v?l´), a mounted guard. garde du corps (g?rd dÜ kÔr´), a bodyguard. garde mobile (g?rd mÔ bel´), a body of troops liable to be called out for general service. garde royale (g?rd rw? y?l´), royal guard. gardez (g?r da´), take care; be on your guard. gardez-bien (g?r da beÂN´), take good care; be very careful. gardez la foi (g?r da l? fw?´), keep the faith. Gas´cony sauce.—VeloutÉ with capers, truffles, and egg yolk. gaspacho (gÄs-pÄ´cho).—A bread-and-vegetable salad, made by the Spanish, containing pimentoes, tomatoes, oil, and vinegar, and (in the richer form) fish, crayfish, piquant preserves, etc. gÂteau (gÄ to´), cake. gÂteaux (gÄ-to´).—Cakes of flour, butter and eggs. gÂteaux de puits d’amour (de pwe dÄ-moor´).—Love-wells. gaucherie (gosh re´), awkwardness. gauffres (go´fr).—Waffles. gehen Sie Ihres weges (Ger.), (ga´en ze~ e~ res va´ges), go your way. gelÉe (zhe-la´).—Jelly. gendarmerie (zhÄN d?r me re´), the armed police force. Gene´va sauce.—A coulis of fried onions with meat essence or espagnole, with anchovy butter, and usually port or claret wine. It is used especially with fresh water fish. gÉnoise sauce (zha-nwÄz´).—Espagnole sauce flavored with fumet and red wine. gÉnoises (zha-nwÄz´).—Glazed cakes of sugar, eggs, flour and almonds. gens d’armes (shÄN d?rm´), men-at-arms; military police. gens de condition (zhÄN de kÔN de seÔN´), people of rank. gens d’Église (zhÄN da glez´), the clergy; clerics. gens de guerre (zhÄN d ger´), military men. gens de lettres (zhÄN d letr´), literary men. gens de loi (zhÄN d lw?´), lawyers. gens de mÊme famille (zhÄN d mem f? me´y), people of the same family; birds of a feather. gens de peu (zhÄN d pÖ´), the lower classes. gentilhomme (zhÄN te yÔm´), a gentleman. gibelotte (zhe-blot´).—Stewed rabbit; sometimes, stewed chicken or other white meat. gibier (zhe-bya´).—Game, as hare, deer, etc. gibier de potence (zhe bea d pÔ tÄNs´), a gallows-bird; one who deserves hanging. gigot (zhe-go´).—Leg of mutton. gimblettes (zhaN-blet´).—Small pastry preparations, such as croquignoles and croquembouches. Small pastry, or patÉs de petit four; they are used as ingredients of croquembouches. giovine Italia (It.), (dzho ve´na e tÄ´lyÄ), young Italy. giovine santo, diavolo vecchio (It.), (dzho ve na sÄn´to dyÄ´vo lo vek´kyo), a young saint; an old devil. gitano (Sp.), (he tÄ´no), a girl. glace (glÄs).—A glaze, or broth, reduced by boiling to a gelatinous paste, so that when poured over meats it will give them a shiny appearance. glacÉ (glÄ-sa´).—Covered with glace. glaced (glÄst).—Iced; having a shiny appearance produced by a coating of sugar, gelatine, or glace. glaize, or glase (glaz).—A glace. gleich und gleich gesellt sich gern (Ger.), (glik´ oont glik´ ge zelt sik gern´), birds of a feather flock together. gli assenti hanno torti (It.), (lye Äs sen´te Än no tÔr´te), the absent are in the wrong. godiveau (go-de-vo´).—A kind of mincemeat, usually of veal, made into balls, to garnish the interior of hot patÉs and vol-au-vents. gold´en buck.—A Welsh rarebit served with a poached egg on it. goujon (goo-zhÔN).—Gudgeon, a rather coarse fish. goulash (goo-lÄsh´).—See goutte À goutte (goo t? goo´), drop by drop. gouvernante (goo ver nÄNt´), governess. grÂce À Dieu (grÄs ? deÖ´), thanks be to God. grande chÈre et beau feu (grÄNd sher´ a bo fÖ´), good fare and a good fire; comfortable quarters. grande parure (grÄNd p? rÜr´), full dress. grande toilette (grÄNd tw? let´), full dress. grand merci (grÄN mer se´), many thanks. gratin (grÄ-taN´).—The brown crust formed upon a gratinated dish; also, the dish itself. grat´inate.—To cook, as macaroni, in a savory sauce or broth until the juice is absorbed and a brown crust forms. gren´adine.—A kind of fricandeau, with a basis of forcemeat. grenouille (gre-noo´y).—Frog. grill.—To broil. grenadin (gra-nÄ-daN´).—A small fricandeau, or dish made with a basis of forcemeat. grisette (gre zet´), dressed in gray. (Applied to French shop girls.) groseille À maquereau (gro-za´y Ä ma-k’ro´).—Gooseberry. gros rÔti (gro ro-te´).—A large joint of roast meat. grosse tÊte et peu de sens (gros tet´ a pÖ d sÄNs´), a big head and little sense. GruyÈre cheese (grÜ-yÂr´).—A kind of salted cheese in thin cakes. guava jel´ly (gwÄ´vÄ).—An excellent jelly made from the slightly astringent fruit of either of two tropical trees. guerra al chuchillo (Sp.), (ga´rÄ Äl koo che´lo), war to the knife. guerra cominciata, inferno scatenato (It.), (gwe ra ko men chyÄ´tÄ, en far´no skatÄn´ta), war begun; hell unchained. guerre À mort (ge r? mÔr´), war to the death. guerre À outrance (ge r? oo trÄNs´), war to the uttermost. gulash (goo-lÄsh´), or Hunga´rian gulash.—A ragoÛt of rump steak flavored with paprika. gum´bo.—A soup thickened with the mucilaginous pods of the okra; also, the okra pods themselves. H habituÉ (? be tÜa´), a frequenter. hardiesse (?r dees´), boldness. hareng (Ä-rÄN´).—Herring. haricot (Ä-re-ko´).—A stew or ragoÛt of meat. Also, the common string bean. haricots verts (Ä-re-ko´ vÂr).—Green string beans. haut et bon (o ta bÔN), great and good. haut gout (o goo´), high favor; elegant taste. hauteur (o tÖr´), haughtiness and pride. haut ton (o tÔN´), highest fashion. heureusement (Ö rÖz mÄN´), happily. historiette (es tÔ reet´), a short history; a tale. Hollandaise sauce (o-lÄN-dÄz´; Eng. pron. hol´lan-daz´). See homard (o-mÄr´).—The European lobster—larger than the American lobster, called homard amÉricaine (o-mÄr´dÄ-ma-re-kan´). homme d’affaires (Ôm d? fer´), a man of affairs. homme d’État (Ôm da t?´), a statesman. homme de robe (Ôm de rÔb´), a man in civil office. homme de lettres (Ôm de letr´), a literary man. homme d’esprit (Ôm des pre´), a man of intellect. honi soit qui mal y pense (Ô ne sw?´ ke m?l e pÄNs´), shame be to him who thinks evil of it. (The motto of the Order of the Garter.) hors de combat (Ôr de kÔN b?´), disabled; unfit to continue a contest. hors de la loi (Ôr de l? lwa), outlawed. hors de propos (Ôr de prÔ po´), wide of the point; inapplicable. hors de saison (Ôr de se zÔN´), out of season; unseasonable. hors d’oeuvre (Ôr dÖvr´), out of course; out of accustomed place. (Used substantively of small appetizing dishes served between the soup and the second course.) hÔtel des invalides (o tel da zÂN v? led´), hospital for old and disabled soldiers. hÔtel de ville (o tel de vel´), a town hall. hÔtel Dieu (o tel deÖ´), a house of God; a hospital. hÔtel garni (o tel g?r ne´), furnished lodgings. huitres (we´tr’).—Oysters. huitres au lit (o le).—Same as pigs in blankets. hure de sanglier (Ür de sÄN-glya´).—Head of wild boar. hurtar para dar por Dios (Sp.), (oor tÄr´ pÄ rÄ dÄr por de´os), to steal in order to give to God. I ich diene (Ger.), (ik dene), I serve. idÉe fixe (e da feks´), a fixed idea; intellectual monomania. ignorance crasse (i nyÔ rÄNs´ kr?s´), gross ignorance. i gran dolori sono muti (It.), (e grÄn do lo´re so no moo´te), great griefs are silent. il a le diable au corps (e l? l deÄblo kÔr´), the devil is in him. il faut de l’argent (el fo d l?r zhÄN), money is wanting. il n’a ni bouche ni Éperon (el n? ne boosh ne a prÔN´), he has neither mouth nor spur; he has neither wit nor courage. il ne faut jamais dÉfier un fou (el ne fo zh? me´ dafea ÖN foo), one should never provoke a fool. il n’est sauce que d’appÉtit (el ne sos ke d? pa te´), hunger is the best sauce. il penseroso (It.), (el pan sa ro´so), the pensive man. (The title of one of Milton’s poems.) il sent le fagot (el sÄN le f? go´), he smells of the faggot; he is suspected of heresy. impoli (ÂN pÔ le´), unpolished; rude. impolitesse (ÂN pÔ le tes´), coarseness; rudeness. impromptu (ÂN prÔNp tÜ´), a prompt remark without study. in bianco (It.), (en byÄng´ko), in blank; in white. in petto (It.), (en pet´to), within the breast; in reserve. insouciance (ÂN soo seÄNs´), indifference; carelessness. in un giorno non si fe' Roma (It.), (en oon dzhor´no non se fa ro´mÄ), Rome was not built in a day. ir por lana, y volver trasquilado (Sp.), (er por lÄ´nÄ, e vol var´ trÄs ke lÄ´tho), to go for wool and come back shorn. J jalousie (zh? loo ze´), jealousy; a Venetian window blind. jambon (zhÄn-bÔN´).—Ham. jamais bon coureur ne fut pris (zh? me´ bÔN koo rÖr´ ne fÜ pre´), a good runner is not to be taken; old birds are not to be caught with chaff. Jardin des Plantes (zh?r dÂN da plÄNt´), the botanical garden in Paris. jardiniÈre (zhÄr-de-nyÂr´).—A dish cooked À la jardiniÈre. See je maintiendrai le droit (zhe mÂN teÂN dra le drwÄ´), I will maintain the right. je ne sais quoi (zhe ne se kwÄ´), I know not what. je n’oublierai jamais (zhe noo ble ra zh? me´), I will never forget. je suis prÊt (zhe sÜe pre´), I am ready. jet d’eau (zhe do´), a fountain; a jet of water. jeu de mots (zhÖ d mo´), a play upon words; a pun. jeu d’esprit (zhÖ des pre´), a witticism. jeu de thÉÂtre (zhÖ d ta Ätr´), a stage trick; clap-trap. jeunesse dorÉe (zhÖ nes dÔ ra´), the gilded youth. je vis en espoir (zhe ve zÄN nes pw?r´), I live in hope. joli (zhÔ le), pretty; attractive. julienne soup (zhÜ-lyen´).—Soup À la julienne. See jus (zhÜ).—Broth; soup juice; gravy. juste-milieu (zhÜst me leÖ´), the exact middle; the golden mean; the middle course is the safest. K kein Kreuzer, kein Schweizer (Ger.), (kin krÔi´tser, kin shwi´tser), no money no Swiss. kip´pered her´ring.—A herring split, salted, and smoked. kirschwasser (kersh-vÄs´Ûr).—A cordial distilled from the juice of the small black cherry. klosse (klÛ´ze).—Dumplings. kumiss (koo´mis), or kumys.—A beverage consisting of a liquor made by fermenting milk, originally mare’s or camel’s milk. kÜmmel (koom´mel).—A liqueur made in Germany and Russia flavored with cumin, caraway, or fennel. L lÂche (lÄsh), lax; relaxed. la critique est aisÉe, l’art est difficile (l? kre tek´ e te za´, l?´re da fe sel´), criticism is easy, art is difficult. lade nicht alles in ein Schiff (Ger.), (lÄ de nikt Ä´les in in´ shif´), do not ship all in one vessel; do not put all your eggs in one basket. l’adversitÉ fait les hommes, et le bonheur les monstres (l?d ver ze ta´ fe la zÔm´, a le bÔ nÖr´ la mÔNstr´), adversity makes men, and prosperity monsters. la fortuna aiuta i pazzi (It.), (lÄ for too´nÄ Ä yoo´tÄ´dze), fortune passes everywhere; all men are subject to the vicissitudes of Fortune. laguna (It.), (lÄ goo´nÄ), a moor; a fen. laissez faire (le sa fer´), let alone. laissez-nous faire (le sa noo fer´), let us act for ourselves; let us alone. laitue (la-tÜ´).—Lettuce. la la (l? l?´), so so; indifferently. l’allegro (It.), (lÄl la´gro), the merry man. (The title of one of Milton’s poems.) l’amour et la fumÉe ne peuvent se cacher (l? moor´ a l? fÜ ma´ ne pÖv se k? sha´), love and smoke cannot be hidden. langage des halles (lÄN g?zh da ?´), the language of markets; Billingsgate. langouste (lÄN-goost´).—The crawfish. langue (lÄNg).—Tongue. lapereau (lÄ-p’-ro´).—Young rabbit; cony. la patience est amÈre, mais son fruit est doux (l? pÄ seÄNs e t? mer´, me sÔN frÜe´ e doo´), patience is bitter, but its reward is sweet. lapins en accolade (lÄ paN Ä nÄ-ko-lÄd´).—A brace of rabbits on a dish. la povertÀ e la madre di tutti le arti (It.), (lÄ po var tÄ´ e lÄ mÄ´dra de toot´ te la Är´te), poverty is the mother of all the arts. l’argent (l?r zhÄN), silver; money. lasagne (lÄ-sÄN´y).—Ribbonlike strips of macaroni paste; also noodles. lasciate ogni speranza voi, ch’entrate (It.), (lÄ shyÄ´ta o nye spa rÄn´dzÄ vÔe, kan trÄ´ta), all hope abandon ye who enter here. lassen Sie mich gehen (Ger.) (lÄ´ sen ze mik ga´en), let me alone. l’avenir (l?v ner´), the future. la vertu est la seule noblesse (l? ver tÜ´ e l? sÖl nÔbles´), virtue is the sole nobility. leason (le´ son).—Thickening, as flour, starch, egg yolk, etc. le beau monde (le bo mÔNd´), the world of fashion; society. lebkuchen (lap´koo´ken).—A cake of flour and honey, variously flavored; also, a similar cake of flour and sugar. le bon temps viendra (le bÔN tÄN´ veÂNdr?´), there’s a good time coming. le coÛt en Ôte le gout (le koo tÄN not le goo´), the expense takes away the pleasure. le demi-monde (le de me mÔNd´), Bohemia. lÉgÈretÉ (la zher ta), lightness; levity. le grand monarque (le grÄN mÔ n?rk´), the grand monarch. A title applied to Louis XIV. le grand oeuvre (le grÄN tÖvr´), the great work; the search for the philosopher’s stone. legumes (le-gumz´).—Peas, lentils, or beans; improperly, fruit or green vegetables. le jeu n’en vaut pas la chandelle (le zhÖ´ nÄN vo pÄ l? shÄN del´), the game is not worth the candle (by the light of which it is played); the object is not worth the trouble. le mot d’Énigme (le mo da negm´), the solution of the mystery. l’empire des lettres (lÄN per´ da letr´), the empire of letters. le parole son feminine, e i fatti son maschi (It.) (la pÄ ro la son fa me ne´na, a e fÄt´te son mÄs´ke), words are feminine, and deeds are masculine. la pas (le pÄ´), precedence. le point de jour (le pwÂNd zhoor), daybreak. le roi et l’État (le rwÄ´ a la t?), the king and the state. le roi le veut (le rwÄ´ l vÖ´), the king wills it. les absents ont toujours tort (la z?p sÄN´ ÔN too zhoor tÔr´) the absent are always wrong. les bras croisÉs (la brÄ krwÄ ze´), the arms crossed. lÈse majestÉ (lez m? zhes ta), high treason. les extrÈmes se touchent (lÄ zek strem´ se toosh), extremes meet. les larmes aux yeux (la lÄrm´ zo zeÖ´), tears in one’s eyes. les murailles ont des oreilles (la mÜ rÄ´ y zÔN da zÔ re´ y), walls have ears. les plus sages ne le sont pas toujours (la plÜ sazh ne l sÔN pÄ too zhoor), the wisest are not always wise. l’Étoile du nord (la tw?l dÜ nÔr´), the star of the north. le tout ensemble (le too tÄN sÄN bl´), the whole taken together. lettre de cachet (Fr. Hist.), (letre de k? she´), a secret letter sealed by the royal seal, containing orders for arrest and imprisonment without trial. lettre de change (letre d zhÄN zh), bill of exchange; promissory note. lettres de crÉance (letre d kra ÄNs´), letters of credit. lettre de marque (letre d m?rk´), a letter of marque or reprisal. levÉe (le va´), a morning reception. lev´eret.—A young hare. le vrai n’est toujours vraisemblable (le vra ne too zoor vre sÄN bl?bl´), truth is not always probable; truth is stranger than fiction. levreau (la-vro´).—A young hare. Levreau au sang (o sÄN) is a dish of young hares cooked with added pigeon blood. l’homme propose, et Dieu dispose (lÔm prÔ poz´, a deÖ´ des poz´), man proposes and God disposes. liaisons dangereuses (le e zÔN dÄN zhrÖz´), dangerous alliances. libraire (le brer´), a bookseller. l’inconnu (lÂN kÔ nÜ´), the unknown. l’incroyable (lÂN krwÄ y?bl´), the incredible, the marvelous. (The word incroyable was applied substantively to the fops of the directory period in the great French revolution.) lingerie (lÂN zhre), linen goods; also, collectively, all the linen, cotton, and lace articles of a woman’s wardrobe. littÉrateur (le ta r? tÖr´), a literary man. lo barato es caro (Sp.), (lo bÄ rÄ´to as kÄ´ro), a bargain is dear. l’occhio del padrone ingrassa il cavallo (It.), (lÔ´kyo dal pÄ dro na en grÄs´sÄ el kÄ vÄl´lo), the master’s eye fattens the horse. loyautÉ m’oblige (lw? yo ta´ mÔ blezh´), loyalty binds me. M macarons (mÄ-kÄ-rÔN´).—Macaroons. macaro´ni.—A paste of wheat flour and water dried in the form of long slender tubes. When prepared in still smaller tubes it is called spaghetti and vermicelli. macaroon.—A small cake composed chiefly of whites of eggs and sugar (meringue) with pounded almonds, or sometimes filberts, cocoanut, or the like. macÉdoine of fruit (mÄ-sa-dwÄN´).—A sweet jelly with whole fruit in its substance. macÉdoine of veg´etables.—A mixture of several vegetables, cooked, with some white sauce added. macÉdoine sal´ad.—A salad of mixed vegetables. ma chÈre (m? sher´), my dear (fem.). macroon´.—A macaroon. mademoiselle (m?d mw? zel´), title given to a young unmarried lady. madÈre (mÄ-dÂr´).—Madeira wine. maestro di color che sanno (It.) (mÄ es´tro de ko lor´ ka sÄn´no), master of those that know. (Applied by Dante to Aristotle.) ma foi (m? fw?´), upon my faith; upon my word. maigre (me´gr).—Lean meat; also, any food other than meat. Also, a kind of fish. Maigre soups are those without meat, such as those used in Lent. maintien le droit (mÂN teÂN le drwÄ´), maintain the right. maison d’arrÊt (ma zÔN d? ret´), house of custody; prison. maison de campagne (ma zÔN de kÄN p?n´y), a country house. maison de force (ma zÔN d fÔrs´), house of correction; bridewell. maison de santÉ (ma zÔN d sÄN ta´), lunatic asylum. maison de ville (ma zÔN d vel´), a town hall. maitre des basses oeuvres (me´tre da bÄs zÖvr´), a nightman. maitre des hautes oeuvres (me´tre da ot zÖvr´), an executioner; a hangman. maitre d’hÔtel (me´tre do tel´), a house steward. maitre d’hÔtel but´ter (ma´tr do-tel´).—Butter mixed with parsley, lemon juice, salt, and nutmeg—cold maitre d’hÔtel sauce. maitresse (me tres´), mistress. malade (m? l?d´), sick. maladie du pays (m? l? de´ dÜ pa e´), homesickness. maladresse (m? l? dres´), want of tact, awkwardness. manchons de veau À la GÉrard (mÄN-shÔN´ de vo Ä lÄ zha-rÄr´).—A dish of slices of veal rolled and stuffed. manÈge (m? nezh´), the art of horsemanship. mal À propos (m? l? prÔ po´), ill-timed. mal de dents (m?l de dÄN´), toothache. mal de mer (m?l de mer´), seasickness. mal de tÊte (m?l de tet´), headache. mal entendre (m? lÄN tÄ Ndr´), a misunderstanding; a mistake. malgrÉ nous (m?l gra noo´), in spite of us. malheur ne vient jamais seul (m? lÖr´ ne veÂN zh? me sÖl´), misfortunes never come singly. maraschino (mÄ-rÄ-ske´no).—A cherry cordial made in Dalmatia from a sour cherry called marasca; hence, a similar liqueur prepared elsewhere. marasquin (mÄ-rÄ-skaN´).—French for maraschino. marchand de vin (mÄr-shÄN´ de vaN´).—Stewed with shallots, espagnole, and claret wine—said especially of kidneys. march´pane.—A cake of pounded almonds or pistachio nuts and sugar. mardi gras (m?r de grÄ´), Shrove Tuesday. mariage de conscience (m? re?zh de kÔN seÄNs´), a private marriage. mariage de convenance (m? re?zh de kÔN vnÄNs´), a marriage of convenience; or from interested motives. marsala (mÄr’sÄlÄ-lÄ).—A class of white Sicilian wines, of which the best kinds resemble Madeira, but are lighter. matinÉe (m? te na´), a reception, or a musical or dramatic entertainment, held in the daytime. mauvaise honte (mÔ vez ÔNt´), false modesty. mauvais goÛt (mÔ ve goo´), false taste. mauvaise sujet (mÔ ve sÜ zhe´), a worthless fellow. mauvais quart d’heure (mÔ ve k?r dor´), a bad quarter of an hour; an uncomfortable time; a disagreeable experience. mauvais ton (mÔ ve tÔN´), vulgarity. mayonnaise sauce (ma-yo-naz´).—A sauce of egg yolk and oil worked together, less properly with vinegar. mÉdecin, guÉris-toi-toi-mÊme (mad sÂN´, ga re tw?tw? mem´), physician, heal thyself. mÉlange (ma lÄ Nzh), a mixture.—A light entertainment of a mixed character. mÊlÉe (me la´), a disorderly fight. mÉnage (ma n?zh´), household. menu (me nÜ´), bill of fare. meringue (ma-raNg´).—Icing of white of egg and sugar thoroughly beaten together, sometimes with starch added. Pure meringues are called baisers (ba-za´) or Spanish foam. meringue glacÉe (glÄ-sa´).—A glazed meringue. merluche (mÂr-lÜsh´).—The haddock. mesalliance (ma z? leÄNz´), marriage with one of lower station. meuniÈre (me-nyÂr´).—With brown butter, lemon juice, and parsley. mirabelles (me-rÄ-bel´).—Plums of a certain superior variety. mir ist alles einerlei (Ger.), (Mer´ ist Ä´les i ner li´), it’s all the same to me. mise-en-scÈne (me zÄN sen´), the staging of a play. mon ami (mÔ n? me´), my friend. mon cher (mÔN sher´), my dear (fellow). monde chic (mÔNd shek´), world of taste; fashionable people. monsieur (me seÖ´), sir, master, gentleman. morue (mo-rÜ´).—Codfish. mot de passe (mo d pÄs´), the watchword. mot du guet (mo dÜ ge´), a watchword. mot pour rire (mo poor rer´), a witty saying; a joke. mots d’usage (mo dÜ z?zh´), words in common use. moules (mool).—Mussels. moules À la bordelaise (Ä lÄ bÔr-de-laz´).—Mussels in forcemeat. mousseline de laine (moos len de len´), a thin woolen material. mousseron (moo-srÔN´).—Mushroom (the edible kind). mouton (moo-toN´).—Mutton. mulled (muld).—Properly, heated and spiced; but often used to mean, made mild by sugar (acid wines), or by dilution (alcoholized wine). mul´ligatawny, or mul´ligatunny.—A spiced or curried soup of hashed chicken and rice. muraglia bianca, carta di matto (It.) (moo rÄ´lyÄ byÄng´kÄ, kÄr´tÄ de mat´to), a white wall is the fool’s paper. N naÏve (n? ev´), having unaffected simplicity. naÏvetÉ´ (n? ev ta´), native simplicity. Na´ples biscuit.—Lady fingers. Na´ples ice, Na´ples ice cream.—Same as Neapolitan ice; Neapolitan ice cream. Neapol´itan ice, Neapol´itan ice cream.—Ice or ice cream prepared in layers, especially when colored, as in white, red and yellow. Neapol´itan sauce.—Espagnole flavored with grated horseradish, and a sweet and savory wine fumet. nec´tarine.—A smooth skinned variety of peach. The Spanish nectarine is a plum-like West Indian fruit, which is made into a sweet conserve. nÉe (na´), born. nÉgligÉ (na gle zha´), a morning dress. nesselrode pudding (nes´sel-ro-de).—Iced or frozen chestnut-and-fruit pudding. neufchÂtel cheese (nÛf-shÄ-tel´).—A cheese made by thickening cream by heat and pressing it in a small mold. neue Besen kehren gut (Ger.),-(nÔi e ba´zen ka ren goot´), a new broom sweeps clean. ni l’un ni l’autre (ne lÖN´ ne lotr´), neither the one nor the other. n’importe (nÂN pÔrt´), it is of no consequence. nivernaise (ne-vÂr-naz´).—A ragoÛt-like dish of carrots stewed in consommÉ. noblesse oblige (nÔ ble sÔ blezh´), nobility imposes obligations; much is expected from persons of good position. nom de guerre (nÔN de ger´), a war-name, an assumed name, a pseudonym. nom de plume (nÔN de plÜm´), an assumed title. nonchalance (nÔN sh? lÄNs´), coolness; easy indifference. non mi ricordo (It.), (non me re kÔr´do), I do not remember. non obstant clameur de haro (non Ôp stÄN kl? mÖr´ de ? ro´), despite the hue and cry. non ogni fiore fa buon odore (It.), (non o nye fyo´ra f? bwÔ no do´ra), it is not every flower that smells sweet. nonpareil (nÔN p? re´y), unequaled. non vender la pelle dell ´orse prima di pigliarlo (It.), (non van dar lÄ pel la dal lor´ sa pre mÄ de pe lyÄr´lo´), don’t sell the bearskin before you have caught the bear. Noth kennt kein Gebot (Ger.), (not´ kent kin ge bot´), necessity knows no law. Notre Dame (nÔ tre d?m), Our Lady, the Virgin Mary. n’oubliez pas (noo blea pÄ´), do not forget. nougat (noo-gÄ´).—A mixture of almonds, pistachios, filberts, or the like, and honey or sugar baked together. nouilles (noo´y).—Noodles. nous verrons (noo ve rÔN´), we shall see. nouvelles (noo vel´), news. nouvellette (noo ve let´), a short tale or novel. nuance (nÜ ÄNs´), shade; gradation; tint. nul bien sans peine (nÜl beÂN´ sÄN pen´), no pains, no gains. nulla nuova, buona nuova (It.), (nool lÄ nwÔ vÄ, bwÔ´-nÄ nwÔ´vÄ), no news is good news. O octroi (Ôk trwÄ´), a tax on articles (for sale) entering a town. oeil de boeuf (Ö´ed bÖf´), a bull’s-eye. oeufs (Ûf).—Eggs. oeufs À la farce (Ûf Ä lÄ fÄrs).—Hard boiled eggs with stewed sorrel. oeufs À la tripe (Ä lÄ trep).—Hard boiled eggs with onion sauce. oeufs broullÉs.—Scrambled eggs. ognon (o-nyÔN´).—Onion. ognon d’Egypte (da-zhept´).—The rocambole, a mild, sweet onion. o’kra.—A plant, the long green, mucilaginous pods of which are used in soups, stews, etc. olla (ol´lÄ).—RagoÛt. olla podrida (It.), (ol´lÄ po dre´dÄ), a heterogeneous mixture. omelette au thon (om-let´ o tÔN´).—Omelet with tunny, a kind of fish. omelette aux confitures (o kÔN-fe-tÜr´).—An omelet served with fruit jelly. Jams do not go well with omelets. on connait l’ami au besoin (ÔN kÔ ne l? me´ o be zwÂN´), a friend is known in time of need. on dit (ÔN de´), they say. oreilles (o-ra´y).—Ears; as, oreilles de veau (de vo), calf’s ears. orgeade (Ôr-zhÄd´).—Milk of almonds, made by stirring sirup of almonds in water; also, orgeat. orgeat (Ôr-zhÄ´).—Sirup of almonds; also, orgeade. Or´leans sauce.—A mince of carrots, anchovies, hard-boiled eggs, and gherkins, with peppersauce. oro e che oro vale (It.), (o´ro e ka o´ro vÄ´la), that is gold which is worth gold; all is not gold that glitters. oublier je ne puis (oo blea´zhe n pwe´), I can never forget. oui-dire (we der´), hearsay. outrance (oo trÄNs´), excess; extremity. outre (ootr´), eccentric. ouvrage (oo vr?zh), work. ouvrage de longue haleine (oo vr?zh de lÔNg ? len´), a long-winded business. ouvrier (oo vre a´), a workman, an artisan. P pabrica (pÄ´bre-kÄ).—Paprika. padrone (It.), (pÄ dro´nÄ), master; employer; landlord. pain (paN).—Bread. panais (pÄ-na´).—Parsnips. panÉe (pÄ-na´).—Bread-crumbed (over egg yolk, sauce, butter, or fat) previous to frying. panier (pÄ-ny´).—A basket, as that for holding a wine bottle. Also, an entrÉe panÉe. pannequets (pÄn-ka´).—French pancakes. papeterie (p? pe tre´), a case with writing materials. paprika (pÄ´pre-kÄ).—A mild kind of red-pepper condiment obtained from Capsicum annum. par accord (p? r? kÔr´), by agreement. par avance (p? r? vÄNs´), in advance. par ci, par lÀ (p?r se´ p?r l?´), here and there. par excellence (p? rek se lÄNs´), preËminently. par exemple (p? rag zÄNpl´), for instance. parfaitement bien (p?r fet mÄN beÂN´), perfectly well. Pari´sian loaves.—Finger cakes ornamented with strips of currant jelly, green-gage jam, or the like. Pari´sian sauce.—Allemande flavored with truffles and tinted. pas´caline.—White mushroom sauce. parole d’honneur (p? rÔl dÔ nÖr´), word of honor. partout (p?r too´), everywhere. parvenu (p?r ve nÜ´), a person of low origin who has risen; upstart. pas À pas (pÄ z? pÄ´), step by step. passe (pÄs), worn out; out of style. passe-partout (pÄs p?r too´), a master key. pasticcio (It.), (pÄs tech´ chyo), patchwork. pÂtÉ (pÄ-ta´).—A pasty. pÂtÉ aux choux (pÄ-ta´ o shoo´).—Cream-cake paste, which resembles a cabbage head when baked. pÂtÉ de foie gras (pÄ-ta´ de fwÄ grÄ´), a pie made in Strasburg from the livers of geese. pÂtÉ mollette (pÄ-ta´ mo-let´).—A Mecca cake. pÂtÉs (pÄ-ta´).—Pasties. pÂtÉs chauds (shÖ).—Hot pasties. pÂtÉs de petit four (de pe-te´foor).—Small pasties—literally, pasties of the little oven. pÂtÉs froids (frwÄ).—Cold pasties. patois (p? twÄ´), a dialect. pays latin (pa e l? tÂN´), the Latin territory, district, region; the students of the Pays Latin, that is, of the University. peine forte et dure (pen fÔr ta dÜr´), very severe punishment; a kind of judicial torture. penchant (pÄN shÄN´),—inclination; liking. pensÉe (pÄN sa´), a thought expressed in terse, vigorous language. per (It.), (par), for, through, by. per cantante (It.), (par kÄn tÄn´ta), for cash. per contra (It.), (par kon´trÄ), on the contrary. pÈre de famille (per de f? me´y), the father of the family. perdreux (pÂr-drÛ´).—Young partridges. perdrix (pÂr-dre´).—A partridge. perdu (per dÜ´), lost. per mese (It.), (par ma´ sa), by the month. per piu strade si va a Roma (It.), (par pyoo strÄ´da se vÄ Ä ro´mÄ), there are many roads to Rome. persiflage (per se fl?zh), chaff; banter. persillade of fish (pÂr-se-lÄd´).—Fish with parsley. personnel (per sÔ nel´), the staff of an establishment. petit (pe te´), small. petit coup (pe te koo´), a small mask; a domino. petit rÔti (pe-te´ ro-te´).—A roast fowl. petit salÉ (sÄ la´).—Pickled pork in small pieces. petites affiches (pe tet z? fesh´), advertisements. petit maÎtre (pe te metr´), a little master; a fop. petits choux.—Same as choux pÂtissiÈre. petits pois (pe-te´ pwÄ). Peas. peu-À-peu (pÖ ? pÖ´), little by little; by degrees. peu de chose (pÖ d shoz´), a trifle. pezzo (It.), (ped´zo), piece; piece of money; a coin. piccolo (It.), (pek´ko lo), small. piÈce de rÉsistance (pe es de ra zes tÄNs´), the principal dish. pied À terre (pea t? ter´), a temporary lodging. pied poudreux (pe a poo drÖ´), a vagabond. pigeonnaux (pe-zho-no´).—Squabs. pigeons innocents (pe-zhÔN´ e-no-sÄN´).—Squabs. pigliar due colombi a una fava (It.), (pe ly?r doo a ko lom´be Ä oo nÄ fÄ´vÄ), to catch two pigeons with one bean; to kill two birds with one stone. pilau (pi-law´), or pillau.—An oriental dish of rice stewed with mutton, lamb, or fowl, almonds, raisins, and saffron and other spices. pimen´to.—Allspice, or Jamaica pepper. pimo´la.—An olive stuffed with sweet peppers. pioupiou (pe oo pe oo´), a private soldier; a French “Tommy Atkins.” piquant (pe-kÄN´), pointed, pungent. piquante sauce (pe-kÄNt´).—Espagnole with pickles added and flavored with shallots. pis aller (pe z? la´), the worst or last shift. plombiÈre (plÔN-byÂr´).—A kind of frozen fruit pudding. pochÉ (po-sha´).—Poached. poco À poco (It.), (pÔ´ko Ä pÔ´ko), little by little; by degrees. point d’appui (pwÂN d? pwe´), prop; point of support. poisson (pwÄ-sÔN´).—Fish. poivrade (pwÄ-vrÄd´).—Peppersauce. polen´ta.—Porridge. polonaise cakes (po-lo-naz´).—A kind of tart made of puff paste with jelly at the corners. pomme (pum).—Apple. pomme d´api (pum dÄ-pe´).—Small rosy apple. pomme de terre (de tÂr).—Common Irish potato. pompa´no.—A highly esteemed marine food fish. porte-chaise (porte shez´), a sedan. poste restante (pÔs tres tÄNt´), to remain until called for; applied to letters in a post office, general delivery. potage (po-tÄzh´).—Soup; pottage; broth. potage a la Camerani (Ä lÄ kÄ-ma-rÄ´ne).—A rich kind of chicken-liver soup. potage croute au pot (kroÖt o po).—Plain broth with vegetables and crusts browned in gravy. pot pourri (po poo-re´).—A ragoÛt of various meats and vegetables cooked together. pour acquit (poo r? ke´), paid; settled; the usual form of receipt. pour faire rire (poor fer rer´), to excite laughter. pour faire visite (poor fer ve zet´) to pay a visit. pour passer le temps (poor pÄ sa l tÄN´), to while away the time. pour prendre congÉ (poor prÄNdre kÔN zha´), to take leave. Usually abbreviated to P. P. C. prÉcis (pra se´), a summary; an epitome. prendre la clef des champs (prÄN dre l? kla da shÄN´), to take the key of the fields; to take French leave. prendre la lune avec les dents (prÄN dre l? lÜ´ n? vek la dÄN´), to seize the moon in one’s teeth; to aim at impossibilities. presto maturo, presto marcio (It.) (pres to ma too´ro, pres to mÄr´chyo), soon ripe, soon rotten. prÊt d´accomplir (pre d? kÔN pler´), ready to accomplish. prÊt pour mon pays (pre poor mÔN pa e´), ready for my country. preux chevalier (prÖ shv? lea´), a brave knight. prima donna (pre mÄ dÔn´nÄ), leading lady singer in opera. printaniÈre (praN-tÄ-nyÂr´).—A dish cooked À la printaniÈre. See procÈs verbal (prÔ se ver b?l´), a detailed statement. profiterolles (pro-fe-trol´).—Sweet entremets, a kind of cake filled with custard. propriÉtaire (prÔ prea ter´), a proprietor. protÉgÉ (prÔ ta zha´), one protected by another. pumpernickel (poom´per-nik´l).—Black bread made in Westphalia of unbolted rye. It is of an acid taste. purÉe (pÜ-ra´).—A pulpy maceration of meat, vegetables, fruit, or the like, passed through a sieve. quartier (kÄr-tya´).—Quarter; especially forequarter. quasi de veau (kÄ-ze´de vo).—The thick end of a loin of veal. Q quelque chose (kel ke shoz´), something; a trifle. quenelle (ke-nel´).—A kind of delicate forcemeat ball or dumpling. qui a bu boira (ke ? bÜ´ bwÄ r?´), the tippler will go on tippling; it is hard to break off bad habits. quien poco sabe, presto lo reza (Sp.), (kyan po ko sÄ´va, pres to lo ra´thÄ), he who knows little soon tells it. quien sabe? (Sp.), (kyan sÄ´va), who knows? qu´il soit comme il est dÉsirÉ (kel sw?´ kÔ me le da ze ra´), let it be as desired. qui m´aime aime mon chien (ke mem´ em mÔN sheÂN´), love me, love my dog. qui n’a santÉ, n’a rien (ke n? sÄN ta´, n? re ÂN´), he who has not health, has nothing. qui va lÀ? (ke v? l?´), who goes there? qui vive (ke vev´), on the alert. R raconteur (r? kÔN tÖr´), a relater; a teller. radis (rÄ-de´).—Radish. ragout (rÄ-goo´).—A rich compound consisting of quenelles, mushrooms, truffles, etc., mixed with a rich sauce, and used to garnish rich dishes; also, a dish garnished with this. raison d´État (ra zÔN da t?´), a state reason. raison d´Être (ra zÔN detr´), the reason for a thing´s existence. ramequin (ram´e-kin; French pron. rÄ-me-kaN´).—A pastry consisting of a preparation of cheese inclosed in or mixed with puff paste, and baked or browned. Cheese straws are thin ramequins of cheese mixed with puff paste. rapprochement (r? prÔsh mÄN´), the act of bringing together, reconciliation. ratafia (rÄ-tÄ-fe-Ä´).—(a) Noyau, curacao, or other liqueur containing kernels of fruit, as of peaches, cherries, etc. (b) A small macaroon made mainly of bitter almonds. rÉchauffÉ (ra-sho-fa´), or rÉchauffÉe.—Warmed or heated over a second time. recherche (re shersh´), elegant; attractive. reÇu (re sÜ´), received; receipt. recueil choisi (re kÖ y shw?ze´), a choice collection. rÉdacteur (en chef), (ra d?k tÖ rÄN shef), editor (of a newspaper). rÉgime (ra zhem´), government; mode of living. relevÉs (ra-l´-va´).—Same as removes. rÉmoulade (ra-moo-lÄd´).—A purÉe of anchovies, capers, parsley, shallots, and hard-boiled eggs, dressed with spices, oil, and vinegar. rÉmoulade À la provenÇale (Ä lÄ pro-vÄN-sÄl´).—RÉmoulade not sieved and with more oil. remove.—A dish removed from the table to make room for another; applied generally to the roasts, joints, turkeys, fillets, etc., which follow the soup and fish at an ordinary dinner of several courses. renaissance (re ne sÄNs´), regeneration, revival. rendezvous (rÄN da voo´), a place of meeting. rentes (rÄNt), the funds; government stocks. rÉpondez s’il vous plaÎt (R. S. V. P.) (ra pÔN da sel voo ple´), reply if you please. rÉpondre en normand (rÄ pÔN drÄN nÔr mÄN´), to answer in Norman; to speak evasively. restaurateur (res tÔ r? tÖr´), one who provides. rÉsumÉ (ra zÜ ma´), a summing up. rete nuova non piglia uccello vecchio (It.), (ra ta nwÔ´vÄ non pe lyÄ ooch chel´lo vek´kyo), a new net won’t catch an old bird. revenons À nos moutons (rev nÔN z? no moo tÔN´), let us return to our sheep; let us come back to our subject. rien n’est beau que le vrai (reÂN ne bo´ ke l vra´), there is nothing beautiful but truth. rira bien qui rira le dernier (re r? beÂN´ ke re r? l der neÄ´), he laughs well who laughs last. rire entre cuir et chair, rire sous cape (re rÄN tre kwe´ ra sher´, rer soo k?p´), to laugh in one’s sleeve. ris de veau (re de vo).—The sweetbread; pancreas. rissole (re-sol´).—A kind of pastry made of minced and spiced meat or vegetables, or fruit, wrapped in paste, and fried in fat—originally one containing rice as an ingredient. rissolÉ (re-so-la´).—Browned by baking or frying. rissolette (re-so-let´).—A croutade, or bit of fried bread containing or holding a little portion of forcemeat. robe de chambre (rÔb de shÄN br´), a dressing-gown; a morning gown. robe de nuit (rÔb de nwe´), a night-dress. rognons (ro-nyÔN´).—Kidneys; fries. rÔle (rol´), a part in a performance. romaine salad (ro-man´).—A kind of mixed vegetable salad. Ro´man punch.—A water ice flavored, as with lemon, and mixed with rum or other spirits. Also, a complicated punch, similar in preparation to regency punch, with added frozen white of egg froth. roquefort (rok-fÔr´).—A French cheese made from the milk of ewes, cured in a cavern in the limestone rock at Roquefort, France. rothe grÜtze (ro´te grÜt´ se).—A flummery of rice grits and fruit juice. roue (roo), a debauchee. rouge (roozh), red coloring for the skin. roulette (roo-let´).—A dish consisting of a slice of meat spread with stuffing, rolled, and stewed or braised. roux (roo).—Browned by frying in butter or other grease. roux blanc (blÄN).—Starch or flour fried in fat so as to be hardly colored. roux brun (brÜN´).—Fried a dark brown. ruse de guerre (rÜz de ger´), a military stratagem. Rus´sian sauce.—A veloutÉ with egg yolks and strong herbs. Rus´sian soup.—A gravy soup of veal, fowl, etc., with souchets of salmon, eel, perch, mullet, quenelles of whiting, lobster coral, and mushroom purÉe. S salade russe (sÄ-lÄd´rÜs).—A dish of chicken meat, ham, veal, etc., sliced, arranged separately and served with truffles, and tartar sauce, or caviare and sardelles, etc. salle (s?l), a hall. salle À manger (s? l? mÄN zha), dining room. Sal´ly Lunn.—An English tea cake. salmagun´dy.—A salad of cold chicken, veal, eggs, beets, anchovies, etc., finely minced and spiced. salmis (sÄl-me´).—A ragoÛt of roast game or fowl in rich gravy or sauce. sal´picon (French pron. sÄl-pe-kÔN´).—A ragoÛt or rich compound of chopped meat or fish and vegetables with savory sauce, used as a separate dish, as a garnish, to stuff meats, etc. sanan couchilladas, mas no malas palabras (Sp.), (sÄ´nÄn koo che la´thÄs, mÄs no mÄ lÄs pÄ lÄ´vrÄs), wounds from a knife will heal, but not those from an evil tongue. sang-froid (sÄN frwÄ´), coolness; self-possession. sans-culottes (sÄN kÜ lÔt´), without breeches; a term applied to the rabble of the French revolution. sans faÇon (sÄN f? sÔN´), without form or trouble. sans pareil (sÄN p? re´y), without equal. sans peine (sÄN pen´), without difficulty. sans peur et sans reproche (sÄN pÖr´ a sÄN re prÔsh´), fearless and stainless. sans rime et sans raison (sÄN rem´ a sÄN ra zÔN´), without rhyme or reason. sans souci (sÄN soo se´), free from care. sauce beurrÉe À l’Anglaise (bÛ-ra Ä lÄN-glaz´).—Butter sauce. sauce blanche (blÄNsh).—Butter sauce. sauce Colbert (kol-bÂr).—Brown sauce with meat glace, lemon juice, parsley, and butter stirred in. saucÉ de gourmets (de goor-ma´).—A coulis with a purÉe of tomatoes and crayfish butter. sauce en tortue (ÄN tÔr-tÜ´).—Espagnole sauce, a kind of sauce used for calf’s head. sauce Italienne rousse (e-tÄ-lyen´ roos).—A sauce of espagnole, varied and flavored with shallots, mushrooms, and olive oil. sauce piquante (pe-kÄNt´).—An acid or sour sauce. sauce Robert (French pron. sos ro-bÂr´).—A full-flavored espagnole sauce, strongly flavored with onions, mustard, and zested with lemon juice or vinegar. sauce rousse (roos).—Brown sauce. saumon (so-mÔN´).—Salmon. sautÉ (so-ta´).—Lightly and quickly fried in little grease. sauve qui peut (sov ke pÖ´), save yourself. savant (s? vÄN´), a learned man. savoir (s? vw?r´), knowledge. savoir faire (s? vw?r fer´), tact. savoir vivre (s? vw?r vevr´), good breeding. savon (s? vÔN´), soap. savoy´ cakes.—Lady fingers or other fancy cakes of sponge-cake paste. scones (skonz).—Scotch cakes of oatmeal or flour. scrutin d’arrondissement (skrÜ tÂN´ d? rÔN des mÄN´), municipal ballot. scrutin de liste (skrÜ tÂN d lest´), voting by ballot; the voting for the departmental representatives. sdegno d’amante poco dura (It.), (zda nyo dÄ mÄn´ta pÔ ko doo´rÄ), a lover’s anger is short-lived. sÉance (sa ÄNs´), a sitting. selle (sel).—Saddle. selon les rÈgles (se lÔN la regl´), according to rule. sempre il mal non vien per nuocere (It.), (sem´pra el mÄl´ non vyan´ par nwÔ cha ra), misfortune is not always an evil. se non e vero e ben trovato (It.), (sa non e va´ro e ban tro vÄ´to), if it is not true, it is cleverly invented. siÈcle (se ekl´), an age. siÈcle d´or (se ekl dÔr´), the golden age (of Louis XIV). siÈcles des tÉnÈbres (se ekle da ta nebr´), the dark ages. Sie sehen gut aus (Ger.), (ze za en goot´ ows), you look well. sobriquet (sÔ bre ke´), a nickname. soi-disant (sw? de zÄN´), self-styled; would-be; pretended. soirÉe (sw? ra´), an evening party. soubise sauce (soo-bez´).—A purÉe of white onions or souchie. soubrette (soo bret´), on the stage a servant girl who acts in comedies the part of an intrigante. souchet (soo-sha´), or souchie (soo-she´).—A stew of fish in a soup-like savory broth. soufflÉ (soo-fla´).—A dish consisting of batter of starch or flour, eggs, milk or cream, and butter, beaten light and baked and served hot while light and spongy. SoufflÉs may be variously flavored, as with ginger, vanilla, chocolate, etc. souffler le chaud et le froid (soo fla l sho´ a l frwÄ´), to blow hot and cold. spaghetti (spÄ-get´te).—Hollow tubes of dried Italian paste, in size between macaroni and vermicelli. Span´ish cream.—Gelatine pudding containing custard, gelatine, and beaten white of eggs, set in a mold. Span´ish puffs.—Maringues. spirituel (spe re tÜ el´), possessing wit, witty. Sturm und Drang (Ger.), (shtoorm oont drÄng´), storm and stress. suprÊme sauce (su-pram).—VeloutÉ flavored with mushrooms and consommÉ of fowls. T tableau vivant (t? blo ve vÄN´), the representation of a picture by persons grouped together, silent and motionless. table d’hÔte (t?ble dot´), table according to the hostess. tÂche sans tache (t?sh sÄN t?sh´), a work without a stain. taille (tÄ´y), form; stature; shape. tapis (t? pe´), the carpet. tar´tare sauce.—Mayonnaise sauce with vinegar and chopped green herbs, pickles, and capers. tel maÎtre, tel valet (tel metr´, tel v? le´), like master, like man. tendresse (tÄN dres´), passion; affection. terra cotta (It.), (ter´rÄ kÔt´tÄ), baked earth. tÊte (tat).—Head. tÊte-À-tÊte (te t? tet´), a conversation between two parties. tiens À la vÉritÉ (teÂN z? l? vÄ re ta´), maintain the truth. tiens ta foi (teÂN t? fwÄ´), keep thy faith. timbale (French pron. taN-bÄl´).—A drum-like case of macaroni or rice filled with some composition, as with forcemeat or ragoÛt. timbre-poste (tÂN bre pÔst´), postage stamp. toujours perdrix (too zhoor per dre´), always partridges; the same thing over and over again. toujours prÊt (too zhoor pre´), always ready. tour de force (toor de fÔrs´), a feat of strength or skill. tour d’expression (toor dek spre seÔN´), an idiom. tourner casaque (toor na k? z?k´), to turn one’s coat; to change sides. tout-À-fait (too t? fe´), wholly, entirely. tout-À-l’heure (too t? lÖr´), instantly. tout au contraire (too to kÔN trer´), on the contrary. tout-À-vous (too t? voo´), entirely yours. tout bien ou rien (too beÂN´ oo reÂN´), all or nothing. tout-de-suite (too d swet´), immediately. tout ensemble (too tÄN sÄNbl´), the whole. tout le monde est sage aprÈs coup (too l mÔN de sazh ? pre koo´), everybody is wise after the event. traduttori, traditori (It.), (trÄ doot to´re, trÄ de to´re), translators are traitors. trottoir (trÔ tw?r´), sidewalk. trousseau (troo so´), wedding outfit. truffes (trÜf).—Truffles. truf´fle.—A kind of edible mushroom that grows underground. truite (trwet).—Trout. Turk´ish cof´fee.—CafÉ au Turc. tutte le strade conducono a Roma (It.), (toot´ta la strÄ´da kon doo´ko no Ä ro mÄ), all roads lead to Rome. tutti-frutti (toot´te-froot´te).—A confection consisting of preserved fruits of various kinds. U Uebung macht den Meister (Ger.), (Ü´boong mÄkt den mis´ter), practice makes perfect. un bienfait n’est jamais perdu (ÖN beÂN fe´ ne zh? me per dÜ´), a kindness is never lost. un sot À triple Étage (ÖN so´ ? tre pla t?zh´), a consummate fool. un “tiens” vaut mieux que deux “tu l’auras,” (oN teÂN vo meÖ´ ke dÖ tÜ lo r?´), one “take it” is worth two “you shall have it”; a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. V valen´cia rice.—Rice boiled till the grains are soft and then mixed with oil and tomatoes. valet de chambre (v? le d shÄN br´), an attendant. vaurien (vo reÂN´), a worthless fellow. veau (vo).—Veal. vedi Napoli e poi muori (It.), (va de nÄ´po le a pÔe mwÔ´re), see Naples and then die. vÉritÉ sans peur (va re ta´ sÄN pÖr´), truth without fear. vers de sociÉtÉ (ver de sÔ se a ta´), society verses; poetry dealing lightly with trifling subjects. verve (verv), animation; spirit. Viele HÄnde machen bald ein End (Ger.), (fe le hent´-mÄken bÄlt in ent´), many hands make quick work. vieux garÇon (ve Ö g?r sÔN´), old bachelor. vigueur de dessus (ve gÖr´ de de sÜ´), strength from on high. vin (vaN).—Wine. vinaigre (ve-na´gr´).—Vinegar. Vinaigre a l’estragon (Ä las trÄ-gÔN´) is vinegar flavored with tarragon. vinaigrette of (ve-na-gret´).—A sauce made sour by acid wine or vinegar. vino dentro, senno furore (It.) (ve´no den´tro, san´no foo ro´ra), when the wine is in, the wit is out. vin ordinaire (vaN Ôr-de-nÂr´).—Ordinary table wine; claret. virtuoso (It.), (ver two´ so), one skilled in matters of taste or art. vis À vis (ve z? ve), face to face. vivat (ve v?t´), a shout of “long live.” vive la bagatelle (vev l? b? g? tel´), success to trifles. vive la rÉpublique (vev l? ra pÜ plek´), long live the republic. vive l’empereur (vev lÄN prÖr´), long live the emperor. vive le roi (vev le rwÄ´), long live the king. voilÀ (vw? l?´), see there; there is, there are. voilÀ tout (vw? l? too´), that is all. voilÀ une autre chose (vw? l? Ü no tre shoz´), that is quite another thing. voiture (vw? tÜr´), a carriage. volaille (vo-la´y).—Poultry. vol-au-vent (vo-lo-vÄN´). A light puff-paste case baked and then filled with a ragoÛt, fricassÉe, or the like. W wagon-lits (v? gÔ le), sleeping cars. Was fehlt Ihnen? (Ger.), (vÄs falt´ e nen), what is the matter with you? Wie die Arbeit, so der Lohn (Ger.), (ve de Är´bit, zo der lon´), as the labor, so the reward. Welsh rare bit, or rab´bit.—A dish consisting essentially of toasted bread on which is served toasted or melted cheese. The cheese is variously prepared, as with the admixture of ale, or other flavoring material. white sauce.—Same as veloutÉ, or similar sauce. wiener schnitzel (ve´ner shnits´el).—A cut of veal from the leg, fried in batter, and seasoned with paprika, etc., after a style attributed to the Viennese. Z Zeitgeist (Ger.), (tsit´gist), the spirit of the age. PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF CLASSIC WORDS AND PHRASESIncluding legal phrases, maxims, mottoes, quotations, proverbs, Latin abbreviations, classic allusions and references of common occurrence in books, periodicals, newspapers and speech. KEY TO PRONUNCIATIONThe long (marked) vowels are pronounced as in the following words: fate, fare, care; me; mine; mote; mute. The short vowels, which include all not marked as above, are pronounced as in the following words: pat; pet; pit; pot; put. The accented syllable in each word is indicated by a mark placed immediately after it. A Ab extra (ex´tra).—From without. Ab initio (in-ish´i-o).—From the beginning. Ab origine (or-i´jin-e).—From the commencement. Ab ovo (o´vo).—From the egg—i. e., the beginning. The egg in many ancient mythologies was the supposed origin of life. Ab ovo usque ad mala (us´kwe ad ma´la).—From the egg to the apples—i. e., from the beginning to the end (the Roman custom being to begin dinner with eggs and end with fruit). Ab uno disce omnes (u´no dis´se om´nes).—From a single instance infer the whole. Ab urbe condita—A. U. C. (ur´be kon´di-ta).—From the (year of) building the city (Rome), 753 B.C. A capite ad calcem (a kap´i-te ad kal´sem).—From head to heel. Accipe hoc (ak´sip-e hock).—Accept this. Ac etiam (ak esh´i-am).—And also. Ad arbitrium (ar-bit´ri-um).—At pleasure. Ad captandum vulgus (cap-tan´dum vul´gus).—To catch the rabble. Ad extremum (ex-tre´mum).—At last. Ad finem (fi´nem).—To the end. Ad hominem (hom´in-em).—To the man. Ad infinitum (in-fi-ni´tum).—To infinity. Ad interim (in´ter-im).—Meanwhile. Ad Kalendas Graecas (kal´en-das gre´kas).—At the Greek kalends—i. e., never (there being no kalends in the Greek year). Ad libitum (lib´it-um).—At pleasure. Ad majorem Dei gloriam (ma-jor´em De´i glor´i-am).—For the greater glory of God. The motto of the Order of the Jesuits, founded by Ignatius Loyola (1539). Ad nauseam (naw´se-am).—To disgust. Ad quod damnum (kwod dam´num).—To what damage. Ad referendum (ref-er-en´dum).—For further consideration. Ad rem.—To the point. Ad unguem (un´gwem).—To a nail—i.e., to a nicety, exactly. An expression borrowed from sculptors, who in modeling, give the finishing touch with the nail. Ad unum omnes—Cicero (u-num om´nes).—All to a man. Ad valorem (va-lor´em).—According to the value. Ad vivum (vi´vum).—To the life. Aegrescit medendo (e-gres´sit med-en´do).—The disorder increases with the remedy, i. e., the remedy is worse than the disease. Aequam servare mentem (e-kwam ser-var´e men´tem).—To preserve a well-balanced mind; to be unmoved. Aequo animo (e´kwo an´im-o).—With resignation, contentedly. Aetatis suae (e-ta´tis su´e).—Of his (or her) age. A fortiori (for-shi-or´i).—With stronger reason. Alere flammam (al´er-e flam´mam).—To feed the flame. Alias (al´i-as).—Otherwise. Alibi (al´i-bi).—Elsewhere. Legal phrase implying that the accused in a criminal case was not on the scene of a crime at the time of its committal. Alma Mater (al´ma ma´ter).—Benign mother. An expression used by college men, who speak of their college as their Alma mater. Alter ego (al´ter egg´o).—Another self. Alter idem (al´ter i-dem).—Another exactly similar. Amantium irae amoris integratio est—(am-an´shi-um i´re a-mor´iss inte-gra-shi-o est).—The quarrels of lovers are renewals of love. A mensa et thoro (a men´sa et thor´o).—From table and bed. A legal phrase used by the judge in pronouncing the decree of separation in the Divorce Court. Amicus humani generis (am-i-cus hu-ma´ni gen´er-iss).—A friend of the human race. Amor patriÆ (am´or pat´ri-e).—Love of one’s native land. Anguis in herba—Virgil (an´gwiss in her´ba).—A snake in the grass. Animo et fide (an´im-o et fi´de).—By courage and faith. Anno aetatis suae (an´no e-ta´tiss su´e).—In the year of his (or her) age. Anno Christi, A. C. (an´no kriss´ti).—In the year of Christ. Anno Domini, A.D. (an´no Dom´ini).—In the year of our lord. Anno mundi, A. M. (an´no mun´di).—In the year of the world. The date of the Creation is given by Bishop Usher as 4004 B.C. Ante meridiem, A. M. (an´te mer-i´di-em).—Before noon. A posse ad esse (a poss´e ad ess´e).—From possibility to actuality. A posteriori (a pos-te-ri-or´i).—From the effect to the cause; that is, an argument by induction. A priori (a pri-or´i).—From the cause to the effect; that is, an argument by deduction. Aqua fortis (ak´wa for´tiss).—Strong water. A common name for nitric acid. Aqua vitae (ak´wa vi´te).—Water of life. Alcohol, brandy. Arbiter elegantiarum (ar´bit-er ele-gan-shi-air´um).—An authority in matters of taste. Arcana imperii (ar-ka´na im-per´i-i).—Secrets of the state. Ardentia verba (ar-den´shi-a ver´ba).—Burning words. Argumentum ad hominem (ar-gu-men´tum ad hom´-i-nem).—An argument to the man. An argument in refutation drawn from an opponent’s own principles. Argumentum ad invidiam (ar-gu-men´tum ad in-vid´-i-am).—An argument appealing to low passions. Argumentum ad judicium (ar-gu-men´tum ad ju-dish´i-um).—An appeal to the judgment. Argumentum ad populum (ar-gu-men´tum ad pop´-u-lum).—An appeal to popular prejudice. Argumentum baculinum (ar-gu-men´tum back-u-li-num).—The argument of the cudgel; appeal to force. Club-law. Ars celare artem (ars sell-air´e ar´tem).—True art is to conceal art. Ars longa, vita brevis (ars lon´ga vi´ta brev´iss).—Art is long, life short. Artium magister, A. M. or M. A. (ar´ti-um ma-jis´ter).—Master of Arts. Audi alteram partem (aw´di al´ter-am par´tem).—Hear the other side. Aura popularis—Cicero (aw´ra pop-u-lair´iss).—The shifting breeze of popular favor. Aurea mediocritas—Horace (aw´re-a med-i-ok´ri-tass).—The golden mean. Aut CÆsar, aut nullus (awt CÆsar awt nul´lus).—Either CÆsar or no one. Aut vincere aut mori (awt vin´ser-e awt mor´i).—Either to conquer or to die. A verbis ad verbera (a ver´bis ad ver´ber-a).—From words to blows. A vinculo matrimonii (a vin´ku-lo mat-ri-mo´ni-i).—From the bond of marriage. B Bis dat, qui cito dat (biss dat kwi si´to dat).—He gives twice who gives quickly. Bona fide (bo´na fi´de).—In good faith. Brevis esse laboro, obscurus fio—Horace (brev´iss ess´e lab-or´o ob-sku´rus fio).—When I strive to be concise I become obscure. Brutum fulmen (Bru´tum ful´men).—A harmless thunderbolt. C Cacoethes loquendi (kak-o-e´thes lo-kwen´di).—An itch for speaking. Cacoethes scribendi (skri-ben´di).—An itch for scribbling. Capias (kap´i-ass).—You may take. A writ to authorize the seizure of a defendant’s person (legal). Caput mortuum (kap´ut mor´tu-um),—The dead head—i.e., the worthless remains. Caret (care´et).—It is wanting. Casus belli (ka´sus bell´i).—A cause for war. Caveat actor (kav´e-at ak´tor).—Let the doer beware. Law term signifying a notice to stay legal proceedings. Caveat emptor (emp´tor).—Let the purchaser beware. Term used to show that the vendor does not hold himself responsible for the condition of the goods. Cetera desunt (se´ter-a de-sunt).—The rest is wanting. Ceteris paribus (se´ter-is pair´i-bus).—Other things being equal. Circa—c. (sir´ka).—About, towards (of time). Circulus in probando (sir´ku-lus in pro-ban´do).—A circle in the proof; using the conclusion as one of the arguments. Cogito ergo sum (coj´i-to er´gÕ sum).—I think, therefore I exist. The famous dictum of Descartes, the philosopher. Commune bonum (com-mu´ne bo´num).—A common good. Compos mentis (com´pos men´tiss).—Of sane mind. Conscia mens recti (con´shi-a mens rek´ti).—A mind conscious of rectitude. Contra bonos mores (con´tra bo´nos mor´ez).—Against good manners. Copia verborum (co´pi-a ver-bor´um).—Plenty of words. Coram nobis (cor´am no´biss).—In our presence; before us. Corpus delicti (cor´pus de-lik´ti).—The body, i. e. substance, of the offense. Crimine ab uno disce omnes (kri´min-e ab u´no dis´se om´nez).—From one crime learn the nature of all. Cui bono? (ki bo´no).—For whose benefit is it? Cum grano salis (cum gra´no sa´lis).—With a grain of salt, i. e., with some allowance. Cum privilegio (priv-i-le´ji-o).—By privilege. Curiosa felicitas (ku-ri-o´sa fe-li´si-tas).—Felicity of expression. D Data (da´ta).—Things given or taken for granted. De auditu (de aw-di´tu).—By hearsay. Deceptio visus (de-sep´shi-o vi´sus).—An optical illusion. De facto (de fac´to).—In point of fact. A legal phrase used to describe that which is fact as opposed to that which is legal. Dei gratia (De´i gra´shi-a).—By the grace of God. A phrase used in respect to a sovereign, in royal proclamations, and on coins of the realm. Disjecta membra (dis-jek´ta mem´bra).—Scattered remains. Divide et impera (di´vi-de et im´per-a).—Divide and govern. Docendo discimus (do-sen´do dis´si-mus).—By teaching we learn. Dominus providebit (Dom´in-us pro-vid-e´bit).—The Lord will provide. Dramatis personÆ (drÄ´ma-tiss per-so´ne).—Characters of a play. Dulce domum (dul´se do´mum).—Sweetly homeward. Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori—Horace (dul´-se et de-kor´um est pro pat´ri-a mor´i).—It is pleasant and befitting to die for one’s country. Dum spiro, spero (dum spi´ro, sper´o).—While I breathe, I hope. Dum vivimus, vivamus (vi´vim-us, vi-va´mus).—While we live, let us live—i. e., whilst we have life, let us enjoy it. Durante vita (du-ran´te vi´ta).—During life. E Ecce homo! (ek´se hom´o).—Behold the man! A name given to representations of the suffering Savior, because Pilate used those words when Christ came forth wearing the crown of thorns and purple robe (St. John xix. 5). Editio princeps (e-dish´io prin´seps).—Original edition. Emeritus (e-mer´itus).—A soldier who has served his time, a veteran: hence, one retired from active official duties, as an Emeritus professor. E pluribus unum (e plur´i-bus unum).—From many, one. Motto of United States. Esse quam videri malim (es´se kwam vi-de´ri ma-lim).—I prefer to be, rather than seem to be. Esto quod es (es-to quod ez).—Be what thou art. Et cetera (et se´ter-a), &c., or etc. And so forth. E tenebris oritur lux (e ten´e-bris or´i-tur lux).—Out of darkness there arises light. Et sequentes (et se-kwen´tes).—And those that follow. Et sequentia (se-kwen´shia)—et seq.—And what follows. Et sic de ceteris (et sik de se´teris).—And so of the rest. Et tu, Brute (tu Bru´te).—And thou also, Brutus! The words were used by CÆsar when he discovered Brutus among the conspirators who assassinated him in the senate-house, B.C. 44. Ex Æquo (e´kwo).—In like manner, equally. Ex animo (an´imo).—From the soul, heartily. Ex cathedra (kath´e-dra).—From the chair—i. e., with authority. The phrase originally referred to the decisions given by popes and prelates in their pontifical character; it is now used in reference to any decision given with the air of authority. Exceptio probat regulum (ex-sep´shio pro-bat reg´u-lum).—The exception proves the rule. Ex curia (ku´ria).—Out of court. Originally every full Roman citizen belonged to one of the thirty curiÆ or divisions of the city, and was entitled to vote on the laws submitted to his curia. The phrase ex curia was applied to those who had no right to vote in the curia. It is now used to denote a person who has no locus standi before any tribunal. Ex delicto (de-lik´to).—From the crime. Exempli gratia—e. g. (ex-em´pli gra´shia).—By way of example. Exeunt (eks´e-unt).—They go out. Used by the older playwrights to indicate the departure of some of the performers from the stage. Exit (eks´it).—He (or she) goes out. Exitus acta probat (ex´it-us ak´ta pro´bat).—The event justifies the deed. Motto of George Washington. Ex nihilo nihil fit (ex ni´hillo ni´hill fit).—Out of nothing nothing comes. Ex officio (of-fish´io).—By virtue of his office: e. g., the president of a society is ex officio a member of all committees of the society. Ex parte (par´te).—On one side only. A phrase indicating an application, concerning a pending action, to a judge by one party in the action in the absence of the other. Experientia docet sapientiam (ex-pe-ri-en´shia do´set sap-i-en´shi-am).—Experience teaches wisdom. F Faber est quisque fortunÆ suÆ—Sallust (fab´er est kwis´kwe for-tu´ne su´e).—Every man is the maker of his own fortune. Facile princeps (fas´il-e prin´seps).—Easily the chief—i. e., the admitted chief. Facilis descensus Averno—Virgil (fas´il-iss de-sen´sus av-er´no).—The descent to Avernus (or hell) is easy: the downward road is an easy one. Avernus was a lake of Campania, near which was the cave through which Æneas descended to the lower world. Fac simile (fak sim´il-e).—Do the like. An exact copy. Factotum (fak-to´tum).—Do everything. A man of all work. Fecit (fe´sit).—He did it. Generally affixed to the pedestal of a statue by the sculptor who executed it. Felicitas habet multos amicos (fe´li´si-tas hab´et mul´tos am-i´kos).—Happiness has many friends: i. e., friends flock around those who are prosperous. FerÆ naturÆ (fer´e na-tu´re).—Of the nature of a wild beast. Festina lente (fes-ti´na len´te).—Hasten slowly: i. e., do nothing in a hurry. Fiat justitia, ruat coelum (fi´at jus-tish´i-a ru´at se´lum).—Let justice be done, even though the heavens should fall. Fiat lux (fi´at lux).—Let there be light. Fides Punica (fi´des Pu´nik-a).—Punic (i. e. Carthaginian) faith: treachery. A proverbial expression among the Romans for faithlessness. Fidus Achates (fi´dus Aka´tez).—The faithful Achates: a true friend. Achates was the distinguished companion of Æneas in his wanderings after his flight from Troy. Fieri facias (fi´eri fas´i-ass).—Cause it to be done. Usually written fi. fa. The title of a writ of execution issued to give effect to the judgment of a court of justice. Finem respice (fi´nem res´piss-e).—Look to the end. Finis coronat opus (fi´nis koro´nat op´us).—The end crowns the work. Flagrante delicto (de-lik´to).—In the act of committing the crime: i. e., in the very act. Fortes fortuna juvat (for´tes fortu´na ju´vat).—Fortune helps the brave. Fortis cadere, cedere non potest (for´tiss kad´er-e se´der-e non pot´est).—The brave may fall, but cannot yield. Fortiter et recte (for´tit-er et rek´te).—Courageously and uprightly. Fortitudine et prudentia (forti-tu´din-e et pruden´shi-a).—By fortitude and prudence. Fortuna favet fatuis (fortu´na fav´et fat´uis).—Fortune favors idiots. FortunÆ filius (for-tu´ne fil´ius).—A son of fortune—i.e., one favored by fortune. Fortuna sequator (sekwa´tur).—Let fortune follow. Frangas non flectes (fran´gas non flek´tes).—You may break, but you shall not bend, me. Fronti nulla fides (fron´ti null´a fi´des).—Do not judge by appearances. Frustra laborat qui omnibus placere studet (frus´tra labor´at kwi om´nibus pla-se´re stu´det).—He labors in vain who studies to please all. Fugit irreparabile tempus—Virgil (fu´jit ir-rep-ar-a´-bil-e tem´pus).—Time, once gone, can never be regained. Furor arma ministrat—Virgil (fu´ror ar´ma min´is-trat).—Rage supplies them with arms. Furor loquendi (fu´ror lo-kwen´di).—A rage for speaking. Furor poeticus (po-et´ik-us).—Poetical fire. Furor scribendi (skri-ben´di).—A rage for writing. G Gaudeamus (gawdea´mus).—Let us rejoice. Gloria in excelsis Deo (glor´i-a in ex-sel´sis de´o).—Glory to God in the highest. The opening words of the greater doxology sung in the ancient Church; chiefly used in the Communion service and private devotion. Gratis (gra´tiss).—Free; for nothing. Gutta cavat lapidem non vi, sed semper cadendo (gut´ta kav´at lap´id-em non vi sed sem´per ka-den´do).—The drop hollows the stone not by force, but by constant falling. H Haud passibus Æquis—Virgil (hawd pass´i-bus e´kwis).—With unequal steps. Hic et ubique (hik et ubi´kwe).—Here and everywhere. (“Here, there, and everywhere.”) Hic jacet (hik ja´set).—Here lies. An inscription frequently carved on monuments dedicated to deceased persons. Hoc age (hok aj´e).—Do this. Homo sum: humani nihil a me alienum puto—Terence (hom´o sum huma´ni ni´hil a me ali-e´num pu´to).—I am a man: I count nothing human indifferent to me. Honesta mors turpi vita potior—Tacitus (hones´ta maws tur´pi vi´ta po´shior).—An honorable death is preferable to a base life. Honor virtutis prÆmium (hon´or virtu´tiss pre´mium).—Honor is the reward of virtue (or valor). Humani generis decus (huma´ni jen´er-iss dek´us).—The glory of the human race. These words are inscribed on Sir Isaac Newton’s monument on the rood-screen in Westminster Abbey. Humanum est errare (huma´num est erra´re).—It is human to err. “To err is human, to forgive, divine.”—Pope. I Ibidem (ibi´dem).—In the same place. Idem (i´dem).—The same. Id est (i. e.).—That is, that is to say. Ignis fatuus (ig´niss fat´u-us).—A deceiving fire: a Will-o’-the-wisp; an inflammable gas frequently seen over marshes, which leads the traveler who pursues it into the bog. Ignorantia legis excusat neminem (ignoran´shia le´jis excu´sat nem´inem).—Ignorance of the law excuses nobody. Imo pectore (i´mo pek´tor-e).—From the bottom of the heart. Impedimenta (im-pedi-men´ta).—The baggage of an army; luggage in traveling. Imperium in imperio (imper´ium in imper´io).—One government within another. Imprimatur (imprima´tur).—Let it be printed. The term is used to signify the permission to print a book. Imprimis (im-pri´miss).—In the first place, chiefly, especially. In Æternum (in eter´num).—Forever. In articulo mortis (ar-tik´ulo mor´tis).—At the point of death. In capite (kap´i-te).—In chief. In cauda venenum (kaw´da vene´num).—There is poison in the tail. The sting of the scorpion is at the tip of its tail. In coelo quies (se´lo kwi´es).—There is rest in heaven. In commendam (commen´dam).—In recommendation. In curia (ku´ri-a).—In the court. Index expurgatorius (in´dex expurgator´ius).—A list of prohibited books. The term employed for the list of books which are allowed to be read after revision by the papal authorities. The I. E. was commenced by Pope Paul IV. (1555), and published by Pope Pius IV. (1559), after organization by the Council of Trent (1545-1563). Press censorship exists in Russia and some other nations. In esse (ess´e).—In being. In extenso (exten´so).—At full length. In extremis (extre´miss).—At the point of death. In flagrante delicto (fla-gran´te delik´o).—In the very act. In form pauperis (for´ma paw´per-iss).—As a poor man. A law term denoting the status of a person who, having just cause of action, has no money to pay costs, counsel under these circumstances being appointed by the court. In foro conscientiÆ (for´o con-shi-en´shi-e).—Before the tribunal of conscience. Infra dignitatem (in´fra dignita´tem).—Beneath one’s dignity. In hoc signo vinces (in hoc sig´no vin´ses).—Under this standard (sign) thou shalt conquer. Motto of the Emperor Constantine, who first used it on his standard (labarum) in the battle against Maxentius, A.D. 312. In limine (li-min-e)—At the threshold. In loco parentis (lo´ko paren´tiss).—In the place of a parent. A law term denoting the guardian who takes charge of a child in the event of the death or mental incapacity of its parents. In medias res (med´i-ass res).—Into the midst of things, e. g., to come to the point at once. In medio virtus (med´i-o vir´tus).—Virtue lies in the mean. In memoriam (memor´i-am).—To the memory of. In nomine (nom´i-ne).—In the name of. In nubibus (nu´bi-bus).—In the clouds. In nuce (nu´se).—In a nutshell. In pace (pa´se).—In peace. In perpetuum (per-pet´u-um).—Forever. In posse (poss´e).—Possible. In prÆsenti (pre-sen´ti).—At present, now. In propria persona (pro´pri-a perso´na).—In person. A law term applied to a litigant who conducts his own case. In puris naturalibus (pur´is natura´li-bus).—Stark naked. In re (re).—In the matter of (legal). In rerum natura (rer´um natu´ra).—In the nature of things. In situ (si´tu).—In its original situation. In statu pupillari (sta´tu pupillar´i).—In the state of being a ward (legal). In statu quo (kwo).—In the state in which it was, we were, etc. (legal). In tenebris (ten´e-bris).—In darkness. Inter alia (in´ter al´i-a).—Among other things (legal). Inter nos (nos).—Between ourselves. Inter pocula (po´ku-la).—At one’s cups. Inter se (in´ter se).—Among themselves. In toto (to´to).—In the whole; entirely. Intra muros (in´tra mu´ros).—Within the walls. In transitu (trans´i-tu).—On the passage. In vacuo (vak´u-o).—In a space devoid of air. In vino veritas (vi´no ver´i-tas).—There is truth in wine—i. e., the truth comes out under its influence. Ipse dixit (ip´se dix´it).—He himself said it: dogmatic assertion. Ipsissima verba (ipsiss´i-ma ver´ba).—The very words. Ipso facto (ip´so fak´to).—In the fact itself. Ipso jure (ip´so ju´re).—By the law itself. Ira furor brevis est—Horace (i´ra fu´ror brev´iss est).—Anger is a short madness. Ita lex scripta est (it´a lex scrip´ta est).—Thus the law is written. J Jacta alea est (jak´ta a´le-a).—The die has been cast. Famous phrase said to have been used by Julius CÆsar on crossing (49 B.C.) the Rubicon, the sacred boundary of the domestic Roman Empire, by which act he declared war against Pompey and the Senate. Jure divino (ju´re divi´no).—By divine law. Jure humano (huma´no).—By human law. Jus civile (jus sivi´le).—The civil law. The term commonly used to describe the Roman law and the various modern systems based upon it, as contrasted with the English common law. Jus divinum (divi´num).—The divine law; the law which is right with respect to things divine. Jus gentium (jen´shium).—The law of nations; the law that all nations esteemed to be equitable. L Laborare est orare (laborar´e est orar´e).—To labor is to pray (or Work is worship). Labore et honore (labor´e et honor´e).—By industry and honor. Labor ipse voluptas (lab´or ip´se vo-lup´tas).—Labor itself a pleasure. Labor omnia vincit (lab´or om´ni-a vin´sit).—Labor conquers all things. Lapsus calami (lap´sus cal´a-mi).—A slip of the pen. Lapsus linguÆ (lin´gwe).—A slip of the tongue. Lapsus memoriÆ (mem-or´i-e).—A slip of the memory. Lares et Penates (Lar-es et Pena´tes).—Household gods. Latet anguis in herba—Virgil (la´tet an´gwis in her´ba).—A snake is concealed in the grass. Laus Deo (laws De´o).—Praise to God. Lex non scripta (skrip´ta).—The unwritten law—i. e., the common law. Lex scripta.—The written law—i. e., the statute law. Lex talionis (tal-i-o´niss).—The law of retaliation. Lex terrÆ (ter´re).—The law of the land. Loco citato—loc. cit. (lok´o sit-a´to).—In the place quoted. Locus in quo (kwo).—The place in which (legal). Locus sigilli (si-jill´i).—The place of the seal. Lusus naturÆ (lu´sus natu´re).—A freak of nature. M Magna est veritas, et prÆvalebit (mag´na est very´tass et pre-val-e´bit).—Great is truth, and it will prevail. Magni nominis umbra (mag´ni nom´i-niss um´bra).—The shadow of a great name. Magnum bonum (mag´num bo´num).—A great good. Magnum opus (op´us).—A great work. The chief work of a distinguished author is frequently so called. Mala fide (ma´la fi´de).—In bad faith. Mandamus (manda´mus).—We command: a law writ. Manibus pedibusque—Terence (man´i-bus pedi-bus´kwe).—With hands and feet—i. e., with might and main. Materia medica (ma-ter´i-a med´ic-ca).—Substances used in medicine. Mea culpa (me´a kul´pa).—By my fault. Medio tutissimus ibis (med´i-o tu-tiss´imus i´bis).—The middle is the safest course. Me judice (ju´di-se).—I being judge; i. e., in my own opinion. Memento mori (me-men´to mor´i).—Remember that you must die. Words used at Egyptian banquets to remind the guests of their mortality. Memorabilia (memorabil´i-a).—Things to be remembered. The name of a work by Xenophon, the Athenian general, historian, and philosopher (c. 445-359 B.C.). Mensa et thoro (men´sa et thor´o).—From bed and board. Mens conscia recti (mens con´shia rek´ti).—A mind conscious of rectitude. Mens sana in corpore sano (mens sa´na in kor´por-e sa´no).—A sound mind in a healthy body. Meo animo (me´o an´im-o).—In my opinion. Meo periculo (per-i´kulo).—At my own risk. Meum et tuum (me´um et tu´um).—Mine and thine. Mirabile dictu—Virgil (mi-ra´bil-e dik´tu).—Wonderful to tell. Mirabile visu (vi´su).—Wonderful to see. Mirabilia (mi-ra-bil´i-a).—Wonderful things. Mittimus (mit´i-mus).—We send. A writ by which a culprit is committed to jail. A legal phrase for the writ transferring records from one court to another. Modo et forma (mod´o et for´ma).—In manner and form. Modus operandi (mod´us operan´di).—The manner of operation. More suo (su´o).—In his own way. Mors janua vitÆ (maws jan´u-a vi´te).—Death the gate of life. Mors omnibus communis (om´nibus kommu´nis).—Death is common to all of us. Mors ultima linea rerum est—Horace (ul´tim-a li´ne-a rer´um est).—Death is the boundary line of all things. Mos pro lege (mos pro le´je).—Custom for law (a law phrase). Motu proprio (mo´tu pro´prio).—Of his own accord. Multum in parvo (mul-tum in par´vo).—Much in little. Mutatis mutandis (mu-ta´tis mu-tan´dis).—Things being changed which ought to be changed; i. e., with necessary changes. N Necessitas non habet legem (necess´it-ass non hab´et le´jem).—Necessity has no law. Ne fronti crede (ne front´ti kre´de).—Trust not to appearances. Nem. con.—abbreviation for nemine contradicente (nem´in-e contra-di-sent´e).—No one speaking in opposition: without opposition. Nem. dis.—abbreviation for nemine dissentiente (dis-sen-shi-en´te).—No one dissenting: without a dissenting voice. Ne plus ultra (ne plus ul´tra).—No more beyond: i. e., perfection. Ne quid nimis—Terence (ne kwid nim´iss).—Not too much of anything; i. e., shun extremes. Nescit vox missa reverti—Horace (nes´sit vox miss´a rever´ti).—The spoken word cannot be recalled. Ne sutor ultra crepidam—Pliny (su´tor ul´tra crep´i-dam).—Let the cobbler stick to his last; i. e., let everyone attend to his own business. Nihil ad rem (ni´hil ad rem).—Nothing to the point. Nullum quod tetigit non ornavit (kwod tet´i-git non orna´vit).—He touched nothing which he did not adorn. These Latin words form part of Dr. Johnson’s epitaph on Oliver Goldsmith in Westminster Abbey. Nil conscire sibi—Horace (con-si´re sib´i).—To be conscious of no wrong. Nil desperandum.—Never despair. Nisi Dominus frustra (ni´si dom´in-us frus´tra).—Unless the Lord be with us, we strive in vain. Motto of the City of Edinburgh. Nisi prius (ni´si pri´us)—literally, Unless previously. A trial at Nisi Prius may be defined as a trial, before a judge and jury, of a civil action that has been brought in one of the superior courts. Nolens volens (no´lens vo´lens).—Whether he will or not. Noli me tangere (no´li me tan´jer-e).—Don’t touch me. Nolle prosequi (noll´e pro´sek-wi).—To be unwilling to proceed (legal term). An undertaking by a plaintiff that he will not proceed with part or the whole of his suit. Non compos mentis (kom´poss men´tiss).—Not sound in mind. Non constat (kon´stat).—It does not appear. Non est inventus (inven´tus).—He has not been found. Non licet (liss´et).—It is not lawful. Non multa, sed multum (mul´ta sed mul´tum).—Not many things, but much. Non obstante (ob-stan´te).—Notwithstanding. Non omnia possumus omnes—Virgil (om´ni-a poss´u-mus om´nes).—We cannot, all of us, do all things. Non quo sed quomodo (kwo sed kwo´mod-o).—Not by whom, but in what manner. Non sequitur (sek´wit-ur).—It does not follow. Non sibi, sed patriÆ (sib´i sed pat´ri-e).—Not for himself, but for his country. Nosce teipsum (nos´se te-ip´sum).—Know thyself. The Latin form of the Greek inscription over the portico of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Noscitur ex sociis (noss´i-tur ex so´si-is).—He is known by his companions. Nota bene (N. B.) (no´ta be´ne).—Mark well. Novus homo (nov´us hom´o).—A new man—one who has raised himself from obscurity. Term applied to men who in the days of the Roman Republic and Empire rose to distinction but did not belong to an ancient gens. Nulli secundus (null´i se-kun´dus).—Second to none. Nunc aut nunquam (nunk awt nun´kwam).—Now or never. O Obiit (ob´i-it).—He (or she) died. An inscription on tombs, indicating the fact of the death of the person interred. Obiter dictum (ob´it-er dik´tum).—A thing said by the way, incidentally; plural, obiter dicta. Odium theologicum (o´di-um theo-loj´i-kum).—Hatred among divines. Theological controversy usually provoking great bitterness on the part of the disputants. Omnia ad Dei gloriam (om´ni-a ad De´i glor´i-am).—All things to the glory of God. Omnia bona bonis (om´ni-a bo´na bo´nis).—To the good all things are good. Onus probandi (o´nus pro-ban´di).—The burden of proving (legal). Optimates (op-ti-ma´tes).—Aristocrats. Literally, the best. In ancient times the aristocracy was composed of men selected for their superior vigor as the best in the tribe. Opum furiosa cupido—Ovid (op´um furi-o´sa ku-pi´do).—The ungovernable greed for wealth. Ora et labora (or´a et lab-or´a).—Pray and work. Ora pro nobis (or´a pro no´bis).—Pray for us. The words of the refrain of the well-known hymn in the Roman Catholic mass. Ore rotundo (or´e ro-tun´do).—With round, full voice. O tempora! O mores!—Horace (tem´por-a mor´ez).—O the times! O the manners! Otium cum dignitate (o´shi-um kum dig-ni-ta´te).—Ease with dignity. Otium sine dignitate (sin´e).—Ease without dignity. P Pace tua (pa´se tu´a).—With your permission. Pacta conventa (pak´ta con-ben´ta).—Terms agreed on. Pari passu (par´i pass´u).—With equal pace; in equal proportion. Pariter pax bello—Cornelius Nepos (par´it-er pax bell´o).—Peace is produced by war: i. e. by a show of hostile preparations war is often averted. Particeps criminis (par´ti-seps kri´min-iss).—A sharer in the guilt: an accomplice (legal). Passim (pas´sim).—Everywhere. Pater noster (pat´er nos´ter).—Our father. The two first words at the commencement of the Lord’s Prayer. Pater patriÆ (pat´er pat´ri-e).—The father of his country. The name given to Cicero by the Roman Senate. The term was also applied to some other distinguished Romans. In later times Andrea Dorea and George Washington were thus distinguished. Patres conscripti (pat´rez kon-skrip´ti), i. e. patres et conscripti.—Fathers and elect—the title of the assembled Senate. Patria cara, carior libertas (pat´ri-a car´a car´i-or lib´er-tas).—My country is dear, but liberty is dearer. Pax in bello (bell´o).—Peace in war—i. e., a weak prosecution of hostilities. Pax vobiscum (vo-bis´kum).—Peace be with you. Peccavi (pek-ka´vi).—I have sinned. Pendente lite (pen-den´te li´te).—While the lawsuit is pending (legal). Peraget angusta ad augusta (per-ag´et an-gus´ta ad aw-gus´ta).—Through difficulties to grandeur. Per annum.—By the year. Per centum.—By the hundred. Per contra.—Contrariwise. Per diem (di´em).—By the day. Per fas et nefas (fass et nef´ass).—Through right and wrong. Per mare, per terras (mar´e ter´ras).—By sea and by land: i. e., everywhere. Permitte Divis cetera (per-mitt´e di´vis se´ter-a).—Leave the rest to the gods. Per saltum (salt´um).—By a leap. A legal phrase frequently used. Per se.—By itself (legal). Perseverando (per-sev-er-an´do).—By perseverance. Petitio principii (pet-i´shi-o prin-sip´i-i).—A begging of the question. Pinxit (pinks´it).—He painted it; word placed in the corner of a canvas after the signature of the artist. Plebs (pleb´s).—Common people. The name given to the third and lowest rank of the orders into which the Roman state was divided. Pleno jure (ple´no ju´re).—With full authority. Pluries (plu´ri ez).—Often, frequently. Poeta nascitur, non fit—Horace (po-e´ta nass´it-ur non fit).—A poet is born, not made. Pons asinorum (ass´in-or´um).—The bridge of asses (applied to Euclid i. 5). Posse comitatus (poss´e com-i-ta´tus).—The power of the county. A legal phrase expressing the power of the county or citizens, who are summoned to assist an officer, as the sheriff, in suppressing a riot or executing any legal process. Post bellum auxilium (post bell´um awx-il´i-um).—Help after the war. Postea (post´e-a).—Afterwards. Post factum nullum consilium (fak´tum null´um con-sil´i-um).—After the deed is done there is no need for consultation. Post meridiem—P. M. (mer-i´di-em).—After mid-day. Post mortem.—After death. Term applied to the examination of a body to discover the cause of death. Post nubila Phoebus (nu´bil-a fe´bus).—After clouds the sun shines. Phoebus Apollo, “the radiant Apollo,” a god who personified the sun. Post obitum (ob´it-um).—After death. An undertaking given to a usurer to repay a loan on the death of a relative, from whom money is expected, is called a post obit. Post tenebras lux (ten´e-bras).—After darkness comes light. Postulata (post-u-la´ta).—Things demanded. Prima facie (pri´ma fa´si-e).—On the first view or appearance. A legal term frequently employed to denote that on the evidence already given there is a good case for further investigation. Primum mobile (pri´mum mo´bil-e).—The source of motion: the mainspring. Primus inter omnes (pri´mus in´ter om´nes).—The first among all. Primus inter pares (par´es).—The first among his equals or peers: e. g., an archbishop among bishops. Principia, non homines (prin-sip´i-a non hom´in-es).—Principles, not men. Principiis obsta (prin-sip´i-is ob´sta).—Withstand the beginnings (i. e. of evil). Pro aris et focis (ar´is et fo´sis).—For our altars and our hearths. Pro bono publico (pro bono pub´li-ko).—For the public good. Pro et con.—For and against. Profanum vulgus—Horace (pro-fa´num vul´gus).—The common herd. Pro forma (for´ma).—For the sake of form. Pro hac vice (hak vi´se).—For this time. Pro patria (pat´ri-a).—For our country. Pro rata (ra´ta).—Proportionally. Pro rege, lege, et grege (re´je le´je et grej´e).—For the king, the law, and the people. Pro re nata (re na´ta).—Under the present circumstances, as matters are. Pro salute animÆ (sal-u´te an´im-e).—For the welfare of the soul. Pro tanto (tan´to).—As far as it goes. Pro tempore—pro. tem. (tem´por-e).—For the time being. Punica fides (pu´nik-a fides).—Punic (or Carthaginian) faith, i. e. treachery. Q Quantum (kwan´tum).—As much, so much. Quantum sufficit (kwan´tum suf-fi´sit).—As much as is sufficient. A term frequently used in medical prescriptions, as Q. S. Quasi (kwa´si).—As if, just as, as it were. Quid nunc? (kwid nunk).—What now? What news? Also applied as a name to a person who is always seeking to satisfy his curiosity as to current news. Quid pro quo (kwid pro kwo).—One thing for another. Quoad hoc (kwo´ad hok).—To this extent. Quo animo? (kwo an´im-o).—With what purpose or intention? Quod erat demonstrandum—Q. E. D. (kwod er´at dem-on-stran´dum).—Which was to be proved. A term used in geometry at the end of propositions, to indicate that the theorem is proved. Quod erat faciendum—Q. E. F. (fas-i-en´dum).—Which was to be done. A term used in geometry at the end of problems, to show that they have been solved. Quod scripsi, scripsi (skrip´si).—What I have written, I have written. Words used by Pilate when he refused to alter the inscription he had written over the crucified Savior. Quod vide—q. v. (vi´de).—Which see. Quo jure (kwo ju´re).—By what right. Quomodo (kwo-mod-o).—In what manner, how. Quondam (kwon´dam).—At one time, once, formerly. Quos Deus vult perdere, prius dementat (kwos de´us vult per´der-e, pri´us de-men´tat).—Those whom God has a mind to destroy, He first deprives of their senses. R Rara avis in terris, nigroque simillima cygno—Ovid (rar´a av´iss in ter´ris ni-gro´kwe sim-ill´im-a sig´no).—A rare bird on the earth, and very like a black swan: i. e., a prodigy. This species being almost entirely unknown in the time of the Romans. Recipe (res´ip-e).—Receive. Recte et suaviter (rek´te et swa´vit-er).—Justly and pleasantly. Redeunt Saturnia regna (red´e-unt sat-ur´ni-a reg´na).—The age of Saturn (i. e. the golden age) returns. Reductio ad absurdum (re-duk´shi-o ad ab-surd´um).—A reducing a position to an absurdity. Rem acu tetigisti (rem ak´u teti-gist´i).—You have hit the nail on the head (lit. touched the matter with a needle-point). Requiescat in pace—R. I. P. (rek-wi-ess´kat in pa´se).—May he (or she) rest in peace. Symbol used on monuments, expressing a prayer for the repose of the soul. Res gestÆ (res jest´e).—Exploits. Res judicata (judi-ka´ta).—A case or suit already decided. Respice finem (res´-piss-e fi´nem).—Look to the end. Respublica (res-pub´lik-a).—The common weal; the commonwealth. Name applied to the Roman state prior to the time of the Empire. Resurgam (re-sur´gam).—I shall rise again. Frequently inscribed on memorials to the dead. Ride si sapis (ri´de si sap´iss).—Laugh if you are wise; i. e., the wise cultivate a cheerful habit of mind. Ruat coelum (ru´at se´lum).—Let the heavens fall. Rus in urbe (russ in ur´be).—The country in town. S Sal atticum (sal at´tik-um).—Attic salt—i. e., wit. Salt was used both by the Greeks and Romans as the common term for wit; Attic (i. e. Athenian) wit being especially delicate and elegant. Salus populi suprema est lex (sal´us pop´u-li su-pre´ma est lex).—The welfare of the people is the supreme law. Salve (sal´ve).—How are you? I hope you are well. A form of familiar salutation among the Romans. Salvo jure (sal´vo ju´re).—Saving the right. Sanctum sanctorum (sank´tum sank-tor´um).—The holy of holies. In ecclesiastical law the chancel of a church is so called; also frequently applied to a private room or study. Sartor resartus (sar´tor re-sar´tus).—The tailor patched. The title of Carlyle’s well-known work. Satis superque (sat´iss su-per´kwe).—Enough and more than enough. Satis verborum (ver-bor´um).—Enough of words. Secundum artem (sek-un´dum ar´tem).—According to rule. Secundum naturam (na-tur´am).—According to nature. Semper avarus eget—Horace (sem´per av-ar´us ej´et).—The covetous man is ever in want. Semper felix (fe´lix).—Always happy. Semper fidelis (fid-e´liss).—Always faithful. Semper idem (i´dem).—Always the same. (This is the masculine form; the feminine form is e´a-dem, and the neuter id´em—all three singular.) Semper paratus (par-a´tus).—Always ready. Senatus populusque Romanus—S. P. Q. R. (sen-a´tus popu-lus´kwe Ro-ma´nus).—The senate and the Roman people. Seniores priores (sen-i-or´ez pri-or´ez).—Elders first. Elderly persons being accorded in ancient times special reverence. Cicero (106-43 B.C.) wrote a work, De Senectute, in praise of old age. Seriatim (ser-i-a´tim).—In a series. Servabo fidem (ser-va´bo fid´em).—I will keep faith. Sic (sik).—Thus: so. Generally used ironically to call attention to a literary error. Sic itur ad astra—Virgil (sik it´ur ad ass´tra).—Such is the way to immortality (lit., to the stars). Sic passim (pas´sim).—So everywhere. Sic transit gloria mundi (sik trans´it glor´i-a mun´di).—Thus passes away earthly glory. Words said to have been used at the inauguration of the early Popes. Sic vos non vobis—Virgil (sik vos non vo´biss).—Thus you toil, but not for yourselves. The poet here refers to bees, who make honey, but not for their own use. Similia similibus curantur (sim-il´i-a sim-il´i-bus ku-ran´tur).—Like things are cured by like. Motto of homoeopathic school of medicine. Sine die (sin´e di´e).—Without a day being appointed: indefinitely. Sine invidia (in-vid´i-a).—Without envy. Sine odio (o´di-o).—Without hatred. Sine qua non (sin´e kwa non).—An indispensable condition. Siste, viator (sis´te vi-a´tor).—Stop, traveler. Si vis pacem, para bellum (si viss pa´sem par´a bell´um).—If you wish for peace, prepare for war. Sola nobilitas virtus (so´la no-bil´itas vir´tus).—Virtue alone is true nobility. Sola virtus invicta (so´la vir´tus in-vik´ta).—Virtue alone is invincible. Spectemur agendo (spek-te´mur a-jen´do).—Let us be tried by our actions. Spes mea in Deo (spes me´a in De´o).—My hope is in God. Spes tutissima coelis (spes tu-tiss´im-a se´lis).—The safest hope is in heaven. Sponte sua (spon´te su´a).—Of one’s own accord. Stat magni nominis umbra—Lucan (stat mag´ni nom´in-iss um´bra).—He stands the shadow of a mighty name. Status quo (sta´tus kwo).—The state in which. A legal term indicating the position in which a case stood before certain action was taken in it. Status quo ante bellum (an´te bell´um).—The state in which both parties were before the war. Stet.—Let it stand—i. e., remain as it was. Sua cuique voluptas (su´a ku-i´kwe vol-up´tas).—Every man has his own pleasures. Suaviter in modo, fortiter in re (su-a´vit-er in mod´o for´ti-ter in re).—Gentle in the manner, but vigorous in the deed. Sub judice (ju´diss-e).—Under consideration. A legal phrase used to indicate that a case is still under consideration, during which time it is held to be contempt of court to comment upon the case in the public press or elsewhere. Sub poena (pe´na).—Under a penalty. Sub rosa (ro´sa).—Under the rose: privately. The rose in ancient times was the emblem of silence, and was used in decorations to show that anything said during the entertainment was not to be divulged. Cupid presented Harpocrates (the god of Silence) with a rose, not to betray the amours of Venus. Sub silentio (sil-en´shi-o).—In silence. Sufficit (suf-fi´sit).—It is enough. Sui generis (su´i jen´er-iss).—Of its own kind; i. e., not referable to any particular class. Summum bonum (sum´mum bo´num).—The chief good. Suo marte (su´o mar´te).—By one’s own exertions, without the assistance of others. Suppressio veri (sup-press´i-o ver´i).—Suppression of the truth. Suum cuique (su´um ku-i´kwe).—Let every man have his own. T Tabula rasa (tab´u-la ra´sa).—A smooth or blank tablet. From the waxen tablets on which the ancients wrote with a sharp instrument called a stilus or style, and with the broad upper end of which writing was erased. Tanto melior! (tan´to mel´i-or).—So much the better! well done! excellent! Telum imbelle sine ictu—Virgil (te´lum im-bell´e sin´e ik´tu).—A feeble weapon, thrown without effect. Tempora mutantur, et nos mutamur in illis (tem´-por-a mu-tan´tur et nos mu-ta´mur in ill´is).—The times are changed, and we with them. Tempus fugit (fu´jit).—Time flies. A Latin inscription frequently seen upon sun-dials and old church clocks. Tempus omnia revelat (om´nia re-ve´lat).—Time unveils all things. Terra firma (ter´ra firm´a).—Solid earth; a safe footing. Terra incognita (ter´ra in-kog´nit-a).—An unknown country. Tertium quid (ter´shi-um kwid).—A third something. A logical term. Toga virilis (tog´a vir-i liss).—The garb of manhood, assumed by Roman youth in their sixteenth year with considerable ceremony, usually at the feasts of Bacchus in March. Totidem verbis (tot´id-em ver´bis).—In just so many words. Toto coelo (to´to se´lo).—By the whole heavens: diametrically opposite. Tria juncta in uno (tri´a junk´ta in u´no).—Three joined in one. Troja fuit (Tro´ja fu´it).—Troy was—i. e., exists no longer. Refers to the destruction of Troy by the Greeks (1184 B.C.). Tu quoque, Brute! (tu kwo´kwe Bru´te).—And thou too, Brutus! When Brutus, the friend and favorite of Julius CÆsar, struck the latter at his assassination, he uttered the words Tu quoque, Brute! pulled his toga over his face, and sank, pierced with wounds, at the foot of Pompey’s statue. U Ubique (ub-i´kwe).—Everywhere. Ubi supra (ub´i su´pra).—Where above mentioned. Ultima ratio regum (ul´tim-a ra´shi-o re´jum).—The last argument of kings. Louis XIV. placed this inscription on his great guns. Ultima Thule (ul´tim-a Thu´le).—The utmost boundary or limit. Thule was an island regarded by the ancients as the most northerly point in the whole earth, and variously supposed to have been Iceland and one of the Shetland group. Ultimus Romanorum (ul´tim-us Ro-man-or´um).—The last of the Romans. Ultra vires (ul´tra vi´res).—Beyond one’s powers; beyond the rights possessed (legal). Uno animo (u´no an´im-o).—Of the same opinion. Usque ad nauseam (us´kwe ad naw´se-am).—To utter disgust. Ut infra (in´fra).—As below. Ut supra (su´pra).—As above. V Vade mecum (va´de me´cum).—Go with me: a constant companion. Title given to medical and other handbooks for convenient reference. Vale (vale´), or Valeas (val´e-ass).—Farewell, adieu. The usual parting salutation of the Romans. Valeat quantum valere potest (val´e-at kwant´um val-er´e pot´est).—Let it pass for what it is worth. Valete, ac plaudite (val-e´te ak plaud´it-e).—Farewell, and clap. (The concluding words of a Latin comedy.) Vanitas vanitatum (van´it-ass van-it-a´tum).—Vanity of vanities. VariÆ lectiones (var´i-e lek-shi-o´nes).—Various readings. Variorum notÆ (var-i-or´um no´te).—The notes of various authors. Varium et mutabile semper femina—Virgil (var´i-um et mu-ta´bil-e sem´per fe´min-a).—A woman is ever changeable and capricious. Velis remisque (ve´lis re-mis´kwe).—With sails and oars—i. e., with tooth and nail, with might and main. Veni, vidi, vici (ve´ni, vi´di, vi´si).—I came, I saw, I conquered. By these three words—so easy was the victory—Julius CÆsar informed the Senate of his having defeated Pharnaces near Zela, 47 B.C. Ventis secundis (ven´tis se-kun´dis).—With favorable winds. Verbatim et literatim (ver-ba´tim et lit-er-a´tim).—Word for word and letter for letter. Verba volant, scripta manent (ver´ba vol´ant, scrip´ta man´ent).—Words fly, writings remain. Verbum sat sapienti (ver´bum sat sap-i-en´ti).—A word is enough to a wise man. Veritas odium parit—Terence. Truth procures hatred. Veritas vincit (very´tass vin´sit).—Truth conquers. Versus (ver´sus).—Against. A legal term. Vestigia (ves-ti´ji-a).—Tracks; traces. Vestigia nulla retrorsum (ves-ti´ji-a null´a ret-ror´sum).—No steps backward. Vetera extollimus, recentium incuriosi—Tacitus (vet´er-a ex-toll´im-us re-sen´shi-um in-ku-ri-o´si).—We exalt the deeds of old, being indifferent to those of recent times. Vexata quÆstio (vex-a´ta kwes´ti-o).—A much-debated question. Via (vi´a).—By way of. Via media (vi´a med´i-a).—A middle course. Vice (vi´se).—In the place of. Vice versa (vi´se ver´sa).—The terms being exchanged. Vide (vi´de)—See. Vide et crede (vi´de et kre´de).—See and believe. Vide ut supra (vi´de ut su´pra).—See as above; see the preceding statement. Videlicet—viz. (vid-e´liss-et).—To wit; namely. Vi et armis (vi et ar´mis).—By force and arms—i.e., by main force. Vincit amor patriÆ (vin´sit am´or pat´ri-e).—The love of our country prevails. Vincit omnia veritas (vin´sit Óm´ni-a very´tass).—Truth conquers all things. Vincit veritas (vin´sit very’tass).—Truth conquers. Vinculum matrimonii (vin’ku-lum ma-tri-mo´ni-i).—The bond of marriage. Vindex injuriÆ (vin’dex in-ju´ri-e).—An avenger of injury. Vir sapit qui pauca loquitur (vir sap´it kwi paw´sa lok´-wit-ur).—He is a wise man who says but little. Virtus est vitium fugere—Horace (vir´tus est vish´i-um fu´jer-e).—It is virtue to avoid vice. Virtuti nihil obstat et armis (vir-tu´ti ni´hil ob´stat et ar´mis).—Nothing can resist valor and arms. Virtuti non armis fido (vir-tu´ti non ar´mis fi´do).—I trust to virtue, and not to arms. Virtutis amor (vir-tu´tiss am´or).—The love of virtue. Vis inertiÆ (viss in-er´shi-e).—The power of inertia: passive resistance. Vivat regina! (vi´vat re-ji´na).—Long live the Queen! The phrase formerly used at the conclusion of royal proclamations. Vivat rex! (vi´vat rex).—Long live the King! Viva voce (vi´va vo´se).—By the living voice: by oral testimony. That portion of an examination in which the candidate is tested as to his knowledge of the subject by an examiner who personally interrogates him. Vivida vis animi (vi´vid-a viss an´im-i).—The vigorous strength of intellect: the lively vigor of genius. Vivit post funera virtus (vi´vit post fu´ner-a vir´tus).—Virtue survives the grave. Vox et prÆterea nihil (vox et pre-ter´e-a ni´hil).—A voice and nothing more. Vox populi, vox Dei (pop´u-li, De´i).—The voice of the people is the voice of God. Quoted as a proverb by William of Malmesbury, author of “De Gestis Regum Anglorum,” twelfth century. Vulgo (vul´go).—Generally, commonly. Vultus est index animi (vul´tus est in´dex an´im-i).—The countenance is the index of the mind. LITERATURELiterature, in the widest sense, is the record of the impressions made by external realities of every kind upon great men, and of the reflections which these men have made upon them. VAST RANGE OF | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| I. THE ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD, 449-1066 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Author and Dates | Representative Works | Literary Characteristics | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Unknown 700 | Traveller’s Song | Illustrates the sentiment of a wandering singer and the Anglo-Saxon’s love of home. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Unknown | Beowulf | An epic song, illustrating the powerful imagination of the race. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Unknown 700-1154 | Anglo-Saxon Chronicle | Contains in addition to historical data, one or two war-songs: Battle of Malden, etc. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Caedmon 600-? | Paraphrase of Scripture | Showing how strong an appeal the Bible Story made to the reverence of the race. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Bede 673-735 | Ecclesiastical History; Poems | Inspired by early Christian sentiment. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Unknown 710-? | Judith | Paraphrase of Bible narrative. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Cynewulf 750-? | Poems | Serious poems of moral simplicity and power. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Alfred the Great 849-901 | Translations | Some original matter interpolated, e. g., narrative of Othere, versified by Longfellow. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Alcuin 735-804 | Letters, Biographies; Christ, Elene Andreas, etc. | Friend of Charlemagne. Wrote a comparatively pure Latin. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Ælfric 955-1020 | Homilies, Grammar | Writings in Latin; a man of power and sincerity. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| II. THE NORMAN-FRENCH PERIOD, 1066-1400 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| William of Malmesbury 1095-1142 | History of Kings of England | Of some value as an original. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Geoffrey of Monmouth 1154 | History of English Kings | Largely legendary. The stories are rehashed in subsequent authors down to Spenser, Shakespeare and Milton. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Wace, Richard 1112-1184 | Romance of Rollo; Brut d’Angleterre | In reality a French trouvere though a subject of the King of England. First mention of Arthur’s Round Table. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Mapes, Walter 1143-1210 | De Nugus Curialium; Queste de Saint Graal, etc. | First mention of the Holy Grail. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Layamon 1150-1210 | Chronicles of Britain | A devout priest and the first to make the new English a literary medium. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Orm 1187-1237 | Ormulum (paraphrase) | Also English. Some of the homilies are simple and touching expressions of devotion. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Bacon, Roger 1214-1294 | Natural Science Philosophy | A man in advance of his age, he is said to have anticipated Francis Bacon in making experiment the basis of knowledge. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Gloucester, Robert of 13th Century | Chronicle of England | Valuable for giving outlines of history of Norman England. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Mandeville, Sir John 1300-1371 | Travels | Possibly a pen-name. His travels are an extraordinary farrago of invention and report. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Barbour, John 1316-1395 | The Bruce | Spirited and patriotic, loved by true Scotchmen. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Langland, William 1330-1400 | Piers, the Plowman | Extraordinary man of broad humanity. First expression of the voice of the poor. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Wycliffe, John 1324-1384 | Translation of Bible | A man of great power and sincerity. A philosopher and scholar. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Gower, John 1325-1408 | Ballads; Lover’s Confession | Friend of Chaucer. A voluminous poet, not of high rank. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| CHAUCER, GEOFFREY 1330-1400 | Canterbury Tales; Short poems | A scholar. A poet of chivalry and a witty narrator of stories in verse. Introduced French and Italian metres. Equally eminent in description and characterization. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| III. ENGLISH PERIOD TO THE TIME OF ELIZABETH, 1400-1559 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| James I. of Scotland 1394-1437 | The King’s Quhair, (Choir, etc.) | A decided poetic talent in the chivalric fashion. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Malory, Sir Thomas 1430 | Morte d’Arthur | Worked over a large part of the Arthurian legends in prose. The original for Tennyson’s “Idylls of the King.” | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Caxton, William 1422-1492 | The Game of Chess; Translation of the Æneid | Introduced the Art of printing, brought out Malory’s book and made and published many translations and adaptations. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Dunbar, William 1460-1530 | Thistle and Rose; Golden Terge | The Scotch Chaucer; much inferior to Chaucer and less of a popular poet. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| More, Sir Thomas 1478-1535 | Utopia, Life of Edward V. | A man of fine character. “Utopia” first written in Latin and translated into nervous English. Plan suggested, perhaps, by Plato’s “Republic.” | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Tyndale, William 1484-1536 | Translation of Bible | On his translations of the Scriptures, later versions are founded. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Wyntoun, Andrew 15th Century | Chronicle of Scotland | Story of Wallace. Much admired by Walter Scott. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| IV. THE ELIZABETHAN AND PURITAN PERIODS, 1559-1660 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Wyatt, Sir Thomas 1503-1542 | Sonnets and Lyrics | Introduced with Howard the Italian forms; sonnet and madrigal, made Italian literature a new force in England. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Howard, Henry, Earl of Surrey 1517-1547 | Translation of the Aeneid; Songs and Sonnets | Introduced Italian forms and blank verse. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Foxe, John 1517-1587 | Book of Martyrs | His book had great influence in strengthening the reformers and was one of the literary influences on the Puritans who came to America. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Sackville, Thomas 1536-1608 | Mirror for Magistrate | A poet of force and imagination. Afterwards, as Lord Buckhurst, a courtier and politician, worked in collaboration with others and had a hand in first English Tragedy. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| SPENCER, EDMUND 1552-1599 | Fairie Queen; Shepherd’s Calendar | Called the “poet’s poet.” Great in romantic allegory, the ode, and the sonnet. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Raleigh, Sir Walter 1552-1618 | History of the World | A politician and adventurer; friend of Spenser. Some fine passages in his work. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hooker, Richard 1553-1600 | Ecclesiastical Polity | His prose has dignity and force. His book is the authority for the Church of England. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| BACON, FRANCIS 1561-1626 | Essays, Novum Organum | Many beautiful and acute things in his essays and his philosophical works. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| SHAKESPEARE, WM. 1564-1616 | Dramas, Sonnets, (37 plays) | Compounded of all writers best: wit, humor, characterizations, philosophy, musical phrase, power and construction. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Chapman, George 1559-1634 | Translation of Homer | Full of vigor and verve, especially his Homer. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| JONSON, BEN 1574-1637 | The Alchemist; Sejanus; Timber, etc. | A scholar and literary man. A learned constructor of plays, had also the true lyrical faculty. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Beaumont, Francis 1584-1616 | Dramas: Philaster; Maid | - | Well constructed plays but of a decidedly low moral tone. Beaumont is supposed to have been the more promising but died before Fletcher, who continued to produce plays alone, about forty. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Fletcher, John 1579-1625 | Tragedy: Woman Hater; etc. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Burton, Robert 1577-1640 | Anatomy of Melancholy | Full of out-of-the-way learning and quotations bearing on the subject. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Herbert, George 1593-1633 | The Temple, etc. | Animated by a devotional spirit and an aesthetic spiritualism. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Herrick, Robert 1591-1674 | Poems | Lyrics, many of them of charming quality and ingenious construction. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Walton, Isaak 1593-1683 | The Compleat Angler | Prose of a delightful character, full of simple piety and love of out-door nature. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Fuller, Thomas 1608-1661 | Church History of England, etc. | A chronicle, with passages of wit or natural pathos. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| MILTON, JOHN 1608-1674 | Areopagitica: L’Allegro and Il Penseroso; Comus; Paradise Lost; Paradise Regained, etc. | A poet, grave, learned, of mental dignity but gifted with musical power as much as Shakespeare. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Taylor, Jeremy 1613-1667 | Holy Living, etc. | The “Shakespeare of Divines.” Passages of rare poetic beauty and organ-like volume. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Baxter, Richard 1615-1691 | Saint’s Rest | One of the “Vade mecums” of the later Puritans. Earnest and sincere. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| V. PERIOD OF THE RESTORATION TO THE RISE OF THE NOVEL, 1660-1740 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| BUNYAN, JOHN 1628-1688 | Pilgrim’s Progress; Holy War | Simple, idiomatic, with passages of rare beauty. Animated by simple, natural piety. A classic too much neglected. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Butler, Samuel 1612-1680 | Hudibras | A rhyming jingle, destitute of elevation but with here and there a witty couplet. Anti-Puritan throughout—favorite book of Charles II. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| DRYDEN, JOHN 1631-1700 | Virgil Translated; St. Cecilia’s Day, etc. | A fine critic. The father of fluent prose. Many energetic lines of verse, especially in his satires. A man of fine talent but limited genius. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Pepys, Samuel 1633-1703 | Diary | His Diary, not intended to be public, throws light on the life and habits of a capable business man of the 18th century. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| LOCKE, JOHN 1632-1704 | On Human Understanding; Essays; Thoughts on Education, etc. | A sound, practical thinker, whose works illustrate the common sense and unspiritual tone of his age. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Newton, Sir Isaac 1642-1727 | Principia, etc. | A great mathematician, he laid the foundation of our understanding of the mechanical structure of the universe. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Defoe, Daniel 1661-1731 | Robinson Crusoe | A born story-teller and pamphleteer. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Swift, Jonathan 1667-1745 | Tale of a Tub; Gulliver’s Travels | Unequalled as a satirist, and writer of allegories, in simple, nervous, idiomatic English. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Steele, Sir Richard 1672-1729 | Essays (established the Tatler) | A good second to Addison. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Addison, Joseph 1672-1719 | Essays in The Tatler and The Spectator | Originator of the Social essay marked by kindly, gentlemanlike humor in the urbane style. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Berkeley, Bishop 1684-1753 | Philosophy | A very acute thinker. English founder of one form of idealism. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Young, Edward 1683-1765 | Night Thoughts | Rather a ponderous poet, on semi-doctrinal subjects. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| POPE, ALEXANDER 1688-1744 | Essays on Man, etc. | The model poet of his time and century. Used the decasyllabic couplet almost exclusively, but imparted to it vigor, pungency and some variety. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Butler, Bishop 1692-1752 | Natural and Revealed Religion | The orthodox moralist of his day, ponderous in style and commonplace in method. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Carey, Henry 1700-1743 | Sally in our Alley, etc. | A light gift of doggerel satire. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Thompson, James 1700-1748 | The Seasons, etc. | A delicate feeling for the quieter aspects of nature, harmoniously expressed. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| VI. RISE OF THE NOVEL AND PERIOD OF ROMANTICISM, 1740-1837 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Richardson, Samuel 1689-1761 | Clarissa Harlowe; Pamela; Sir Chas. Grandison | Sentimentally moral, but gifted with the story-telling faculty. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| FIELDING, HENRY 1707-1754 | Tom Jones; Amelia; Jonathan Wild, etc. | Depicts life broadly and faithfully. The first great realistic novelist. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Johnson, Samuel 1709-1784 | Dictionary; Rasselas; Lives of the Poets | A man of eighteenth century learning and letters. The critical authority of his day. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| HUME, DAVID 1711-1776 | History of England | The first learned historian of England. A philosopher of acumen. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Sterne, Laurence 1713-1768 | Tristram Shandy; Sentimental Journey | A writer in whom affectation becomes an art. Some pathetic passages have become classic. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Gray, Thomas 1716-1771 | Elegy in Country Churchyard, etc. | A scholar-poet. Production limited, but of fine workmanship. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Smollet, T. George 1721-1771 | Humphrey Clinker, Roderick Random, etc. | Originator of the Sea-Story. Inclined to vulgar coarseness. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Akenside, Mark 1721-1770 | Pleasures of the Imagination | A man of scholarship and culture, who wrote poetry without a decided gift. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Smith, Adam 1723-1790 | Wealth of Nations | The first great economist. The moderns hardly equal to him in natural keenness of insight. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Goldsmith, Oliver 1728-1774 | Vicar of Wakefield; Essays; She Stoops to Conquer; Deserted Village, etc. | A true and graceful touch both in prose and poetry. Makes hack-work literature. Supposed to be the original compiler of “Mother Goose’s Melodies.” | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Blackstone, Sir William 1723-1780 | Commentaries on Laws of England | Learned and careful, with conception of the dignity of law. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Burke, Edmund 1729-1797 | Essays, Orations | Prose, sometimes musical and poetical and at the same time, a statesman’s grasp of principle. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| GIBBON, EDWARD 1737-1794 | Decline and Fall of Roman Empire | A pains-taking and learned historian. Constructive powers of broad scope. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Boswell, James 1740-1795 | Life of Samuel Johnson | The true reporter’s instinct for the point of a story. Otherwise, a toady. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| COWPER, WILLIAM 1731-1800 | The Task; John Gilpin; etc. | Divests poetry of the affectations of Pope. Writes on simple themes. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Paley, William 1743-1805 | Evidence of Christianity, Natural Theology | A cognent reasoner on the old premises. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| More, Hannah 1745-1833 | Coelebs in Search of a Wife; Sacred Dramas | Something of a minor poet, something of a dramatist and story-teller. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Sheridan, Richard B. 1751-1816 | Speeches; The Rivals; School for Scandal; Song; etc. | Writer of witty dialogue and constructor of telling stage situations. Comedies still acted. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| BURNS, ROBERT 1759-1796 | Cotter’s Saturday Night, etc. | Lyrics, songs and satires in Scotch dialect, marked by music, pathos and wit. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Edgeworth, Maria 1767-1849 | Popular Tales, etc. | Stories of middle-class domestic life of excellent moral tone and some power of characterization. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| WORDSWORTH, WM. 1770-1850 | The Excursion; Poems | Nature poems and descriptive poems. Many fine sonnets. First expression of modern feeling for nature. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hogg, James 1770-1835 | Shepherd’s Calendar; Pastorals | Scotch verses. One or two lyrics of sweetness and simplicity. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Montgomery, James 1771-1854 | Hymns, Poems | A man universally esteemed; best remembered now for his hymns of which some hundred are found in our Hymnals. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| SCOTT, SIR WALTER 1771-1832 | Waverly Novels, etc. Lady of the Lake, etc. | Originator of the historical novel. Tone natural and wholesome. Secure in the estimation of posterity. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Smith, Sidney 1771-1845 | Sermons, Essays, etc. | A witty divine. Master of the expository style. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Coleridge, Samuel T. 1772-1834 | Essays; Rhyme of Ancient Mariner, etc. | A man of remarkable gifts, both intellectual and poetic; a natural master of verbal melody. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Southey, Robert 1774-1843 | Biographies of Nelson, Wesley; Poems, etc. | A man of industry and worth. Better as a prose stylist than a poet. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Lamb, Charles 1775-1834 | Essays of Elia, etc. | A quaint and delicate essayist— friend of Coleridge. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Landor, Walter Savage 1775-1864 | Imaginary Conversations, etc. Count Julian; Heroic Idyls, etc. | Classic scholar and writer. Reactionary and old-fashioned in his thought but a remarkable stylist. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Austen, Jane 1775-1817 | Pride and Prejudice, Emma, etc. | Her novels depicting upper middle-class life are delightfully realistic and full of quiet life. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Porter, Jane 1776-1850 | Scottish Chiefs, Thaddeus of Warsaw | Novels in an antiquated style of exaggerated romance. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Campbell, Thomas 1777-1844 | Pleasures of Hope, Lyrics, etc. | Something of a critic, his lyrics have much vigor and verve. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hallam, Henry 1777-1859 | Europe during Middle Ages, Introduction to Literature, Constitutional History of England | Strong, vigorous, historical writing from a standpoint now antiquated. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hazlitt, William 1778-1830 | Table Talk, English Poets, etc. | Critical essays; contain some true eloquence, and many powerful phrases. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Moore, Thomas 1779-1852 | Biographies; Lalla Rookh, Irish Melodies, etc. | Songs of much melody, but of an unreal sentimentality. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| De Quincey, Thomas 1785-1859 | Confessions of an Opium Eater, etc. | Passages of magnificent color. A learned man, lacking in sound realistic judgment. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hunt, Leigh 1784-1859 | Essays, Sketches, Memoirs; Poems | A minor poet. A literateur of appreciation rather than of creative power. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Wilson, John 1785-1854 | Noctes Ambrosiannae, etc.; Poems | A virile man. As a writer, “of his age, not for all time” nor indeed for an entire century. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Peacock, Thos. L. 1785-1866 | Crotchet Castle, Rododaphne, etc. | A literatteur, novel writer, and verse writer of wit and epigrammatic power but no constructor. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Byron, Lord 1788-1824 | Poems | Vigorous, eloquent, sardonic, iconoclastic, lacking in divine sympathy. A great satirist, and in many regards a great poet. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| SHELLEY, PERCY BYSSHE 1792-1822 | Queen Mab, Adonais, The Sky Lark, etc. | A remarkable gift of lyrical melody. Full of generous impulse and the unbalanced judgment of youth. A genius. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Marryat, Capt. Fred 1792-1848 | Peter Simple, Jacob Faithful, etc. | Boy’s stories but evincing considerable narrative skill. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hemans, Felicia 1793-1835 | Lyrics | A minor poet of grace, sweetness and tenderness. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Grote, George 1794-1871 | History of Greece | A learned and sound historian, but superseded by modern exact research. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Arnold, Thomas 1795-1842 | Roman History, Sermons, Essays | A man of wide influence as head -master of Rugby. An historian of the old school. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Keats, John 1795-1821 | Endymion, Hyperion, etc. | The development of American literature may be treated under three distinctly marked periods: (1) a colonial or ante-revolutionary period (1620-1775), during which the literature of the colonies was closely assimilated in form and character to that of England; (2) a first American period (1775-1865), which witnessed the transition from a style for the most part imitative to one in some degree national; and (3) a second American period from 1865 to the present time, in which the literature of the country has assumed a more decided character of originality.THE COLONIAL PERIOD, 1620-1775The literary traditions of the United States were in large part inherited from England. Although from the time of the Stuart restoration in England, in 1660, there are indications of a divergence in social and political temper, which in the long run must find expression in a distinct American literature, yet the literary emancipation of America was much more gradual than the political. The first literature in America was the product of men educated in other lands, who happened to be drawn to the New World, and who wrote about the new country. The first work of broad interest concerning the colonies that subsequently became the United States was the famous Captain John Smith’s True Relation of Such Occurrences and Accidents of Note as Hath Happened in Virginia. This is an interesting and romantic work; but Smith was in America for three years only of his adventurous life, and consequently his narrative is highly colored. The History of the Plymouth Plantation, by Governor Bradford, and the History of New England, by John Winthrop, are productions of a colder clime than Virginia and of a less glowing imagination than Captain John Smith’s. Aside from such records, more interesting always from the standpoint of history than from that of literature, the sum of colonial production, north or south, is very small. In New England, where most books were written, if not always there published, we find chiefly theological polemics, often presented with attractive titles but rarely with any other power to carry them to posterity. The Poems of Anne Bradstreet were very highly praised in their day, but almost the only book of lasting value and interest written in the century was Cotton Mather’s Magnalia Christi Americana (1702). Mather was one of a great clerical and literary family. He wrote many other books, but none retains the interest of posterity. The Magnalia, however, is still a noble monument of a wonderful generation. Franklin’s Poor Richard’s Almanac, begun in 1732 and carried on by him for twenty-five years, was a book of almost literary rank. “Poor Richard” was a fictitious character in whose The two great literary figures of the eighteenth century may be properly considered together. Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758) may represent to us the passing domination of theology; Benjamin Franklin, the domination just beginning of politics and secular common sense. They are the first Americans to make a lasting reputation by letters, and, curiously enough, with each literature was but a means to an end. The remarkable effect of the preaching and writing of Jonathan Edwards came largely from the direct simplicity and clearness which makes his style almost no style at all. As for Franklin, he learned to write systematically, as he did everything else, and regarded his power to express himself chiefly as one of the means whereby he accomplished his purposes for the good of society. Edward’s great works on the Freedom of the Will and other theological topics are probably read now by few, and the same may be said of much of Franklin’s writings. But Franklin’s Autobiography is still one of the most interesting things of its kind. Both men belonged to the time and place: America was expressing herself, whether in literary form or not. In the years preceding the Revolution another real opportunity opened, and oratory became one of the genuine modes of national expression. Patrick Henry, James Otis, John Adams, Joseph Warren, Richard Henry Lee, Samuel Adams, spoke under the best conditions for literature, because they had something that had to be said. Yet their eloquence now is more a matter of fame than of fact. Of some, hardly more than a few slight reports remain to give us a notion of the powers that fired an earlier generation. This summary of colonial literature gives an idea of a very meagre literary production that was but natural. There was little written in America, and that little was compelled by the practical issues of the politics or theology of the time. We shall readily understand that though such a review indicates slight literary appreciation as we understand the term, it does not imply a lack of intelligence. If the colonists had been less intelligent they might have produced more literature. Folk poetry and legend, with which true literature is apt to begin, is not the result of education. The Americans were, comparatively speaking, a well-educated people. They very early provided for that literary scholarship training which comes from scholastic training. The colleges of the colonies, Harvard (1636), William and Mary (1693), Yale (1701), Princeton (chartered as the College of New Jersey, 1746), Columbia (originally King’s, 1754), Brown (College of Rhode Island, 1764), Rutgers (originally Queens, 1766), Dartmouth (1769), and the University of Pennsylvania (founded as an academy by Franklin, 1754; chartered 1779), show a great appreciation of learning on the part of the colonists. A somewhat wider if less scholastic culture is evidenced by the foundation of libraries, the Library Company of Philadelphia (1731), the Redwood Library of Newport (1747), the Charleston Library (1748), and the New York Society Library (1754), being the earliest. FIRST NATIONAL PERIOD, 1775-1865The two decades that brought the eighteenth century to a close were full of exciting political events, but barren of literature. The fathers could make a nation by adopting a constitution and abiding by it, but the creation of a national literature was not so easy a matter. National poetry did not come with national life. The efforts of Trumbull (1750-1831), and Barlow (1754-1812), are as good as the ordinary poetical work of the time in England, but they are not the expression of the soul of the new nation. The first real literature was in prose, arising from natural imitation of past models under conditions of culture which led to appreciation of such imitation. Washington Irving, then twenty-four years old, living the pleasant life of a clever young fellow in a small provincial city, joined with his brother William and James Kirke Paulding in one of the periodicals modeled after the Spectator common in the eighteenth century. Their venture was called Salmagundi, and although not remarkable in itself, its success gave confidence, so that two years afterward, feeling his own power, Irving wrote Knickerbocker’s History of New York, one of the first pieces of American belles-lettres to become known in Europe as well as America. These productions came naturally from the conditions of Irving’s life; so did the Sketch Book, with which he became a professed man of letters, the representative, we may say, of the first period of our national literature. Irving had pre-eminently the gift for literary expression; in his hands everything became literature—history, biography, descriptive as well as satire, story, essay. He showed the possibility of giving literary form to American material. The same thing was done in a special department of literature by James Fenimore Cooper. Charles Brockden Brown had written novels, but they have not survived. Cooper, on the other hand, so far saw the essential quality of certain elements of American life, that the figures of Leatherstocking, the American pioneer, Harvey Birch, the patriot, and Long Tom Coffin, the sailor, are still living figures. In fiction also two masters of equal power were shortly to develop a form of literature in which America has produced much of the first order. Nathaniel Hawthorne and Edgar Allan Poe made of the short story a means of artistic presentation, which has been more highly appreciated in our day than it was in their own. The first true poet was William Cullen Bryant. In the same year with Cooper’s first American novel (1821) appeared a volume of Bryant’s poems, of which one at least, Thanatopsis, had already excited admiring attention. Bryant’s long and honorable life was devoted to many interests beside poetry, but he maintained throughout the pure and idealistic touch, and the intimate appreciation of nature that characterized his first work. The first quarter of the nineteenth century, then, saw a beginning, slight indeed, but such as to endure, of a true literature in the departments of poetry, fiction, belles-lettres. The fifty years The American poets of the middle of the century are not of the very first rank, but each is genuinely representative of some true poetic quality or way of looking at things. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow presents the beauty and charm of American life and history in melodious and figured verse; John Greenleaf Whittier expresses the soul of our life and history in lyrics of most sincere human quality; Edgar Allan Poe gives a few most intense emotions in singularly perfect and individual form, while Walt Whitman expresses a certain American ideality in a strange mode of utterance, which despite its faults is characteristically strong. As a poet Lowell is at his best in satire, Holmes in wit, Emerson in sententious wisdom. In the field of fiction there was not so much that was good. It was not till he had written short stories for twenty years that Hawthorne found time for the novel for which he had so long felt himself capable. He wrote four, of which three at least are masterpieces. As a novelist he had no rivals; but there were not a few who carried on the tradition of the short story, of whom the most noteworthy were Fitz James O’Brien (1828-1862), Harriet Prescott, 1835 (afterward Mrs. Spofford), and Edward Everett Hale. The Diamond Lens, The Amber Gods, and The Man Without a Country of the latter are very typical works. In history also there was first-rate expression. George Bancroft, William H. Prescott, John Lothrop Motley, and Francis Parkman, were all original workers and all men of literary power. The first two were rather too much influenced by the literary ideals of the past, but Motley and Parkman attain a perfection of literary history which seems impossible in our day of development and division of labor. More specifically American, though perhaps more temporary, is the oratory of the period. Political conditions were still such as to encourage eloquence. Three names stand together as representative of American public life: Daniel Webster, Henry Clay, and John C. Calhoun. Their oratory has dignity, representative character and force. Three other orators should be mentioned: Edward Everett, Wendell Phillips, and Henry Ward Beecher, one eminent on great public occasions, one in public discussion and agitation, and the third in the pulpit. And we must add the name of a speaker whose simple sincerity gave him at times a greater power of speech than that of any other man of his day, Abraham Lincoln. Several other elements of the literature of this time are important. The New England movement of idealistic thought, somewhat expressed by Transcendentalism, is represented by Ralph Waldo Emerson, a figure more thoroughly characteristic of American thinking than any other writer. Singularly individual and different from any other man of his time, he is yet typical of a combination of ideality and common sense thoroughly American. James Russell Lowell is another important figure of the period: noteworthy as a poet, a critic, a scholar, an essayist, he is especially interesting as the successor of Irving as the representative man of his literary generation. He made literature an active factor in life and yet never allowed it to lose its literary quality. Oliver Wendell Holmes is best known as a humorist, and perhaps the most American in that field in which America has a very special place. Humor is more than most branches of literature a matter of taste. It must be enough, therefore, to note, without attempting to discriminate or describe, the achievements of Artemus Ward (1834-1867), of Mark Twain and of Frank R. Stockton (1834-1902). In this second period of our literature occurred the Civil war. Such an event could not have been without its effect upon men of letters both South and North. In the North especially do we perceive the strongest influence: the anti-slavery element cannot be dissociated from the work of Lowell or Whittier. Yet in literature the war produced little of permanence. It is the backbone of Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe’s title to remembrance; but powerfully effective as was Uncle Tom’s Cabin, it is probable that there was more real genius in those presentations of that old New England life of which she was herself a product. SECOND NATIONAL PERIOD, 1865- ——In considering the period from the Civil war to the present, the most remarkable thing is the great increase of production and the slight accession to the rolls of genius. Such is especially the case with fiction; there have been very many good novels and short stories written, but there is no such commanding personality as Hawthorne. The two chief figures of the seventies and eighties, at least, were Henry James and William Dean Howells. With great differences, they are yet both masters of the realistic school which was dominant in the second half of the century, in Europe as well as in America. Their superiority might remain unquestioned, were it not for the decline of interest in the kind of novel in which they excelled. In the early eighties a change in tone was perceptible. The first noteworthy American representative of romantic or idealistic fiction which then began to appear was Marion Crawford, who has retained power and popularity for twenty-five years. He and a few other innovators were followed by a number of writers who found and presented the charm and romance of American history. These have now in their turn passed away except Winston Churchill who would seem really to have more enduring power than his companions. But the realistic movement was not without its results, for it directed American novelists, and especially story writers, into an appreciation of the specific qualities of different parts of their country. The first writer to have this especial flavor was, it is true, the romanticist Bret Harte. His followers were more realistic: George Washington Cable gave a charming presentation of Creole life in New Orleans, and since the Grandissimes (1880) there have been a great number who have drawn pictures of the especial life of particular localities. Most noteworthy of these are Miss Mary N. Murfree (“Charles Egbert Craddock”), Miss Mary E. Wilkins (now Mrs. Freeman), James Lane Allen, Thomas Nelson Page, and Hamlin Garland. If we are to mention any other novelist of the present day whose work seems likely to endure, it must be Mrs. Edith Wharton, who rather continues the traditions of Henry James. In poetry no one has for forty years appeared who has been considered the equal of the earlier generation. Sidney Lanier and Edmund Clarence Stedman will probably be considered the chief figures of the seventies, while Richard Hovey (1864-1900) and James Whitcomb Riley are superior to their later contemporaries. There has been much history in recent years, and if there are no historians of the rank of Motley and Parkman, the reason may lie in the difference that has come into the methods of historical study. John Fiske was a philosopher before he became a historian. Justin Winsor was a master of authorities, and his labors as an editor rendered possible one of the characteristic productions of the time, the Narrative and Critical History of America, written by a number of special scholars. Of other contemporary writers most noteworthy are probably Henry C. Lea, whose works deal with different phrases of the history of civilization, and Captain A. T. Mahan, whose studies of the influence of sea power on history have attracted the attention of the world. Coincidently, a new school of humor has risen in the writing of F. P. Dunne, creator of the sagacious Mr. Dooley, and George Ade, author of Fables in Slang. Earlier humorists, aside from “Mark Twain” and Charles F. Browne (“Artemus Ward”), are Henry W. Shaw (“Josh Billings”) (1818-1885), Joel Chandler Harris (1848-1908), the author of Uncle Remus’ Stories, amusing dialect fantasies. In the summary of American literature one can hardly omit the names of Sarah Margaret Fuller (“Ossoli”), R. H. Dana, author of Two Years Before the Mast, and Donald G. Mitchell, author of Reveries of a Bachelor and Dream Life. Recent and contemporary historians and essayists deserving of mention are T. W. Higginson, C. E. Norton, and William James. Another form of writing should be mentioned, though its results are perhaps too ephemeral to be called literature. The newspaper is, however, a very important part of everybody’s reading. It has been learning, however, to appeal more and more to an enormously wide audience, with the result that whatever literary character it may have had is now hard to find. In the middle of the century certain great editors had very definite literary standing, as Bryant of the New York Evening Post, Henry J. Raymond (1820-1869) of the Times, Horace Greeley (1811-1872) of the Tribune. Later figures must include Charles A. Dana (1819-1897), who gave a very distinctive character to the Sun; James Gordon Bennett (1841) of the Herald, and E. L. Godkin (1831-1902) of the New York Evening Post, and Henry Watterson of the Louisville Courier-Journal. SUMMARY OF AMERICAN LITERATURENote.—Poetic and dramatic writings are indicated by italics.
PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF LITERARY ALLUSIONSConcise, explanatory paragraphs concerning Famous Books, Poems and Dramas; Literary Characters, Plots and Scenes; Pen Names of Famous Writers; Soubriquets and Nicknames; Literary Geography, Shrines and Haunts; and numerous other literary references. KEY TO THE SOUNDS OF LETTERSÄ, as in farm, father; ?, as in ask, fast; a, as in at, fat; a, as in day, fate; Â, as in care, fare; a, as in final; e, as in met, set; e, as in me, see; e~, as in her, ermine; i, as in pin, sin; i, as in pine, line; o, as in not, got; o, as in note, old; Ô, as in for, fought; Ö, as in sole, only; Õ, as in fog, orange; Ö, sound cannot be exactly represented in English. The English sound of u in burn is perhaps the nearest equivalent to Ö; oo, as in cook, look; oo, as in coon, moon; u, as in cup, duck; u, as in use, amuse; Û, as in fur, urge; Ü sound cannot be exactly represented in English. The English sound of u in luke and duke resembles the original sound of Ü. The letter N represents the nasal tone of the preceding vowel, as in encore (ÄN-kor´). A Aaron (a´ron or ar’on).—A character in Shakespeare’s Titus Andronicus, a Moor of unnatural wickedness beloved by Tamora, queen of the Goths. The character shows originality of conception, but is otherwise repellant. Abaddon (a-bad´on).—The Hebrew name of an evil spirit or destroying angel called Apollyon in Greek. In mediÆval literature he is regarded as the chief of the demons of the seventh hierarchy and the one who causes wars and uproars. Klopstock introduced him in his Messiah under the name of Abbadona. He represents him as a fallen angel still bearing traces of his former dignity and repenting of his part in the rebellion against God. In Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress he meets and fights with Pilgrim. Abdalla (ab-dal´Ä).—(1) The Mufti, a character in Dryden’s tragedy Don Sebastian. (2) One of Sir Brian de Bois Guilbert’s slaves, in Scott’s Ivanhoe. (3) Brother and predecessor of Giaffer, pasha of Abydos, by whom he was murdered, in Byron’s Bride of Abydos. Abdiel (ab´di-el).—A seraph in Milton’s Paradise Lost, the only seraph who remained loyal when Satan stirred up the angels to revolt. Abonde (a-bÖn-de´).—A character in French literature that corresponds to our Santa Claus, the good fairy who comes at night, especially New Year’s night, to bring toys to children while they sleep. Abu-Hassan (a-bÖ-has´an).—As related in the Arabian Nights, Abou Hassan is a merchant of Bagdad who is carried in his sleep to the bed of the Caliph Haroun-al-Raschid and on awaking is made to believe himself the caliph. Twice in this way he was made to believe himself caliph and afterward became in reality the caliph’s favorite and companion. Absalom and Achitophel (ab´sa-lom and a-kit´o-fel).—A poetical satire by John Dryden, directed against the political faction led by the Earl of Shaftesbury. The names in the title are given to the duke of Monmouth and the earl of Shaftesbury. Like Absalom, the son of David, Monmouth was remarkable for his personal beauty, his popularity, and his undutifulness to his father. Absolute, Captain.—A character in Sheridan’s comedy, The Rivals. He is distinguished for his gallant, determined spirit, his quickness of speech, and dry humor. Absolute, Sir Anthony.—An amusing character in Sheridan’s Rivals. He is represented as testy, positive, impatient, and overbearing, but yet of a warm and generous disposition. Acadia (a-ka´di-Ä), Acadie (Ä-kÄ´-de´).—The original, and now the poetic, name of Nova Scotia. In 1755, the French inhabitants were seized, forcibly removed and dispersed among the English colonists on the Atlantic coast. Longfellow has made this event the subject of his poem Evangeline. Acrasia (a-kra´zi-Ä).—In Spencer’s FaËrie Queene, a witch represented as a lovely and charming woman, whose dwelling is the Bower of Bliss, which is situated on an island floating in a lake or gulf, and is adorned with everything in nature that can delight the senses. The word signifies intemperance. She is the personification of sensuous indulgence and intoxication. Sir Guyon, who illustrates the opposite virtue, is commissioned by the fairy queen to bring her into subjection, and to destroy her residence. Acres, Bob.—A character in Sheridan’s The Rivals, celebrated for his cowardice and his peculiar method of allegorical swearing. Adam.—(1) Adam is a character frequently alluded to in the Talmud. Many strange legends are related of him. He was buried, so Arabian tradition says, on Aboncais, a mountain of Arabia. (2) In As You Like It, Shakespeare, he is an aged servant to Orlando and offers to accompany Orlando in his flight and to share with him his carefully-hoarded savings of five hundred pounds. (3) In Shakespeare’s Comedy of Errors, Adam is an officer known by his dress, a skin-coat. Adamastor (ad-am-?s´tor).—The phantom of the Cape of Good Hope in the Lusiad: a terrible spirit described by Camoens as appearing to Vasco da Gama and prophesying the misfortunes which should fall upon other expeditions to India. Adam Bede (bed).—A novel by George Eliot, the chief character of which is a young carpenter, a keen and clever workman, somewhat sharp-tempered and with a knowledge of some good books. He has an alert conscience, good common sense and “well-balanced shares of susceptibility and self-control.” He loves Hetty Sorrel, but finally marries Dinah Morris. Adams, Parson.—A character in Fielding’s story of Joseph Andrews, distinguished for his goodness of heart, poverty, learning, and ignorance of the world, combined with courage, modesty, and a thousand oddities. Adonais (ad-o-na´is).—An elegiac poem by Shelley, commemorating the death of Keats. The name was coined by Shelley probably to hint an analogy between Keats’ fate and that of Adonis. Advancement of Learning, The.—A prose treatise by Francis, Lord Bacon, which contains not only the germ of his Latin work, De Augmentis Scientiarum, but really the pith and marrow of the Baconian philosophy, if taken in connection with the second book of the Novum Scientiarum Organum. An analysis of the work may be read in Hazlitt’s Lectures on the Literature of the Age of Elizabeth. Æneid (e-ne´id), or Æneis (-is).—An epic poem, in twelve books, by Vergil, recounting the adventures of Æneas after the fall of Troy, founded on the Roman tradition that Æneas settled in Latium and became the ancestral hero of the Roman people. The hero, driven by a storm on the coast of Africa, is hospitably received by Dido, queen of Carthage, to whom he relates the fall of Troy and his wanderings. An attachment between them is broken by the departure of Æneas, in obedience to the will of the gods, and the suicide of Dido follows. After a visit to Sicily, Æneas lands at CumÆ in Italy. In a descent to the infernal regions he sees his father, Anchises, and has a prophetic vision of the glorious destiny of his race as well as of the future heroes of Rome. He marries Lavinia, daughter of Latinus, king of the Latini, and a contest with Turnus, king of the Rutuli, the rejected suitor follows, in which Turnus is slain. The poem is a glorification of Rome and of the Emperor Augustus, who, as a member of the Julian gens, traced his descent from Julus (sometimes identified with Ascanius), the grandson of Æneas. Agamemnon (ag-?-mem´non).—The greatest of the tragedies of Æschylus. The scene is laid in Argos, in the palace of Agamemnon, at the time of the king’s return from the capture of Troy; the catastrophe is the murder (behind the scenes) of Agamemnon and Cassandra (whom he has brought captive with him) by the queen Clytemnestra, urged on by her paramour Ægisthus. Agnes.—(1) A young girl in MoliÈre’s L’Ecole des Femmes, who affects to be remarkably simple and ingenuous. The name has passed into popular use, and is applied to any young woman unsophisticated in affairs. (2) A strong womanly character in David Copperfield who proves a true friend to David’s “child-wife,” Dora, and to David himself. Later Dora dies and David marries Agnes. Agnes, The Eve of St.—(1) A poem by John Keats. It is characterized by Leigh Hunt as “the most delightful and complete specimen of his genius; ... exquisitely loving; ... young but full-grown poetry of the rarest description; graceful as the beardless Apollo; glowing and gorgeous with the colors of romance.” St. Agnes Agapida (Ä-gÄ-pe´thÄ), Fray Antonio.—The fictitious writer to whom Washington Irving originally attributed the authorship of the Conquest of Granada. Agib (a´gib).—(1) The third Calendar in the story of “The Three Calendars” in the Arabian Nights’ Entertainments. (2) In the story of Noureddin Ali and Bedredden Hassan in The Arabian Nights, a son of Bedredden Hassan and the Queen of Beauty. Agramant (Ä´grÄ-mÄnt).—In Boiardo’s Orlando Innamorato and Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso, the young king of Africa. Ague-Cheek (a´gu-chek), Sir Andrew. A character in Shakespeare’s comedy Twelfth Night, a timid, silly but amusing country squire, to whom life consists only of eating and drinking. He is stupid even to silliness, but so devoid of self-love or self-conceit that he is delightful in his simplicity. Ahasuerus (a-haz-u-e´rus).—Chief character in Sue’s A Wandering Jew, the cobbler who pushed away Jesus when, on the way to execution, He rested a moment or two at his door. “Get off! Away with you!” cried the cobbler. “Truly, I go away,” returned Jesus, “and that quickly; but tarry thou till I come.” And from that time Ahasuerus became the “wandering Jew,” who still roams the earth, and will continue so to do till the “second coming of the Lord.” Ahmed (Äh´med), or Achmet (Äch´met).—In the Arabian Nights, noted for a magic tent he possessed which would cover a whole army but might be carried in the pocket. He also possessed a magic apple which would cure all diseases. Aladdin (a-lad´in).—In the story of “Aladdin or the Wonderful Lamp,” in the Arabian Nights’ Entertainments, the son of a poor widow in China, who becomes possessed of a magic lamp and ring which command the services of two terrific jinns. Learning the magic power of the lamp, by accidentally rubbing it, Aladdin becomes rich and marries the Princess of Cathay through the agency of the “slave of the lamp” who also builds in a night a palace for her reception. One window of this palace was left unfinished, and no one could complete it to match the others. Aladdin therefore directs the jinns to finish it, which is done in the twinkling of an eye (hence the phrase “to finish Aladdin’s window”; that is, to attempt to finish something begun by a greater man). After many years the original owner of the lamp, a magician, in order to recover it, goes through the city offering new lamps for old. The wife of Aladdin, tempted by this idea, exchanges the old rusty magic lamp for a brand new useless one (hence the phrase “to exchange old lamps for new”), and the magician transports both palace and princess to Africa, but the ring helps Aladdin to find them. He kills the magician, and, possessing himself of the lamp, transports the palace to Cathay, and at the sultan’s death succeeds to the throne. Al Araf (Äl Ä r?f).—The Mohammedan limbo, between paradise and jehennam, for those who die without sufficient merit to deserve the former, and without sufficient demerit to deserve the latter. Here lunatics, idiots, and infants go at death, according to the Koran. The subject of an uncompleted poem by Edgar A. Poe. Alasnam (a-las´nam).—The hero of a story in the Arabian Nights entitled “The History of Prince Zeyn Alasnam and the Sultan of the Genii,” Alasnam has eight diamond statues, but had to go in quest of a ninth more precious still, to fill the vacant pedestal. The prize was found in the lady who became his wife, at once the most beautiful and the most perfect of her race. Albracca (Äl-brÄk´kÄ).—In Bojardo’s Orlando Innamorato, a castle of Cathay to which Angelica retires in grief at being scorned and shunned by Rinaldo, with whom she is deeply in love. Here she is besieged by Agricane, King of Tartary, who resolves to win her, notwithstanding her indifference to his suit. Alceste (Äl-sest´).—The principal character in MoliÈre’s comedy The Misanthrope: a disagreeable but upright man who scorns the civilities of life and the shams of society. Alcina (Äl-che´na).—A fairy, the embodiment of carnal delights, in Boiardo’s Orlando Innamorato and Ariosoto’s Orlando Furioso the sister of Logistalla (reason) and Morgana (lasciviousness). When tired of her lovers she changed them into trees, beasts, etc., and was finally, by means of a magic ring, displayed in her real senility and ugliness. Compare Acrasia, Armida, and Circe. Aldine (al´din) Press.—The press established at Venice by Aldus Manutius. See Manutius. Aldingar (al´ding-gÄr), Sir.—A character in Percy’s Reliques. This ballad relates how the honor of Queen Elianor, wife of Henry Plantagenet, impeached by Sir Aldingar, her steward, was submitted to the chance of a duel, and how an angel, in the form of a little child, appeared as her champion, and established her innocence. Alhambra (al-ham´brÄ).—A volume of legends and descriptive sketches by Washington Irving. “The account of my midnight rambles about the old place,” says the author, “literally true, yet gives but a feeble idea of my feelings and impressions, and of the singular haunts I was exploring. Everything in the work relating to myself and to the actual inhabitants of the Alhambra is unexaggerated fact; it was only in the legends that I indulged in romancing, and these were founded on material picked up about the place.” Ali Baba (Ä´le bÄ´bÄ).—A character in The Arabian Nights’ Entertainments, in the story “Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves” a poor wood-cutter who, concealed in a tree, sees a band of robbers enter a secret cavern, and overhears the magic words “open sesame” which opens its door. After their departure he repeats the spell and the door opens, disclosing a room full of treasures with which he loads his asses and returns home. His brother Cassim, who discovers his secret, enters the cave alone, forgets the word “sesame,” and is found and cut to pieces by the robbers. The thieves, discovering that Ali Baba knows their secret, resolve to kill him, but are outwitted by Morgiana, a slave. Alice in Wonderland.—A little girl through whose dream pass the scenes of Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and Behind the Looking-glass, two popular stories for children by Lewis Carroll (Charles Dodgson). They have been translated into several European languages. Alice Brand.—In Scott’s Lady of the Lake, Alice signed Urgan the dwarf thrice with the sign of the cross, and he became “the fairest knight in all Scotland”; when Alice recognized in him her own brother. Allan-a-Dale.—A friend of Robin Hood’s in the ballad. He is introduced into Sir Walter Scott’s Ivanhoe as Robin Hood’s minstrel. All’s Well That Ends Well.—A comedy by Shakespeare. The hero and heroine are Bertram, Count of Roussillon, and Helena, a physician’s daughter, who are married by the command of the king of France, but part because Bertram thought the lady not sufficiently well-born for him. Bertram flees to Florence, but, ultimately, Helena wins his love and all ends well. Allworthy, Mr.—In Fielding’s novel of Tom Jones, a man of amiable and benevolent character; intended for Mr. Ralph Allen, who was also celebrated by Pope. Almighty Dollar.—A personification of American worship. Washington Irving originated the phrase in The Creole Village. Alp.—Siege of Corinth, Byron. The hero of this poem. Amadis de Gaul.—The hero of an ancient and celebrated Portuguese romance. Amanda (a-man´dÄ).—A young woman who impersonates Spring in Thomson’s Seasons. Amaryllis, Amarillis (am-a-ril´is).—In Spenser’s pastoral Colin Clout’s Come Home Again, is the countess of Derby. Her name was Alice, and she was the youngest of the six daughters of Sir John Spenser, of Althorpe, ancestor of the noble houses of Spenser and Marlborough. After the death of the earl, the widow married Sir Thomas Egerton, keeper of the great seal (afterward baron of Ellesmere and viscount Brackley). It was for this very lady, during her widowhood, that Milton wrote his Arcades. Ambrose.—A sharper in Lesage’s Gil Blas, who assumed in the presence of Gil Blas the character of a devotee. He was in league with a fellow who assumed the name of Don Raphael, and a young woman who called herself Camilla, cousin of Donna Mencia. These three sharpers allure Gil Blas to a house which Camilla says is hers, fleece him of his ring, his portmanteau, and his money, decamp, and leave him to find out that the house is only a hired lodging. Amelia (a-me´liÄ).—The title of one of Fielding’s novels, and the name of its heroine, who is distinguished for her tenderness and affection. The character of Amelia is said to have been drawn from Fielding’s wife. Amine (Ä-men´).—In Arabian Nights a female character who leads her three sisters by her side as a leash of hounds. Aminte (Ä-mant´).—Les PrÉcieuses Ridicules, MoliÈre. A contradictory character in this comedy. She dismisses her admirers for proposing to marry her, scolds her uncle for not carrying himself as a gentleman, and marries a valet whom she believes to be a nobleman. Amlet (am´let).—The name of a gamester in Vanbrugh’s Confederacy. Amoret (am´o-ret).—(1) The name of a lady married to Sir Scudamore, in Spenser’s FaËrie Queene. She is the type of a devoted, loving wife. (2) The heroine of Fletcher’s pastoral drama, The Faithful Shepherdess. Amys and Amylion.—Two faithful friends. The Pylades and Orestes of the feudal ages. Their adventures are the subjects of ancient romances. Ancient Man.—In Tennyson’s Idylls of the King, means Merlin, the old magician, King Arthur’s protector and teacher. Ancient Mariner, The.—A poem by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. The hero, an ancient mariner “with a long gray beard and glittering eye,” suffers terrible evils, and likewise inflicts them on his companions, from having shot an albatross, a bird of good omen. All his comrades perish of hunger, but, as he repents, he is permitted to regain the land. At intervals his agony returns, and he is driven from place to place to ease his soul by confessing his crime and sufferings to his fellows, and enforcing upon them a lesson of love for “all things, both great and small.” “The Ancient Mariner,” says Swinburne, “is perhaps the most wonderful of all poems. In reading it we seem rapt into that paradise revealed by Swedenborg, where music and color and perfume were one, where you could see the hues and hear the harmonies of heaven. For absolute melody and splendor it were hardly rash to call it the first poem in the language.” Andrews, Joseph.—The hero in Fielding’s novel by the same name, written to ridicule Richardson’s Pamela. Fielding presents Joseph Andrews as a brother to the modest and prudish Pamela, and pictures him as a model young man. Angelica (an-jel´i-kÄ).—(1) In Bojardo’s Orlando Innamorato, is daughter of Galaphron, king of Cathay. She goes to Paris, and Orlando falls in love with her, forgetful of wife, sovereign, country and glory. Angelica, on the other hand, disregards Orlando, but passionately loves Rinaldo, who positively dislikes her. Angelica and Rinaldo drink of certain fountains, when opposite effects are produced in their hearts, for then Rinaldo loves Angelica, while Angelica loses all love for Rinaldo. (2) The heroine of Congreve’s comedy of Love for Love; in love with Valentine, but the ward of Sir Sampson Legend, who seeks to marry her. She jilts the old man, however, and marries the younger lover. Angelica is supposed to represent Mrs. Bracegirdle; Valentine the author himself who was enamoured of the actress, and was the rival of the dramatist, Rowe, in her affections. (3) The heroine of Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso. She was beloved by Orlando, but married Medoro. Also the name of the heroine of Farquhar’s plays of the Constant Couple, and Sir Harry Wildair. Angelic Doctor.—A name bestowed upon Thomas Aquinas, because he discussed the knotty point of “how many angels can dance on the point of a needle.” Angelo (an´je-lo).—A character in Shakespeare’s Measure for Measure; also the name of a goldsmith in the Comedy of Errors. Angiolina.—The wife of the doge of Venice, in Byron’s Marino Faliero. Anna KarÉnina (Än´nÄ kÄ-ra´ne-nÄ).—A novel of Tolstoy, perhaps the most representative of his works. It first appeared serially, but with long intervals, in a Moscow review, and was published in 1877. Annabel Lee.—The title and subject of a poem by Edgar Allan Poe, which begins— Anne.—Perrault’s La Barbe Bleue, the sister of Fatima, the seventh and last wife of Bluebeard. Fatima, having disobeyed her lord by looking into the locked chamber, is allowed a short respite before execution. Sister Anne ascends the high tower of the castle, with the hope of seeing her brothers, who were expected to arrive every moment. Fatima, in her agony, keeps asking “sister Anne” if she can see them, and Bluebeard keeps crying out for Fatima to use greater dispatch. As the patience of both is exhausted the brothers arrive, and Fatima is rescued from death. Annie Laurie, eldest of the three daughters of Sir Robert Laurie, of Maxwelton. In 1709 she married James Fergusson, of Craigdarroch, and was the mother of Alexander Fergusson, the hero of Burns’ song The Whistle. The song of Annie Laurie was written by William Douglas, of Fingland, in the stewardy of Kirkcudbright, hero of the song Willie Was a Wanton Wag. Antipholus of Ephesus (an-tif´o-lus ov ef´e-sus), and Antipholus of Syracuse (sir´a-kus).—Twin brothers, sons to Ægeon and Æmilia, in Shakespeare’s Comedy of Errors. Antonio (Än-to´ne-o).—(1) The merchant of Venice in Shakespeare’s play of that name, the friend of Bassanio, and the object of Shylock’s hatred. (2) The usurping Duke of Milan, and brother to Prospero, in Shakespeare’s Tempest. (3) The father of Proteus, in Shakespeare’s Two Gentlemen of Verona. (4) A minor character in Shakespeare’s Much Ado About Nothing. (5) A sea captain, friend to Sebastian, in Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night. Antony and Cleopatra.—Historical tragedy by Shakespeare which may be considered as a continuation of Julius CÆsar. In the opening scene of Julius CÆsar absolute power is lodged in one man. In the conclusion of Antony and Cleopatra a second CÆsar is again in possession of absolute power, and the entire Roman world is limited under one imperial ruler. There are four prominent characters in this play: Cleopatra, voluptuous, fascinating, gross in her faults, but great in the power of her affections; Octavius CÆsar, cool, prudent, calculating, avaricious; Antony, quick, brave, reckless, prodigal; Enobarbus, a friend of Antony, at first jocular and blunt, but transformed by penitence into a grief-stricken man who dies in the bitterness of despair. Apocalypse.—The Greek name of the last book of the Testament, termed in English Revelation. It has been generally attributed to the Apostle St. John, but some wholly reject it as spurious. In the first centuries many churches disowned it, and in the fourth century it was excluded from the sacred canon by the council of Laodicea, but was again received by other councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held in the year 1545. Most commentators suppose it to have been written after the destruction of Jerusalem, about A.D. 96; while others assign it an earlier date. Its figures and symbols are impressive. Apocrypha (a-pok´ri-fÄ).—The word originally meant secret or hidden, and it is said that books of the Apocrypha are not found in either the Chaldean or the Hebrew language. These books were not in the Jewish canon, but they were received as canonical by the Catholic church, by the council of Trent. The apocryphal writings are ten in number: Baruch, Ecclesiasticus, Wisdom of Solomon, Tobit, Judith, two books of the Maccabees, Song of the Three Children, Susannah, and Bell and the Dragon. Their style proves that they were a part of the Jewish-Greek literature of Alexandria, within three hundred years before Christ; and as the Septuagint Greek version of the Hebrew Bible came from the same quarter, it was often accompanied by these Greek writings, and they gained a general circulation. No trace of them is found in the Talmud; they are mostly of legendary character, but some of them are of value for their historical information, their moral and maxims, and for the illustrations they give of ancient life. Apologia pro Vita Sua: “Being a History of His Religious Opinions,” published by John Henry Newman. The Apologia will probably never be equaled as a specimen of acute self-analysis. The only subsequent work of a similar nature with which it can be compared or associated is Mr. Gladstone’s Chapter of Autobiography, which was designed to defend the consistency of his action in reference to the Irish church. Arabian Nights Entertainments, consisting of one thousand and one stories, told by the sultana of the Indies to divert the sultan from the execution of a bloody vow he made to marry a lady every day and have her head cut off next morning, to avenge himself for the disloyalty of the first sultana. The story on which all the others hang is familiar. Scheherezade, the generous, beautiful young daughter of the vizier, like another Esther, resolves to risk her life in order to save the poor maidens of her city, whom the sultan is marrying and beheading at the rate of one a day. She plans to tell an interesting story each night to the sultan, breaking off in a very exciting place in order that the sultan may be tempted to spare her life so that he may hear the sequel. Aram (a´ram), Eugene.—A romance by Lord Lytton, founded on the story of the Knaresborough schoolmaster who committed a murder under peculiar circumstances. Archimage (Är´ki-maj), or Archimago (Är-ki-ma´go).—A character in Spenser’s FaËrie Queene, a hypocrite or deceiver. He is opposed to holiness embodied in the Red Cross Knight, wins the confidence of the knight in the disguise of a reverend hermit, and by the help of Duessa, or Deceit, separates him from Una, or Truth. B Barons’ Wars, The.—An historical poem, in six books, by Michael Drayton. “In some historic sketches,” says Campbell, “he reaches a manner beyond himself. The pictures of Mortimer and the queen, and of Edward’s entrance into the castle, are splendid and spirited.” Bartholomew (bÄr-thol´o-mu) Fair.—A comedy by Ben Jonson, valuable for its lively pictures of the manners of the times. It is chiefly remarkable for the exhibition of odd humors and tumblers’ tricks. Basilisco (bas-i-lis´ko).—Soliman and Perseda, old play. A boasting knight who became so popular with his foolish bragging that his name grew into a proverb. Bassanio (ba-sÄ´ni-o).—Merchant of Venice, Shakespeare. The lover of Portia who won her when he chose a leaden casket in which her portrait was hidden. Bath, Major.—Amelia, Henry Fielding. A noble-minded gentleman, pompous in spite of poverty, and striving to live according to the “dignity and honor of man.” He tries to hide his poverty under bold speech even when found doing menial service. Battle, Sarah.—Essays of Elia, Lamb. Sarah considered whist the business of life and literature one of the relaxations. When a young gentleman, of a literary turn, said to her he had no objection to unbend his mind for a little time by taking a hand with her, Sarah declared, “Whist was her life business; her duty; the thing she came into the world to do. She unbent her mind afterward over a book.” Beatrice (be´a-tris, or -tres).—Divine Comedy, Dante. Daughter of an illustrious family of Florence for whom Dante had a great love. In his poem she is represented as being his guide through paradise. Beatrice is also the name of the heroine of Shakespeare’s Much Ado About Nothing. Beauty and the Beast.—Fairy tale by Mme. Villeneuve. Oft repeated in stories for children, Beauty and the Beast are known in many forms. In the original tale young and lovely Beauty saved the life of her father by putting herself in the power of a frightful but kind-hearted monster, whose respectful affection and deep melancholy finally overcame her aversion to his hideousness, and induced her to consent to marry him. By her love Beast was set free from enchantment and allowed to assume his own form, a handsome and graceful young prince. Bede, Adam.—Adam Bede, George Eliot. An ideal workman, hero of the novel. Bedivere (bed´i-ver).—Tales of the Round Table. Bedivere was the last knight of King Arthur’s Round Table. Beggar’s Opera, The, by John Gay, first acted at Lincoln’s Inn Fields, in 1727, is the first, and perhaps the best, specimen of English ballad opera. It was acted in London amid unprecedented applause, and obtained scarcely less popularity through the provinces. It was said that it made Rich, the manager, gay; and Gay, the poet, rich. Hazlitt says of the Opera, that “it is indeed a masterpiece of wit and genius, not to say of morality.” Belarius (be-la´ri-us).—A nobleman and soldier in the army of Cymbeline, king of Britain. Belch (belch), Sir Toby.—Twelfth Night, Shakespeare. Uncle to Olivia, a jolly, carefree fellow, type of the roysterers of Queen Elizabeth’s days. Belinda (be-lin´dÄ).—Rape of the Lock, Pope. Poetical name of the heroine, whose real name was said to be Arabella Fermor. In a frolic Lord Petre cut a lock from the lady’s hair. This was so much resented that it broke the great friendship between the two families. The poem, Rape of the Lock, was written to bring the people into a better temper and lead to reconciliation. Belinda is also the name of the heroine in a novel written by Maria Edgeworth. Bell, Adam.—Old Ballad. A famous wild outlaw belonging to the north country and celebrated for his skill as an archer. Bell, Laura.—Pendennis, Thackeray. One of the sweetest heroines in English literature. Bellman.—L’Allegro, Milton. The watchman who patrolled the streets and called out the hour of night. Sometimes he repeated scraps of pious poetry in order to charm away danger. Bell-the-Cat.—Name given to a nobleman at Lauder, Scotland, early in the sixteenth century. King James II. called an assembly of Scottish barons to resist a threatened invasion of his realm by Edward IV. of England. After long discussion one of the barons related the nursery tale of a convention of mice in which it was proposed to hang a bell on the cat’s neck, to give warning of her presence. No one would serve on the mouse committee. To the story Archibald Douglas responded by saying, “I will bell the cat,” and was afterward known by the name, Bell-the-Cat. Belphoebe (bel-fe´be).—FaËrie Queene, Spenser. A delicate and graceful flattery offered to Queen Elizabeth through the huntress, Belphoebe, intended as a likeness of the queen. The name taken from belle, meaning beautiful, and Phoebe, a name sometimes bestowed on Diana. Belvawney, Miss.—Nicholas Nickleby, Dickens. She belonged to the wonderful Portsmouth theater, always took the part of a page and gloried in silk stockings. Belvidera (bel-ve-da´rÄ).—Venice Preserved, Otway. The beautiful heroine of the almost forgotten tragedy. Sir Walter Scott said “more tears have been shed, probably, for the sorrows of Belvidera and Monimia than for those of Juliet and Desdemona.” Benedick (ben´e-dik).—Much Ado About Nothing, Shakespeare. A young lord of Padua who is gentleman, wit, and soldier. He was a pronounced bachelor, but after a courtship full of witty sayings and coquetry he marries the lovely Beatrice. From this gentleman comes the name Benedick or Benedict, applied to married men who were not going to marry. Benengeli (ben-en-ge´le), Cid Hamet.—Don Quixote, Cervantes. Supposed to be a writer of chronicles among the Moors and claimed as authority for the tales of adventure recorded by Cervantes. The name, Cid Hamet, has been often quoted by writers. Ben Hur.—A novel by General Lew Wallace. Messala, the Roman playmate and young friend of Ben Hur, afterward became his remorseless enemy. Ambitious, hard, and cruel, when he came into power he made Ben Hur a galley slave, confiscated his property and imprisoned the mother and sister. Ben Hur escaped, returned later as a wealthy Roman, and entered in the famous chariot race against Messala, who had put up enormous sums in wagers. Messala recognized Ben Hur, and hoped to win the race and bring him to final ruin; but Messala himself was thrown and seriously injured. His cruelties were made known, and he was at last slain by his wife, Isas, the daughter of Balthasar. Bennet, Mrs.—Amelie, Fielding. An improper character. Benvolio (ben-vo´li-o).—Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare. One of Romeo’s friends who would “quarrel with a man that had a hair more or a hair less in his beard than he had.” Mercutio says to him, “Thou hast quarreled with a man for coughing in the street.” Beowulf (ba´o-wulf).—The name of an Anglo-Saxon epic poem of the sixth century. It received its name from Beowulf, who delivered Hrothgar, King of Denmark, from the monster Grendel. This Grendel was half monster and half man, and night after night stole into the king’s palace, called Heorot, and slew sometimes as many as thirty of the sleepers at a time. Beowulf put himself at the head of a mixed band of warriors, went against the monster and slew it. This epic is very Ossianic in style, full of beauties, and most interesting. Bertram (ber´tram).—Guy Mannering, Scott. The character was suggested by James Annesley, Esq., rightful heir of the earldom of Anglesey, of which he was dispossessed by his uncle Richard. He died in 1743. Bertram was also the name of the haughty and dissolute count, husband of Helena in Shakespeare’s comedy All’s Well That Ends Well. Bianca (bi-an´kÄ).—(1) The youngest daughter of Baptista of Padua, as gentle and meek as her sister Katherine was violent and irritable. (2) The sweetheart, “almost” wife of Cassio, in Shakespeare’s Othello. Biglow Papers, The.—A series of satirical poems, in the quaint Yankee dialect, ascribed to a certain Hosea Biglow, but really written by the American poet, James Russell Lowell. Birch, Harvey.—The Spy, Cooper. The chief character of the novel. Biron (be-rÔn´).—Love’s Labor’s Lost, Shakespeare. A merry madcap young lord, in attendance on Ferdinand, king of Navarre. Black-Eyed Susan.—Ballad, John Gay. The heroine of the popular sea song. Black Knight of the Black Lands.—Sir Peread. Called by Tennyson Night or Nox. He was one of the four brothers who kept the passages of Castle Dangerous, and was overthrown by Sir Gareth. Idylls (Gareth and Lynette). Blatant Beast.—FaËrie Queene, Spenser. A bellowing monster typical of slander; or, an impersonation of what we now call Vox Populi, or the Voice of the People. Bleak House.—A novel by Charles Dickens, the title of which was suggested, it is said, by the situation of a certain tall brick house at Broadstairs, which stands high above and far away from the remainder of the town, and in which the author resided for several seasons. Blimber (blim´er), Miss Cornelia.—Dombey and Son, Dickens. The daughter of Dr. Blimber, the head of a first-class educational establishment conducted on the forcing, or cramming, principle. She is a very learned, grave, and precise young lady, “no light nonsense about her,” who has become “dry and sandy with working in the graves of deceased languages.” Blithedale (blith´dal) Romance, The.—A story by Blowzelinda (blou-ze-lin´dÄ), or Blowsalinda (blou-za-lin´dÄ).—Shepherd’s Week, John Gay. The country girl, heroine of this pastoral poem, written more than one hundred and fifty years ago, but quoted as a picture of the poverty and rudeness of rural life at that time. Bobadil (bob´a-dil), Captain.—Every Man in His Humor, Jonson. A boasting coward, who passes himself off with young and simple people for a Hector. Boeuf, Front de (beuf, fron du).—Ivanhoe, Scott. One of King John’s followers. A ferocious scoundrel. Bois-Guilbert (bwa´gel-bÄr´), Brian de.—Ivanhoe, Scott. A brave but cruel, crafty, and dissolute commander of the Knights Templar. Boniface (bon´i-fas).—The Beaux’s Stratagem, Farquhar. A fine representation of an English landlord. Hence applied to landlords generally. Bontemps (bÔn-ton´), Roger.—Song, Beranger. Known in France as the personification of care-free leisure. The equivalent, among the French peasantry, for the English proverb, “There’s a good time coming,” is Roger Bontemps. This one of Beranger’s most celebrated songs was written in 1814. Bottom, Nick.—A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Shakespeare. A man who fancies he can do everything, and do it better than anyone else. Shakespeare has drawn him as profoundly ignorant and with an overflow of self-conceit. Oberon, the fairy king, desiring to punish Titania, his queen, commissioned Puck to watch her till she fell asleep, and then to anoint her eyelids with the juice of a plant called “love-in-idleness,” the effect of which, when she awoke, was to make her dote upon Bottom, upon whom Puck had fixed an ass’s head. Bourgeois Gentilhomme, Le (boor-zhwÄ´ zhon-te-yom´ lÛ).—A comedy by MoliÈre, with music by Lulli, produced in 1670. The hero is a tradesman, M. Jourdain, who is ambitious to marry his daughter to a titled husband. Bowling, Tom.—Roderick Random, Smollett. A name made almost famous as hero of the novel. Critics have said, “The character of Tom Bowling, in Roderick Random will be regarded in all ages as a happy exhibition of those naval heroes to whom Britain is indebted for so much of her happiness and glory.” The Tom Bowling referred to in Dibdin’s famous sea song was Captain Thomas Dibdin, brother of Charles Dibdin, who wrote the song. Boz (boz), Sketches by.—By Charles Dickens. They were the first of their class. Dickens was the first to unite the delicately playful thread of Charles Lamb’s street musings—half experiences, half bookish fantasies—with the vigorous wit and humor and observation of Goldsmith’s Citizen of the World, his Indigent Philosopher, and Man in Black, and twine them together in the golden cord of essay, which combines literature with philosophy, humor with morality, amusement with instruction. The most powerful and popular of the sketches are probably those entitled, A Visit to Newgate, The Drunkard’s Death, Election for Beadle, Greenwich Fair, and Miss Evans at the Eagle. Bracebridge Hall, or The Humorists.—Miscellaneous sketches, in fiction and essay, by Washington Irving, published in 1822. Brag, Jack.—Jack Brag, Theodore Hook. Hero of the novel and a spirited embodiment of the arts employed by a vulgar pretender to creep into aristocratic society, and of his ultimate discomfiture. General Burgoyne figures in an old ballad known as Sir Jack Brag. Bramble, Matthew.—Humphrey Clinker, Smollett. Noted character in the novel described as “an odd kind of humorist,” afflicted with the gout, and “always on the fret,” but full of generosity and benevolence. Brass, Sally, and Sampson.—Old Curiosity Shop, Dickens. Brother and sister, well mated, he a shystering lawyer and she getting ahead of him in villainy. Sampson was dishonest, sentimental, and affected in manner, and both are interesting characters to read about. Brentford (brent´ford), The Two Kings of.—The Rehearsal, Villiers. Much question has been raised as to who was to be ridiculed under these characters. The royal brothers, Charles II. and James II., have been suggested; others say the fighting kings of Granada. In the farce the two kings are represented as walking hand in hand, as dancing together and singing in concert. Briana (bri-a´nÄ).—Spenser’s FaËrie Queene. The lady of a castle who demanded for toll the locks of every lady and the beard of every knight that passed. This toll was established because Sir Crudor, with whom she was in love, refused to marry her till she had provided him with human hair sufficient to purfle a mantle with. Sir Crudor, having been overthrown in knightly combat by Sir Calidore, who refused to give the passage pay, is made to release Briana from the condition imposed on her, and Briana swears to discontinue the discourteous toll. Brick, Jefferson.—In Dickens’ Martin Chuzzlewit. A very weak, pale young man, the war correspondent of the New York Rowdy Journal, of which Colonel Diver was editor. Bride of Abydos, The.—A Turkish tale, told in octosyllabic verse by Lord Byron, and published in 1813. It is in two cantos, and opens with the well-known song imitated from Goethe, beginning: “Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle.” The name of the “bride” is Zuleika, and that of her lover, Selim. Bride of Lammermoor, The.—A romance of Sir Walter Scott, published in 1819, and characterized as a tragedy of the highest order, uniting excellence of plot with Scott’s usual merits of character and description. Brook Farm.—The full name was “Brook Farm Institute of Agriculture and Education,” a stock company of nearly seventy members, located on a farm of two hundred acres at West Roxbury, Mass. Among the members were George Ripley, Charles A. Dana, George William Curtis, Margaret Fuller and Nathaniel Hawthorne. Among their frequent visitors were Ralph Waldo Emerson, Theodore Parker, Bronson Alcott. This idyllic life lasted about five years, from 1841 to 1846. Brook Farm was a financial failure but it was important in intellectual results. Hawthorne has written the story of the experiment in Blithedale Romance. Brown, Tom.—Tom Brown’s School Days and Tom Brown at Oxford, Thomas Hughes. The hero of these stories of school days, a typical English schoolboy and undergraduate. Brunhild (brÖn´hild).—Nibelungenlied. The story of Brunhild holds large place in ancient German romance. She was, herself, a warrior, proud and skillful, and she promised to be the bride of the man who could conquer her in three trials, in hurling the lance, in throwing the stone, and in leaping after the stone when thrown. By the arts and bravery of Siegfried, she was deluded into marrying Gunther, king of Burgundy; but, discovering the trick, she planned and accomplished the destruction of Siegfried, and the humiliation of Chriemhild, his wife. Bumble, Mr.—Oliver Twist, Dickens. A pompous, disagreeable beadle, who figures largely in the beginning of the story. The name Bumble has since attached itself to the office. Bunsby (bunz´bi), Jack.—Dombey and Son, Dickens. A commander of a ship looked up to as an oracle by his friend Captain Cuttle. He is described as wearing a “rapt and imperturbable manner,” and seeming to be “always on the lookout for something in the extremest distance.” Bunthorne (bun´thÔrn).—Patience, Sullivan. A gloomy poet showing most distinctly in his gloom surrounded by the characters of a comic opera. He was inserted as a satire on the Æsthetic craze, turning into ridicule the imitators of Rossetti. Burchell (ber´chel), Mr.—Vicar of Wakefield, Goldsmith. A prominent character who passes himself off as a poor man, but is really a baronet in disguise. He is noted for his habit of crying out “Fudge!” by way of expressing his strong contempt for the opinions of others. Burd Helen.—Scotch Ballad. A traditional name standing for constancy. She was carried to England by fairies and imprisoned in a castle. The youngest brother of the fair Burd Helen was guided by the enchanter Merlin and accomplished the perilous task of rescuing his sister. This is recited in the line “Childe Rowland to the dark tower came,” quoted by Shakespeare. Only a fragment of the old ballad has been preserved. Buskin.—Tragedy. The Greek tragic actors used to wear a sandal some two or three inches thick, to elevate their stature. To this sole was attached a very elegant buskin. Buzfuz, (buz´fuz) Serjeant.—Pickwick Papers, Dickens. A pompous, chaffing lawyer, who bullies Mr. Pickwick and the witnesses in the famous breach of promise suit, Bardell vs. Pickwick. Byfield.—A New England parish, the scene of an historical novel by John Lewis Ewell. Here lived the ancestor of Longfellow to whom the poet dedicated The Village Blacksmith, himself a blacksmith, keeping his accounts in peculiar orthography. According to the deed of sale in 1681, the Byfield Indians got a larger price from the first English settlers than was paid for Manhattan Island. C Caius (ka´yus), Doctor.—Merry Wives of Windsor, Shakespeare. A physician in the comedy who adds a touch of humor. He is most conspicuous as the lover of Anne Page. Calandrino (kÄ-lÄn-dre´no).—A simpleton frequently introduced in Boccaccio’s Decameron; expressly made to be befooled and played upon. His mishaps, as Macaulay states, “have made all Europe merry for more than four centuries.” Caleb.—(1) The enchantress who carried off St. George in infancy. (2) A character in Dryden’s satire of Absalom and Achitophel, meant for Lord Grey, one of the adherents of the Duke of Monmouth. Caleb Quotem.—A parish clerk or jack-of-all-trades, in Coleman’s play The Review, or Ways of Windsor. Coleman borrowed the character from Throw Physic to the Dogs, an old farce. Caliban (kal´i-ban).—A savage and deformed slave of Prospero in Shakespeare’s Tempest. He is represented as being the “freckled whelp” of Sycorax, a foul hag, who was banished from Argier (or Algiers) to the desert island afterward inhabited by Prospero. From his rude, uncouth language we get the phrase “Caliban style,” “Caliban speech,” meaning the coarsest possible use of words. Calidore (kal´i-dor).—A knight in Spenser’s FaËrie Queene, typical of courtesy, and said to be intended for a portrait of Sir Philip Sidney. Calista.—The name of a celebrated character in Rowe’s Fair Penitent. Callipolis (ka-lip´o-lis).—Battle of Alcazar, George Peele. A character in the Battle of Alcazar, used by Sir Walter Scott and others as a synonym for lady-love, sweetheart, charmer. Sir Walter always spells the word Callipolis, but Peele calls it Calipolis. Calydon (kal´i-don).—A forest celebrated in the romances relating to King Arthur and Merlin. Camaralzaman, Prince.—Arabian Nights.—One of the stories of the Arabian Nights and the name of a prince who fell in love with Badoura, princess of China, the moment he saw her. Camancho (kÄ-mÄ´cho).—Don Quixote, Cervantes. A character in an episode in Don Quixote, who gets cheated out of his bride after having made great preparations for their wedding. Camballo (kam-bal´o), or Cambel.—FaËrie Queene, Spenser. A brother of Candace. He challenged every suitor to his sister’s hand, and overthrew all except Triamond, who married the lady. Cambalu.—In the Voyages of Marco Polo the chief city of the province of Cathay. Cambuscan (kam-bus-kan´, or kam-bus´kan).—A Tartar king identical with Genghis Khan. The king of the Far East sent Cambuscan a “steed of brass, which, between sunrise and sunset, would carry its rider to any spot on the earth.” All that was required was to whisper the name of the place in the horse’s ear, mount upon his back, and turn a pin set in his ear. When the rider had arrived at the place required, he had to turn another pin, and the horse instantly descended, and, with another screw of the pin, vanished till it was again required. This story is begun by Chaucer in the Squire’s Tale, but was never finished. Camelot (kam´e-lot).—A parish in Somersetshire, England (now called Queen’s Camel), where King Arthur is said to have held his court. In this place there are still to be seen vast intrenchments of an ancient town or station—called by the inhabitants “King Arthur’s Palace.” Camilla (ka-mil´Ä).—(1) The virgin queen of the Volscians, famous for her fleetness of foot. She aided Turnus against Æneas. (2) Wife of Anselmo of Florence in Don Quixote. Anselmo, in order to rejoice in her incorruptible fidelity, induced his friend Lothario to try to corrupt her. This he did, and Camilla was not trial-proof, but fell. Anselmo for a time was kept in the dark, but at the end Camilla eloped with Lothario. Anselmo died of grief, Lothario was slain in battle, and Camilla died in a convent. Camille (kÄ-mel´).—(1) In Corneille’s tragedy of Les Horaces. When her brother meets her and bids her congratulate him for his victory over the three curiatii, she gives utterance to her grief for the death of her lover. Horace says, “What! can you prefer a man to the interests of Rome?” Whereupon Camille denounces Rome, and concludes with these words: “Oh, that it were my lot!” (2) Whitehead dramatized the subject and called it The Roman Father. Canace (kan´a-se).—FaËrie Queene, Spenser. A paragon among women, the daughter of King Cambuscan, to whom the king of the East sent as a present a mirror and a ring. The mirror would tell the lady if any man on whom she set her heart would prove true or false, and the ring (which was to be worn on her thumb) would enable her to understand the language of birds and to converse with them. Canace was courted by a crowd of suitors, but her brother gave out that anyone who pretended to her hand must encounter him in single combat and overthrow him. She ultimately married Triamond, son of the fairy, AgapË. Candide (kÄN-ded´), ou l’Optimisme (oo lop-te-mezm´).—A philosophical novel by Voltaire, published in 1759. It is named from its hero, who bears all the worst ills of life with a cool, philosophical indifference, laughing at its miseries. Written ostensibly to ridicule philosophical optimism, and on the spur given to pessimist theories by the Lisbon earthquake, Candide is really as comprehensive as it is desultory. Religion, political government, national peculiarities, human weakness, ambition, love, loyalty—all come in for the unfailing sneer. The moral, wherever there is a moral, is, “Be tolerant, and cultivez vÔtre jardin”; that is to say, Do whatsoever work you have to do diligently. Candor, Mrs.—A most energetic slanderer in Sheridan’s School for Scandal. Canterbury Tales, The, by Geoffrey Chaucer, consist of a Prologue and twenty-four narratives of which only two, Chaucer’s Tales of Meliboeus and The Parson’s Tale, are in prose, the remainder being written in couplets of ten syllables, which have laid the foundation for the most popular form of English verse. The plan of the poem is as follows: The author supposes that, on the evening before he starts on a pilgrimage to the shrine of St. Thomas-À-Becket, at Canterbury, he stops at the Tabard Inn, in Southwark, where he finds himself in the midst of a company of twenty-one, of all ranks and ages and both sexes, who are also bound for the same destination. After supper, the host of Tabard, Harry Baillie by name, proposes that, to beguile the journey there and back, the pilgrims shall each of them tell two tales as they come and go; and that he who by the general voice shall have told his story best, shall, on their return to the hostelry, be treated to a supper at the common cost. This is agreed to with acclamation; and, accordingly, the pilgrims start next morning on their way, listening, as they ride, to the heroic tale of the brave and gentle knight who has been chosen to narrate the first tale. It will be understood that Chaucer does not profess to give to the world all the stories told. As a matter of fact, he gives only twenty-four, of which two have been already named, the remainder being those told by the Knight, the Miller, the Reeve, the Cook, the Man of Law, the Wife of Bath, the Friar, the Sompnour, the Clerk, the Squire, the Franklin, the Doctor, the Pardoner, the Shipman, the Prioress, the Monk, the Nun’s Priest, the second Nun, the Canon’s Yeoman, the Manciple, and Chaucer himself (Sir Topas). Unfinished, as it is, however, the poem was immensely popular, even in the author’s time; and it was one of the first books that was issued from the press of Caxton, probably in 1475. Caora (kÄ´o-rÄ).—Description of Guiana, Raleigh. A river on the banks of which are a people whose heads grow beneath their shoulders. Their eyes are in their shoulders, and mouths in the middle of their breasts. The original picture is found in Hakluyt’s Voyages, 1598. Capulet (kap´u-let).—The head of a noble Veronese house in Shakespeare’s tragedy of Romeo and Juliet, hostile to the house of Montague. He is at times self-willed and tyrannical, but a jovial and testy old man. Capulet, Lady.—The proud and stately wife of Capulet, and mother of Juliet. Caradoc (kar´a-dok).—A knight of the Round Table. Also, in history, the British chief whom the Romans called Caractacus. Caradoc is the hero of an old ballad entitled The Boy and the Mantle. Carker (kÄr´ker).—A scoundrelly clerk in Dickens’ Dombey and Son. Carton, Sidney.—A hero transformed by unselfish love in Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities. He voluntarily goes to the guillotine to save his successful rival in love. Casca (kas´kÄ).—Julius CÆsar, Shakespeare. A blunt-witted Roman, one of the conspirators against Julius CÆsar. Cassandra (ka-san´drÄ).—A daughter of Priam, king of Troy, gifted with the power of prophecy; but Apollo, whom she had offended, brought it to pass that no one believed her predictions. Shakespeare makes use of this character in Troilus and Cressida. Cassibelan.—Great uncle to Cymbeline, in Shakespeare’s play by that name. Cassio (kash´io).—A Florentine, and lieutenant of Othello, and a tool of Iago, in Shakespeare’s tragedy of Othello. Iago made Cassio drunk, and then set on Roderigo to quarrel with him. Cassio wounded Roderigo. Othello suspended Cassio, but Iago induced Desdemona to plead for his restoration. This interest in Cassio confirmed the jealous rage of Othello to murder Desdemona and kill himself. After the death of Othello, Cassio was appointed governor of Cyprus. Castle Dangerous.—A keep belonging to the Douglas family, which gives its name to one of Sir Walter Scott’s Tales of My Landlord. It was so called by the English because it was always retaken from them by the Douglas. Castle of Indolence.—The title of a poem by Thomson, and the name of a castle, described in it as situated in a pleasing land of drowsiness, where every sense was steeped in the most luxurious and enervating delights. Castlewood, Beatrix.—The heroine of Thackeray’s novel Henry Esmond, a picture of splendid, lustrous, physical beauty. Caudle, Mrs. Margaret.—The feigned author of a series of curtain lectures by Douglas Jerrold, published in Punch, purporting to be the lectures delivered by Mrs. Margaret Caudle to her patient husband, Job Caudle, between the hours of ten at night and seven in the morning. Cauline, Sir.—A knight in Percy’s Reliques, who served the wine to the king of Ireland. He fell in love with Christabelle, the king’s daughter, and she became his troth-plight wife, without her father’s knowledge. When the king knew of it, he banished Sir Cauline. After a time the soldain asked the lady in marriage, but Sir Cauline challenged his rival and slew him. He himself, however, died of the wounds he had received, and the Lady Christabelle, out of grief, “burst her gentle hearte in twayne.” Cecilia, St.—A patron saint of the blind, also patroness of musicians, and “inventor of the organ.” According to tradition, an angel fell in love with her for her musical skill, and used nightly to visit her. Celadon (sel´a-don) and Amelia.—Lovers of matchless beauty and most devoted to each other. Being overtaken by a thunderstorm, Amelia became alarmed, but Celadon, folding his arm about her, said, “’Tis safety to be near thee, sure”; but while he spoke Amelia was struck by lightning and fell dead in his arms. Celia.—FaËrie Queene, Spenser. (1) Mother of Faith, Hope and Charity. She was herself known as Heavenliness and lived in the hospices Holiness. (2) Celia, cousin to Rosalind in Shakespeare’s comedy As You Like It. Celia is a common poetical name for a lady or a lady-love. Chadband (chad´band), The Rev.—A clerical character in Dickens’ Bleak House. He will always stand as a type of hypocritical piety. Chanticleer (chan´ti-kler).—The cock in the tale of Reynard the Fox, and in Chaucer’s Nonne Prestes Tale. Charlemagne (chÄr´le-mÄn).—The romance of Charlemagne and his paladins is of French origin, as the romances of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table is of Celtic or Welsh origin. According to one tradition Charlemagne is not dead, but waits, crowned and armed, in Odenberg, near Saltzburg, till the time of the antichrist, when he will wake up and deliver Christendom. According to another tradition, Charlemagne appears in seasons of plenty. He crosses the Rhine on a golden bridge, and blesses both cornfields and vineyards. Charmian (chÄr´mi-an).—A kind-hearted but simple-minded female attendant on Cleopatra in Shakespeare’s play of Antony and Cleopatra. Cheeryble (cher´i-bl) Brothers, The.—A firm of benevolent London merchants in Dickens’ Nicholas Nickleby. Chery and Fair-Star.—Countess d’Aulnoy’s Fairy Tales. Two children of royal birth, whom their father’s brothers and their mother’s sisters cast out to sea; they are found and brought up by a corsair and his wife. Ultimately they are told of their birth by a green bird and marry each other. A similar tale is found in The Arabian Nights. Chibiabos.—The musician in Longfellow’s Hiawatha, personifying harmony in nature. Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage.—A poem, in the Spenserian stanza, by Lord Byron. It consists of four cantos, of which the first and second were published in 1812, the third in 1816, and the fourth in 1818; and the preface to the first two cantos contained the following explanation of the origin and purpose of the poem. “It was written,” says Lord Byron, “for the most part, amid the scenes which it attempts to describe. It was begun in Albania; and the parts relative to Spain and Portugal were composed from the author’s observations in those countries.... the scenes attempted to be sketched are in Spain, Portugal, Epirus, Acarnania, and Greece (the third canto describes scenes in Belgium, Switzerland, and the Valley of the Rhine; and canto four is chiefly occupied with Rome).... A fictitious character is introduced for the sake of giving some connection to the piece, which, however, makes no pretensions to regularity. It has been suggested to me by friends, on whose opinion I set a high value, that in this fictitious character, Childe Harold, I may incur the suspicion of having intended some real personage; this I beg leave, once for all, to disclaim. Harold is the creation of imagination, for the purpose I have stated. In some trivial particulars, and those merely local, there might be grounds for such a notion; but in the main points, I should hope, none whatever. It is almost superfluous to mention that the appellation ‘Childe’ is used as more consonant with the old structure of versification which I have adopted.” Children in the Wood.—Two characters in an ancient and well-known ballad entitled The Children in the Wood, or The Norfolk Gent’s Last Will and Testament. This is said to be a disguised recital of the alleged murder of his nephews by Richard III. Chillingly, Kenelm.—The hero in a novel by this name by Bulwer. Chillon (she-yÔn), The Prisoner of.—A poem by Lord Byron, founded on the story of Francois de Bonnivard, the hero of Genevan independence, and published in 1816. Bonnivard was born in 1496, and died in 1571. An account of his life, in France, is prefixed to the poem. Chingachgook.—A sagamore of the Mohicans and father of Uncas, in Cooper’s Leather-Stocking Tales. Chloe (klo´e).—Daphnis and Chloe, Longus. (1) The shepherdess loved by Daphne. (2) Paul and Virginia by St. Pierre is founded on this romance. (3) Chloe is also a shepherdess in Shakespeare’s As You Like It. Choereas.—The lover of CallirrhoË, in Chariton’s Greek romance. Chriemhild, or Kriemhild (krem´hild).—The heroine of the German epic poem, the Nibelungenlied. She is represented as a woman of the rarest grace and beauty, and rich beyond conception. By the treacherous murder of her husband she is transformed into a furious creature of revenge. For plot of this epic cycle, see “Kriemhild.” Christabel (kris´ta-bel).—(1) The subject and heroine of an old romance by Sir Eglamour of Artois. (2) The heroine of an ancient ballad Sir Cauline. (3) The lady in Coleridge’s poem Christabel. Christian (kris´tian).—The hero of John Bunyan’s allegory Pilgrim’s Progress. He flees from the “City of Destruction,” and journeys to the “Celestial City.” He starts with a heavy burden on his back, but it falls off when he stands at the foot of the cross. All his trials on the way are depicted. Christiana (kris-te-Ä´nÄ).—The wife of Christian, who, starting with her children and Mercy from the “City of Destruction,” forms the subject of Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, part II. She was placed under the guidance of Mr. Great-Heart, and met her husband at the Celestial City. Christmas Carol, A.—A ghost story of Christmas, by Charles Dickens, published in 1843, with illustrations by John Leech. “We are all charmed,” wrote Lord Jeffrey to the author, “with your Carol, chiefly, I think, for the genuine goodness which breathes all through it, and is the true inspiring angel by which its genius has been awakened. The whole scene of the Cratchits is like the dream of a benevolent angel, in spite of its broad reality, and little Tiny Tim in life and death almost as sweet and touching as Nelly.” Christmas Eve.—A poem by Robert Browning, in which, “after following through a long course of reflection the successive phases of religious belief, he arrives at the certainty that, however confused be the vision of Christ, where His love is, there is the Life; and that, the more direct the revelation of that Love, the deeper and more vital is its power.” Christopher, St.—The giant that carried a child over a brook, and said, “Chylde, thou has put me in grete peryll. I might bere no greater burden.” The Chylde was the Christ and the burden was the “Sin of the World.” This has been a favorite theme for painters. Chrysalde (kre-zÄld´).—A character in MoliÈre’s L’Ecole des Femmes; a friend of Arnolphe. Chrysale (kre-zÄl´).—An honest, simple-minded, henpecked tradesman, in the same comedy by MoliÈre. Chuzzlewit, Martin.—The hero of Dickens’ novel of the same name. The story is remarkable for the attention it directed to the system of ship hospitals and to the workhouse nurses whose prototype in Sarah Gamp has become famous all over the world. Chuzzlewit, Jonas.—A miser and a murderer, the opposite type of character from Martin. Cimmerians (si-me´ri-anz).—A people described by Homer dwelling “beyond the ocean stream,” in a land where the sun never shines. Cinderella.—Heroine of a fairy tale. She is the drudge of the house, while her elder sisters go to fine balls. At length a fairy enables her to go to the prince’s ball; the prince falls in love with her, and she is discovered by means of a glass slipper which she drops, and which will fit no foot but her own. She is represented as returning good for evil and heaping upon her half-sisters every kindness a princess can show. Cipango (si-pang´go).—A marvelous island, described in the Voyages of Marco Polo, the Venetian traveler. It is represented as lying in the Eastern seas, some one thousand five hundred miles from land, and of its beauty and wealth many stories are related. Columbus made a diligent search for this island. ClÄrchen (klar´chen).—A female character in Goethe’s Egmont, noted for her constancy and devotion. Clare, Ada.—The wife of Carstone, and one of the most important characters in Dickens’ Bleak House. ClavileÑo (klÄ-ve-lan´yo), El AlÍgero.—The wooden horse on which Don Quixote got astride in order to disenchant the Infanta Antonomasia, her husband, and the Countess Trifaldi. It was “the very horse on which Peter of Provence carried off the fair Magalona, and was constructed by Merlin.” This horse was called ClavileÑo, or Wooden Peg, because it was governed by a wooden pin in the forehead. ClÉante (kla-ont´).—Brother-in-law of Orgon in MoliÈre’s Tartuffe. He is distinguished for his genuine piety, and is both high-minded and compassionate. The same name occurs in two other plays by MoliÈre. Cleishbotham (klesh´boTH-am), Jedediah.—Schoolmaster and parish clerk of Gandercleuch, who employed his assistant teacher to arrange and edit the tales told by the landlord of the Wallace inn of the same parish. These tales the editor disposed in three series, called by the general title of The Tales of My Landlord. Of course the real author is Sir Walter Scott. Clementina, Lady.—A beautiful and accomplished woman, deeply in love with Sir Charles Grandison, in Richardson’s novel of this name. Cleon (kle´on).—(1) In Shakespeare’s Pericles, governor of Tarsus, burned to death with his wife Dionysia by the enraged citizens, to revenge the supposed murder of Marina, daughter of Pericles, prince of Tyre. (2) The personification of glory in Spenser’s FaËrie Queene. Clifford, Paul.—An attractive highwayman and an interesting hero in Bulwer’s novel by the same name. He is familiar with the haunts of low vice and dissipation, but afterward is reformed and elevated by the power of love. Clinker, Humphrey.—A novel by Smollett. The hero, by the same name, a philosophic youth, meets many adventures. Brought up in the workhouse, put out by the parish as apprentice to a blacksmith, he was afterward employed as a hostler’s assistant. Having been dismissed from the stable, and reduced to great want, he at length attracts the notice of Mr. Bramble who takes him into his family as a servant. He becomes the accepted lover of Winifred Jenkins, and at length turns out to be a natural son of Mr. Bramble. Cloten (klo´ten).—A rejected lover of Imogen, in Shakespeare’s play of Cymbeline. Clorinda (klo-rin´dÄ).—Jerusalem Delivered, Tasso. Clorinda, the heroine of this poem, is represented as an Amazon inspiring the most tender affection in others, especially in the Christian chief Tancred; yet she is herself susceptible of no passion but the love of military fame. Clouds, The.—A famous comedy by Aristophanes. Strepsiades (“Turncoat”) sends his spendthrift son Phidippides to the phrontistery (“thinking shop”) of Socrates, who appears as a sophist, to be reformed by training in rhetoric. Phidippides refuses to go; so Strepsiades goes himself, and finds Socrates swinging in a basket, observing the sun and ether. Socrates summons the Clouds, his new deities, and undertakes to make a sophist of him and free him from the religion of his fathers. Unfortunate results of his new knowledge show Strepsiades his error, and he abandons Socrates and sets the phrontistery on fire. Cock, The.—A famous tavern in Fleet street, London, opposite the Temple. Tennyson has immortalized it in his Will Waterproof’s Lyrical Monologue. Coelebs (se´lebz).—The hero of a novel by Hannah More, Coelebs in Search of a Wife. Colada. (ko-lÄ´THÄ).—The sword taken by the Cid from Ramon Berenger, count of Barcelona. This sword had two hilts of solid gold. Colin Clout (kol´in klout).—A name that Spenser applies to himself in the FaËrie Queene and Shepherd’s Calendar. Colin Clout also is introduced into Gay’s pastorals. Cologne (ko-lon´), The Three Kings of.—The three magi who visited the Infant Savior, and whose bodies are said to have been brought by the Empress Helena from the East to Constantinople, whence they were transferred to Milan. Afterward they were removed to Cologne and placed in the principal church of the city. Their names are commonly said to be Jaspar, Melchior, and Balthazar. Comedy of Errors.—A comedy by Shakespeare. Twin brothers of exact likeness named Antipholus are served by attendant slaves named Dromio also of striking resemblance. The humor of the play lies in the complications that arise. The two brothers are lost at sea with their servants and are picked up by different vessels. After long separation they all reappear in Ephesus. There is great entanglement of plot until both brothers face each other in a trial before the duke and all is explained. Complete Angler, The (or, The Contemplative Man’s Recreation. “A discourse, of Fish and Fishing, not unworthy the Perusal of most Anglers”).—A famous treatise by Izaak Walton, published in 1653. “Whether,” says Sir John Hawkins, “we consider the elegant simplicity of the style, the ease and unaffected humor of the dialogue, the lovely scenes which it delineates, the enchanting pastoral poetry which it contains, or the fine morality it so sweetly inculcates, it has hardly its fellow in any of the modern languages.” Comus.—A masque, or dramatic poem, by John Milton, published in 1637. It was written for the earl of Bridgewater, and acted at his residence, Castle Ludlow, in Shropshire, on Michaelmas night, 1634. The music is by Henry Lawes. Comus (a revel) was the Roman god of banqueting and festive amusements; but in Milton’s poems he appears as a lewd enchanter, whose pleasure it is to deceive and ruin the chaste and innocent. Coningsby (kon´ingz-bi).—A novel by B. Disraeli. The characters are meant for portraits: thus, “Rigby” represents Croker; “Monmouth,” Lord Hertford; “Eskdale,” Lowther; “Ormsby,” Irving; “Lucretia,” Mme. Zichy; “Countess Colonna,” Lady Strachan; “Sidonia,” Baron A. de Rothschild; “Henry Sidney,” Lord John Manners; “Belvoir,” duke of Rutland, second son of Beaumanoir. Consuelo (kÔN-sÜ-a-lo´).—A noted novel by George Sand. The heroine has the same name, and is an impersonation of noble purity sustained amidst great temptations. Cophetua (ko-fet´u-Ä).—An imaginary African king, of whom a legendary ballad told that he fell in love with a beggar maid and married her. This ballad is found in Percy’s Reliques. Tennyson has given us a modern version in The Beggar Maid. Copperfield, David.—A novel by Charles Dickens. David is Dickens himself, and Micawber is Dickens’ father. According to the tale, David’s mother was nursery governess in a family where Mr. Copperfield visited. At the death of Mr. Copperfield, the widow married Edward Murdstone, a hard, tyrannical man, who made the home of David a dread and terror to the boy. When his mother died, Murdstone sent David to lodge with the Micawbers, and bound him apprentice to Messrs. Murdstone and Grinby, by whom he was put into the warehouse, and set to paste labels upon wine and spirit bottles. David soon became tired of this dreary work, and ran away to Dover, where he was kindly received by his [great-]aunt Betsy Trotwood, who clothed him, and sent him as day-boy to Dr. Strong, but placed him to board with Mr. Wickfield, a lawyer, father of Agnes, between whom and David a mutual attachment sprang up. David’s first wife was Dora Spenlow, but at the death of this pretty little “child-wife,” he married Agnes Wickfield. Cordelia (kÔr-de´liÄ).—King Lear, Shakespeare. The youngest of Lear’s three daughters, and the one that truly loved him. Corinne (ko-ren´).—The heroine of a novel, of the same name, by Madame de StaËl. Coriolanus (ko´ri-o-la´nus).—An historical play by William Shakespeare. In the plot, and in many of the speeches, Shakespeare has followed Sir Thomas North’s Life of Coriolanus, included in his translation of Amyot’s Plutarch. “The subject of Coriolanus,” Corsair, The.—A poem, in three cantos, by Lord Byron, published in 1814. The hero is called Conrad, and is described, in a well-known passage, as leaving The heroines are Medora, whom Conrad loves, and Gulnare, “the Harem queen,” whose love is given to Conrad, and who kills her master, Seyd, in order that Conrad may be free. Corydon (kor´i-don).—A shepherd in one of the Idylls of Theocritus, and one of the Eclogues of Vergil. Used by Shakespeare and later poets to designate a rustic swain. Costard (kos´tÄrd).—A clown, in Shakespeare’s Love’s Labor’s Lost, who apes the display of wit, and misapplies, in the most ridiculous manner, the phrases and modes of combination in argument that were then in vogue. Cotter’s Saturday Night, The.—A poem by Robert Burns of which his brother remarks: “Robert had frequently remarked to me that there was something particularly venerable in the phrase, ‘Let us worship God,’ used by a decent, sober head of a family introducing family worship. To this sentiment of the author the world is indebted for the Cotter’s Saturday Night. The hint of the plan and title of the poem are taken from Ferguson’s Farmer’s Ingle.” Count of Monte Cristo.—A celebrated romance by Alexander Dumas, in which Edmond Dantes, the hero, suffers unjust imprisonment for many years. He finally escapes, only to be apprised of the death of his father and the marriage of his former sweetheart. From information derived from a fellow prisoner, he then comes into possession of great riches through the successful discovery of hoards of treasure in the island of Monte Cristo. His remaining years are given over to a vindication of his former life. Coverly (papers by Steele and Addison), Sir Roger de, was a member of a hypothetical club, and was noted for his modesty, generosity, hospitality, and eccentric whims. He was most courteous to his neighbors, most affectionate to his family, most amiable to his domestics. Sir Roger, who figures in thirty papers of the Spectator, is the very beau-ideal of an amiable country gentleman of Queen Anne’s time. Crabtree.—A character in Smollett’s novel, The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle. Crane, Ichabod.—The name of a Yankee schoolmaster, whose adventures are related in the Legend of Sleepy Hollow, in Irving’s Sketch-Book. Crawley (kr´li), Rawdon.—The husband of Becky Sharp in Vanity Fair, Thackeray’s novel without a hero. Creakle (kre´kl), Mr.—A tyrannical and cruel schoolmaster in Dickens’ David Copperfield. Cressida (kres´i-dÄ).—The heroine of Shakespeare’s play, Troilus and Cressida, also the heroine of one of Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales. Croaker.—A character in Goldsmith’s comedy, The Good-Natured Man. Crummles (krum´lz), Vincent.—A theatrical head of a theatrical family in Dickens’ Nicholas Nickleby. Crusoe, Robinson.—Title and hero of a novel by Daniel Defoe. Robinson Crusoe is a shipwrecked sailor, who leads a solitary life for many years on a desert island, and relieves the tedium of life by ingenious contrivances (1719). The story is based on the adventures of Alexander Selkirk, a Scotch sailor, who in 1704 was left by Captain Stradding on the uninhabited island of Juan Fernandez. Here he remained for four years and four months, when he was rescued by Captain Woodes Rogers and brought to England. Cuttle, Captain.—A character in Dickens’ Dombey and Son, good-humored, eccentric, pathetic in his simple credulity. Cymbeline (sim´be-lin).—Title and hero of Shakespeare’s play. Imogen, daughter of Cymbeline, king of Britain, married clandestinely Posthumus Leonatus; and Posthumus, being banished for the offense, retired to Rome. One day, in the house of Philario, the conversation turned on the merits of wives, and Posthumus bet his diamond ring that nothing could tempt the fidelity of Imogen. Through the villainy of Iachimo, Cymbeline was forced to believe Imogen untrue. The villainy was in time disclosed, and the beautiful character of Imogen revealed. D Dalgetty (dal´get-i), Captain Dugald.—A soldier of fortune in Sir Walter Scott’s Legend of Montrose, distinguished for his pedantry, conceit, valor, vulgar assurance, knowledge of the world, greediness, and a hundred other qualities, making him one of the most amusing, admirable, and natural characters ever drawn by the hand of genius. Damocles (dam´o-klez).—A flatterer in the court of Dionysius of Syracuse. By way of answer to his constant praises of the happiness of kings, Dionysius seated him at a royal banquet, with a sword hung over his head by a single horsehair. In the midst of his magnificent banquet, Damocles, chancing to look upward, saw a sharp and naked sword suspended over his head. A sight so alarming instantly changed his views on the felicity of kings. The phrase signifies now evil foreboding or dread, a tantalizing torment. Damon and Pythias (pith´i-as).—(1) A play by Richard Edwards, printed in 1571. Its main subject is tragic, but it calls itself a comedy. (2) A tragedy by John Banim and Richard Lalor Sheil, produced in 1821. (3) Two noble Pythagoreans of Syracuse, who have been remembered as models of faithful friendship. Pythias having been condemned to death by Dionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse, begged to be allowed to go home, for the purpose of arranging his affairs, Damon pledging his own life for the reappearance of his friend. Dionysius consented, and Pythias returned just in time to save Damon from death. Struck by so noble an example of mutual affection, the tyrant pardoned Pythias, and desired to be admitted into their sacred fellowship. Dandie Dinmont.—A jovial, true-hearted store-farmer, in Sir Walter Scott’s Guy Mannering. Daphnis (daf´nis) and Chloe (klo´e).—A prose-pastoral love story in Greek, by Longus, a Byzantine. Gessner has imitated the Greek romance in his idyll called Daphnis. In this love story Longus says he was hunting in Lesbos, and saw in a grove consecrated to the nymphs a beautiful picture of children exposed, lovers plighting their faith, and the incursions of pirates, which he now expresses and dedicates to Pan, Cupid and the nymphs. Daphnis, of course, is the lover of Chloe. Darby and Joan.—This ballad is frequently called The Happy Old Couple. The words are sometimes attributed to Prior. Darby and Joan are an old-fashioned, loving couple, who are wholly averse to change of any sort. It is generally said that Henry Woodfall was the author of the ballad, and that the originals were John Darby (printer, of Bartholomew Close, who died 1730) and his wife Joan. Woodfall served his apprenticeship with John Darby. Dares (da´rez).—One of the competitors at the funeral games of Anchises in Sicily, described in the fifth book of Vergil’s Æneid. David.—(1) He was the uncle of King Arthur. St. David first embraced the ascetic life in the Isle of Wight, but subsequently removed to Menevia, in Pembrokeshire, where he founded twelve convents. (2) One of the Israelite kings. (3) In Dryden’s satire called Absalom and Achitophel, represents Charles II.; Absalom, his beautiful but rebellious son, represents the duke of Monmouth. Davy.—Henry IV., Shakespeare. The varlet of Justice Shallow, who so identifies himself with his master that he considers himself half host, half varlet. Thus when he seats Bardolph and Page at table, he tells them they must take “his” good will for their assurance of welcome. Dawfyd.—The Betrothed, Scott. The one-eyed freebooter chief. Dawkins (d´kinz).—Oliver Twist, Dickens. Known by the sobriquet of the Artful Dodger. He is one of Fagin’s tools. Jack Dawkins is a scamp, but of a cheery, buoyant temper. Dayonet, Sir.—In the romance Le Mort d’Arthur he is called the fool of King Arthur. Deans, Douce Davie.—A poor herdsman at Edinburgh, and the father of Effie and Jeanie Deans, in Sir Walter Scott’s novel, The Heart of Midlothian. Deans, Effie.—A beautiful but unfortunate character in Sir Walter Scott’s Heart of Midlothian. Deans, Jeanie.—The heroine of Sir Walter Scott’s Heart of Midlothian, described as a perfect model of sober heroism, of the union of good sense and strong affections, firm principles, and perfect disinterestedness; and of calm superiority to misfortune, danger, and difficulty which such a union must create. Decameron (de-kam´e-ron), The.—A collection of romances by Giovanni Boccaccio. It derives its name from its framework. Seven gentlemen and three ladies retire from Florence, during the plague, to a pleasant garden retreat, where they beguile the time by narrating various stories of love adventure. Dedlock, Lady.—Wife of Sir Leicester, beautiful, and apparently cold and heartless, but suffering constant remorse. The daughter’s name is Esther Summerson, the heroine of the novel. Dedlock, Sir Leicester.—A character in Bleak House, by Charles Dickens. An honorable and truthful man, but of such fixed ideas that no man could shake his prejudices. He had an idea that the one thing of greatest importance to the world was a certain family by the name of Dedlock. He loved his wife, Lady Dedlock, and believed in her implicitly. His pride had a terrible fall when he learned the secret of her life before her marriage and knew the terrible fact she had been hiding from him that she had a daughter. Deerslayer, The.—The title of a novel by J. F. Cooper, and the nickname of its hero, Natty, or Nathaniel Bumppo. He is a model uncivilized man, honorable, truthful, and brave, pure of heart and without reproach. He is introduced in five of Cooper’s novels: The Deerslayer, The Pathfinder, The Last of the Mohicans, The Pioneers, and The Prairie. He is called “Hawk-Eye” in The Last of the Mohicans; “Leather-Stocking” in The Pioneers; and “The Trapper” in The Prairie, in which last book he dies. Defarge (da-fÄrzh´), Mme.—Wife of the following, a dangerous woman, everlastingly knitting. Defarge, Mons.—Tale of Two Cities, Dickens. Keeper of a wine shop in the Faubourg St. Antoine in Paris. He is a bull-necked, implacable-looking man. Della Crusca Accademia (del´lÄ krÖs´kÄ Äk-kÄ-da´me-Ä).—Applied in England to a brotherhood of poets, at the close of the eighteenth century, under the leadership of Mrs. Piozzi. This school was conspicuous for affectation and high-flown panegyrics on each other. It was stamped out by Gifford, in The Baviad, in 1794, and The MÆviad, in 1796. Robert Merry, who signed himself Della Crusca, James Cobb, a farce-writer, James Boswell, biographer of Dr. Johnson, O’Keefe, Morton, Reynolds, Holcroft, Sheridan, Colman the Younger, Mrs. H. Cowley, and Mrs. Robinson were its best exponents. Delphin Classics.—For the use of the dauphin, son of Louis XIV. the writings of thirty-nine Latin authors were collected and published in sixty volumes. Notes and an index were added to each work. An edition of the Delphin Classics was published in London in the year 1818. Delphine, Madame.—Old Creole Days, George W. Cable. A free quadroon connected with the splendor of Lafitte, the smuggler and patriot. Madame Delphine disowned her beautiful daughter Olive in order to assure to her the rights of a white woman. Demetrius (de-me´tri-us).—Midsummer Night’s Dream, Shakespeare. The young Athenian to whom Egeno promised his daughter Hermia in marriage. Dempster, Janet.—A character from George Eliot’s Scenes From Clerical Life. She was a woman of generous impulse, succumbed to drink through the brutality of her husband, but was restored by a clergyman to a life of nobility. De Profundus.—Out of the Depths. The one hundred and thirtieth Psalm is so called from the first two words in the Latin version. In the Catholic liturgy it is sung when the dead are committed to the grave. Deronda, Daniel.—One of George Eliot’s strongest character sketches in her novel of the same name. Deserted Village, The.—A poem by Oliver Goldsmith. It was “instantaneously popular. Two new editions of it were called for in the following month, and a fourth in August, and passages from the poem were in every mouth, and the topics which it suggested, of depopulation, luxury, and landlordism, were discussed in connection with it.” The Deserted Village has been identified with Lissoy, a quaint Irish village in the parish of Kilkenny West, of which Goldsmith’s father was the pastor, and whose natural features are accurately described in the poem. Desmas.—The repentant thief is so called in The Story of Joseph of Arimathea. Longfellow, in The Golden Legend, calls him Dumachus. The impenitent thief is called Gestas, but Longfellow calls him Titus. Dhu, Roderick.—A highland chieftain and outlaw in Scott’s poem Lady of the Lake, cousin of Ellen Douglas, and also her suitor. He is slain by James Fitz-James. Diana.—In Shakespeare’s All’s Well That Ends Well, daughter of the widow of Florence with whom Helena lodged on her way to the shrine of St. Jacques le Grand. Count Bertram wantonly loved Diana, but she brought about a reconciliation between Bertram and his wife Helena. Diggon (dig´on), Davie.—A shepherd in the Shepherd’s Calendar, by Spenser. He drove his sheep into foreign lands, hoping to find better pasture; but was amazed at the luxury and profligacy of the shepherds whom he saw there. Diggory (dig´o-ri).—In Goldsmith’s She Stoops to Conquer, a barn laborer, employed on state occasions for butler and footman by Mr. and Mrs. Hardcastle. He is both awkward and familiar, laughs at his master’s jokes and talks to his master’s guests while serving. Dimmesdale (dimz´dal), Arthur.—In Hawthorne’s romance, The Scarlet Letter, a Puritan minister of great eloquence, whose conscience compels him to make a public confession of sin. Dinah.—(1) St. Ronan’s Well, Scott, Daughter of Sandie Lawson, landlord of the Spa hotel. (2) A character in Mrs. Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Dinah, Aunt.—In Sterne’s Tristram Shandy. She leaves Mr. Walter Shandy one thousand pounds, which he fancies will enable him to carry out all the schemes that enter into his head. Dinah Friendly.—The Bashful Man, Moncrieff. Daughter of Sir Thomas Friendly. Dingley Hall.—Pickwick Papers, Dickens. The home of Mr. Wardle and his family. Divina Commedia (de-ve´nÄ kom-ma´de-Ä), (or, Divine Comedy).—The first poem of note ever written in the Italian language. It is an epic by DantÉ Alighieri, and is divided into three parts: Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise. DantÉ called it a comedy, because the ending is happy; and his countrymen added the word divine from admiration of the poem. The poet depicts a vision, in which he is conducted, first by Vergil (human reason) through hell and purgatory; and then by Beatrice (revelation), and finally by St. Bernard through the several heavens, where he beholds the Triune God. “Hell” is represented as a funnel-shaped hollow, formed of gradually contracting circles, the lowest and smallest of which is the earth’s center. “Purgatory” is a mountain rising solitary from the ocean on that side of the earth which is opposite to us. It is divided into terraces, and its top is the terrestrial paradise. From this “top” the poet ascends through the seven planetary heavens, the fixed stars, and the “primum mobile.” In all parts of the regions thus traversed there arise conversations with noted personages. The deepest questions of philosophy and theology are discussed and solved; and the social and moral condition of Italy, with the corruptions of church and state, are depicted with indignation. Fifty-two years after the poet’s death the republic of Florence set apart an annual sum for public lectures to explain the Divine Comedy to the people in one of the churches, and Boccaccio himself was appointed first lecturer. Doctor Syntax.—The hero of a work entitled The Tour of Dr. Syntax in Search of the Picturesque. Doctor Syntax is a simple-minded, pious, hen-pecked clergyman, but of excellent taste and scholarship, who left home in search of the picturesque. His adventures are told in eight-syllable verse by William Combe. Dods.—The old landlady in Scott’s novel called St. Ronan’s Well. An excellent character, a mosaic of oddities, all fitting together and forming an admirable whole. She was so good a housewife that a cookery book of great repute bears her name. Dodson and Fogg.—The lawyers employed by the plaintiff in the famous case of “Bardell vs. Pickwick,” in the Pickwick Papers, by Charles Dickens. Doeg (do´eg).—Absalom and Achitophel, Dryden. Doeg was Saul’s herdsman, who had charge of his mules and asses. He told Saul that the priests of Nob had provided David with food; whereupon Saul sent him to put them to death, and eighty-five were ruthlessly massacred. Dogberry (dog´ber-i) and Verges (ver´gez).—Two ignorant conceited constables, in Shakespeare’s Much Ado About Nothing. Dolla Murrey.—A character in Crabbe’s Borough who was devoted to playing cards. She died at the card table. Dolly Varden (vÄr´den).—Barnaby Rudge, Dickens. Daughter of Gabriel Varden, locksmith. Dolly dressed in the Watteau style, and was lively, pretty, and bewitching. Dombey and Son.—A novel by Dickens. Mr. Dombey is a self-sufficient, purse-proud, frigid merchant who feels satisfied there is but one Dombey in the world, and that is himself. When Paul was born, his ambition was attained, his whole heart was in the boy, and the loss of the mother was but a small matter. The boy’s death turned his heart to stone. Dombey, Florence.—A motherless child, hungering and thirsting to be loved, but regarded with indifference by her father, who thinks that sons alone are worthy of regard. Domesday Book (or, Doomsday Book),—The name of one of the oldest and most valuable records of England, containing the results of a statistical survey of that country made by William the Conqueror, and completed in the year 1086. The origin of the name—which seems to have been given to other records of the same kind—is somewhat uncertain; but it has obvious reference to the supreme authority of the book in doom or judgment on the matters contained in it. Dominie Sampson.—Guy Mannering, Scott. A village schoolmaster and scholar, poor as a church mouse, and modest as a girl. He cites Latin like a porcus literarum and exclaims “prodigious!” He is no uncommon personage in a country where a certain portion of learning is easily attained by those who are willing to suffer hunger and thirst in exchange for acquiring Greek and Latin. Don Adriano de Armado.—A pompous, fantastical Spaniard in Shakespeare’s Love’s Labor’s Lost, who had a mint of phrases in his brain. Donatello (don-Ä-tel´lo).—The hero of Hawthorne’s romance The Marble Faun. He is a young Italian with a singular likeness to the Faun of Praxiteles. He leads an innocent but purely animal existence, until a sudden crime awakens his conscience and transforms his whole nature. Don Cherubim.—The Bachelor of Salamanca, in Le Sage’s novel of this name; a man placed in different situations of life, and made to associate with all classes of society, in order to give the author the greatest possible scope for satire. Donegild.—Man of Law’s Tale, Chaucer. The mother of Alla, king of Northumberland, hating Constance, the wife of Alla, because she was a Christian, she put her on a raft with her infant son and turned her adrift. When Alla returned from Scotland and discovered this cruelty of his mother, he put her to death. The tradition of St. Mungo resembles the Man of Law’s Tale in many respects. Don Juan (don ju´an; Sp. pron. don HÖ-Än´).—Typifies in literature a profligate. He gives himself up so entirely to the gratification of sense, especially to the most powerful of all the impulses, that of love, that he acknowledges no higher consideration, and proceeds to murder the man that stands between him and his wish, fancying that in so doing he had annihilated his very existence. He then defies that Spirit to prove to his senses his existence. The Spirit returns and compels Don Juan to acknowledge the supremacy of spirit, and the worthlessness of a merely sensuous existence. The traditions concerning Don Juan have been dramatized by Tirso de Molina. GlÜck has a musical ballet, Don Juan, and Mozart has immortalized the character in his opera Don Giovanni; and Byron in a half-finished poem. Don Quixote (don ke-ho´ta).—A celebrated Spanish romance by Cervantes. Don Quixote is represented as “a gaunt country gentleman of La Mancha, full of genuine Castilian honor and enthusiasm, gentle and dignified in his character, trusted by his friends, and loved by his dependents,” but “so completely crazed by long reading the most famous books of chivalry that he believes them to be true, and feels himself called on to become the impossible knight-errant they describe, and actually goes forth into the world to defend the oppressed and avenge the injured, like the heroes of his romances.” The fame of Cervantes will always rest upon this incomparable satire. Dorrit.—See Doorm.—Idylls of the King (Enid), Tennyson. An earl called “the Bull,” who tried to make Enid his handmaid; but, when she would neither eat, drink, nor array herself in bravery at his bidding, “he smote her on the cheek”; whereupon Geraint slew the “russet-bearded earl” in his own hall. Dora.—David Copperfield, Dickens. The child-wife to David, affectionate and tender-hearted. She was always playing with her poodle and saying simple things to her “Dody.” She could never be his helper, but she looked on her husband with idolatrous love. When quite young she died. Dorastus.—The hero of an old popular “history” or romance, upon which Shakespeare founded his Winter’s Tale. It was written by Robert Greene, and was first published in 1588, under the title of Pandosto, the Triumph of Time. Dorothea.—The heroine of Goethe’s celebrated poem of Herman und Dorothea. Dory, John.—A character in Wild Oats or The Strolling Gentleman, a comedy by John O’Keefe. Dotheboys Hall (dÖ´the-boiz hÂl).—Nicholas Nickleby, Dickens. A school for boys kept by a Mr. Squeers, a puffing, ignorant, overbearing brute, whose system of education consisted of alternately beating and starving. Doubting Castle.—The castle of the giant Despair, in which Christian and Hopeful were incarcerated, but from which they escaped by means of the key called “Promise,” which was able to open any lock in the castle. Dousterswivel (dÖs´ter-swiv-el), Herman.—Scott, The Antiquary. A German schemer, who obtains money under the promise of finding hidden wealth by a divining rod. Drawcansir (dr´kan-ser).—A bragging, blustering bully, in George Villiers, duke of Buckingham’s The Rehearsal, who took part in a battle, and killed everyone on both sides, “sparing neither friend nor foe.” Driver.—Guy Mannering, Scott. Clerk to Mr. Pleydell, advocate, Edinburgh. Dromio.—The Brothers Dromio. Twin brothers exactly alike, who serve two brothers exactly alike, in Shakespeare’s Comedy of Errors, based on the MenÆchmi of Plautus. Dry-as-dust, The Rev.—An imaginary personage who serves to introduce Scott’s novels to the public. Dudu.—One of the three beauties of the harem, into which Juan, by the sultana’s order, had been admitted in female attire. Duessa (du-es´sa).—A foul witch, in Spenser’s FaËrie Queene, who under the assumed name of Fidessa, and the assumed character of a distressed and lovely woman, entices the Red-cross Knight into the House of Pride. Duff, Jamie.—Guy Mannering, Scott. The idiot boy attending Mrs. Bertram’s funeral. Dulcinea del Toboso (dul-sin´e-Ä del to-bo´zo).—A country girl whom Don Quixote courts as his lady love. Dumain (du-man´).—A lord attending on the king of Navarre in Shakespeare’s Love’s Labor’s Lost. Duncan.—(1) A king of Scotland immortalized in Shakespeare’s tragedy of Macbeth. Shakespeare represents him as murdered by Macbeth, who succeeds to the Scottish throne, but according to history he fell in battle. (2) A highland hero in Scott’s Lady of the Lake. Dunder, Sir David, of Dunder Hall.—A conceited, whimsical old gentleman, who forever interrupts a speaker with “Yes, yes, I know it,” or “Be quiet, I know it.” Ways and Means, by Colman. Dundreary (dun-drer´i), Lord.—A grotesque character in Taylor’s comedy, Our American Cousin, noted for his aristocratic haughtiness of manner. The character is said to have been created by the actor Sothern. Durandana (dÖ-rÄn-dÄ´nÄ).—The name of the marvelous sword of Orlando, the renowned hero of romance, said to have been wrought by the fairies, who endued it with such power that its owner was able to cleave the Pyrenees with it at a blow. Durandarte (dÖ-rÄn-dÄr´te).—A fabulous hero of Spain. Cervantes has introduced him, in Don Quixote, in the celebrated adventure of the knight in the cave of Montesinos. Durden (der´den), Dame.—(1) The heroine of a popular English song. She is described as a notable housewife, and the mistress of five serving-girls and five laboring men. The five men loved the five maids. (2) A sobriquet playfully applied to Esther Summerson, the heroine of Dickens’ Bleak House. Durward (der´ward), Quentin.—A novel by Scott. Quentin Durward is a young archer of the Scottish guard in the service of Louis XI. of France. When LiÈge is assaulted, Quentin Durward and the Countess Isabelle, who has been put into his charge, escape on horseback. The countess publicly refuses to marry the Duc d’OrlÉans, to whom she has been promised, and ultimately marries the young Scotchman. Dwarf, Alberich.—In the Nibelungen Lied the dwarf “Alberich” is the guardian of the famous hoard won by Siegfried from the Nibelungs. The dwarf is twice vanquished by the hero, who gets possession of his “Tarn-Kappe” (cloak of invisibility). Dwarf, The Black.—A novel by Sir Walter Scott. The dwarf is a fairy of the most malignant character; a genuine northern Duergar, and once held by the dalesmen of the border as the author of all the mischief that befell their flocks and herds. In Scott’s novel the black dwarf is introduced under the aliases of Sir Edward Mauley; Elshander, the recluse; Cannie Elshie; and the Wise Wight of Mucklestane Moor. E Ecce Homo (ek´se ho´mo).—The title of a semi-theological work, attributed to Professor Seeley, and published in 1865, in which the humanity of Christ is considered and enforced, apart from his divinity. The phrase, “The enthusiasm of humanity,” was Eckhardt, The Faithful.—A legendary hero of Germany, represented as an old man with a white staff, who, in Eisleben, appears on the evening of Maundy Thursday, and drives all the people into their houses, to save them from being harmed by a terrible procession of dead men, headless bodies, and two-legged horses, which immediately after passes by. Other traditions represent him as the companion of the knight TannhÄuser, and as warning travelers from the Venusberg, the mountain of fatal delights in the old mythology of Germany. Tieck has founded a story upon this legend, which has been translated into English by Carlyle, in which Eckhardt is described as the good servant who perishes to save his master’s children from the seducing fiends of the mountain. The German proverb, “Thou art the faithful Eckhardt; thou warnest everyone,” is founded upon this tradition. Eclecta.—The “Elect” personified in The Purple Island, by Phineas Fletcher. She is the daughter of Intellect and Voletta (free-will). Ector, Sir.—The foster-father of King Arthur, and lord of many parts of England and Wales. Father of Sir Kay, seneschal to King Arthur. Edenhall, The Luck of.—A painted goblet in the possession of the Musgrave family of Edenhall, Cumberland, said to have been left by the fairies on St. Cuthbert’s Well. The tradition runs that the luck of the family is dependent on the safe-keeping of this goblet. The German poet Uhland embodied the legend in a ballad, translated into English by Longfellow. Edgar.—Son to Gloucester, in Shakespeare’s tragedy of Lear. He was disinherited for his half-brother Edmund. Edgar, or Edgardo.—Master of Ravenswood, in love with Lucy Ashton in Scott’s Bride of Lammermoor. Edith.—The Maid of Lorn in Scott’s Lord of the Isles, who married Ronald when peace was restored after the battle of Bannockburn. Edith, The Lady.—Ivanhoe, Scott. Mother of Athelstane “the Unready” (thane of Coningsburgh). Edith Granger.—Daughter of the Hon. Mrs. Skewton, married to Colonel Granger of Ours, who died within two years. Edith became Mr. Dombey’s second wife, but the marriage was altogether unhappy. Edith Plantagenet (plan-taj´e-net), The Lady.—The Talisman, Scott. Called “The Fair Maid of Anjou,” a kinswoman of Richard I., and attendant on Queen Berengaria. Edmund.—A bastard son of Gloucester in Shakespeare’s tragedy of King Lear. Edward, Sir.—The Iron Chest, Colman. He commits a murder, and keeps a narrative of the transaction in an iron chest. Later, he trusts the secret to his secretary, Wilfred, and the whole transaction now becomes public. Edward.—Count Robert of Paris, Scott. Brother of Hereward, the Varangian guard. He was slain in battle. Edwin.—(1) The hero of Goldsmith’s ballad entitled The Hermit. (2) The hero of Mallet’s ballad Edwin and Emma. (3) The hero of Beattie’s Minstrel. Edyrn.—Idylls of the King (Enid), Tennyson. Son of Nudd. A suitor for the hand of Enid and an evil genius of her father, who opposed him. Later, Edyrn went to the court of King Arthur and became quite a changed man—from a malicious “sparrow-hawk” he was converted into a courteous gentleman. Egeus (eje´us).—Father of Hermia in Shakespeare’s Midsummer Night’s Dream. Eglamour.—A character, in Shakespeare’s Two Gentlemen of Verona, who is an agent of Silvia in her escape. Eglamour (eg´la-mÖr), Sir.—A valiant knight of the Round Table, celebrated in the romances of chivalry, and in an old ballad. Eglantine (eg´lan-tin), Madame.—The prioress in Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, who was “full pleasant and amiable of port.” She was distinguished for the ladylike delicacy of her manners at table, and for her partiality to “small hounds,” and a peculiar mixture in her manner and dress of feminine vanity and slight worldliness, together with an ignorance of the world. Egyptian Thief.—A personage alluded to by the Duke in Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night. The reference is to the story of Thyamis, a robber-chief and native of Memphis. Elvir.—Harold the Dauntless, Scott. A Danish maid, who assumes boy’s clothing, and waits on Harold “the Dauntless,” as his page. Elaine.—A mythical lady in the romances of King Arthur’s court. She is called “the lily maid of Astolat” in Tennyson’s Idylls of the King. She died for love of Sir Launcelot, and then at her request was borne on a barge to the castle of King Arthur, holding a lily in one hand, and a letter to Launcelot in the other. Elbow.—A constable, in Shakespeare’s Measure for Measure, modest and well-meaning, though of simple mind and the object of wit among those who are wiser but not better. El Dorado.—A name given by the Spaniards to an imaginary country, supposed, in the sixteenth century, to be situated in the interior of South America, and abounding in gold and all manner of precious stones. Electra.—The daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, and the heroine of a tragedy by Sophocles and of another by Euripides. Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard.—By Thomas Gray. Dr. Johnson gives 1750 as the date of publication; and declares that the piece “abounds with images which find a mirror in every mind, and with sentiments to which every bosom returns an echo.” The churchyard was that of Stoke Poges, near Eton. Elim.—The Messiah, Klopstock. The guardian angel of Libbeus the Apostle. Libbeus, the tenderest and most gentle of the apostles, at the death of Jesus also died from grief. Elissa.—Step-sister of Medina and Perissa, in Spenser’s FaËrie Queene. They could never agree upon any subject. Elliott, Hobbie.—There are seven by this name in the Black Dwarf, by Sir Walter Scott. The farmer Elliott himself and his bride-elect, Grace Armstrong; Mrs. Elliott, Hobbie’s grandmother; John and Harry, Hobbie’s brothers; Lilias, Jean, and Arnot, Hobbie’s sisters. Elops.—Milton gives this name to the dumb serpent which gives no warning of its approach. Elsie.—The daughter of Gottlieb, a farm tenant of Prince Henry of Hohenneck, who offered her life as a substitute for the prince. She was rescued as she was about to make the sacrifice. Longfellow has told this story in The Golden Legend. Elspeth (el´speth).—(1) A character in Sir Walter Scott’s Antiquary. (2) An old servant to Dandie Dinmont in Scott’s Guy Mannering. Elvira.—(1) In Cibber’s Love Makes a Man, sister of Don Duart, and niece of the governor of Lisbon. She marries Clodio, the coxcomb son of Don Antonio. (2) The young wife of Gomez, a rich old banker, in Dryden’s The Spanish Fryer. She carries on a liaison with Colonel Lorenzo, by the aid of her father-confessor Dominick, but is always checkmated, and it turns out that Lorenzo is her brother. Emelye.—The sister-in-law of “Duke Theseus,” beloved by the two knights, Palamon and Arcyte. Emile (a-mel´).—A philosophical romance on education by Jean Jacques Rousseau (1762). Emile, the chief character, is the author’s ideal of a young man perfectly educated, every bias but that of nature having been carefully withheld. Emilia (e-mil´i-Ä).—(1) A lady attending Hermione in Shakespeare’s Winter’s Tale. (2) Wife to Iago, and waiting woman to Desdemona, in the tragedy of Othello, a woman of thorough vulgarity and loose principles, united to a high degree of spirit, energetic feeling, strong sense, and low cunning. (3) The sweetheart of Peregrine Pickle in Smollett’s novel The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle. Em’ly, Little.—David Copperfield, Dickens. Daughter of Tom, the brother-in-law of Dan’el Peggotty, a Yarmouth fisherman, by whom the orphan child was brought up. David Copperfield and Em’ly were at one time playfellows. While engaged to Ham Peggotty (Dan’el’s nephew) Little Em’ly runs away with Steerforth, a friend of David’s, who was a handsome but unprincipled gentleman. Being subsequently reclaimed, she emigrates to Australia with Dan’el Peggotty and old Mrs. Gummidge. Empyrean.—According to Ptolemy, there are five heavens, the last of which is pure elemental fire and the seat of Deity; this fifth heaven is called the empyrean. Endell, Martha.—David Copperfield, Dickens. A poor girl, to whom Em’ly goes when Steerforth deserts her. Endymion (en-dim´i-on).—A beautiful shepherd boy whom Diana kissed while he lay asleep on Mount Latmus. The story was made the subject of an English poem by Keats, in memory of his much loved friend, the poet Shelley. Shelley pronounced it “full of some of the highest and the finest gleams of poetry.” Also a lyric by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow founded on the old mythic story of the mortal youth who was beloved by Diana, and received her kiss— When, sleeping in the grove, He dreamed not of her love. Enid.—A mythical lady mentioned in a Welsh triad as one of the three celebrated ladies of Arthur’s court—a beautiful picture of conjugal patience and affection. Her story is told in the Mabinogion and in Tennyson’s Idylls of the King. In the midst of an impure court she is the personification of purity. Eolian Harp.—Baruch. There is a rabbinical story of the aËrial harmony of the harp of David, which, when hung up at night, was played upon by the north wind. Epigram.—A short, pointed or antithetical poem; or any short composition happily or antithetically expressed. Epithalamium (ep´i-tha-la´mi-um).—Was a species of poem which it was the custom among the Greeks and Romans to sing in chorus near the bridal-chamber of a newly married couple. Anacreon, Stesichorus, and Pindar composed poems of this kind, but only scanty fragments have been preserved. Spenser’s Epithalamium, written on the occasion of his marriage, is one of the finest specimens of this kind of verse. Eppie.—(1) St. Ronan’s Well, Scott. One of the servants of the Rev. Josiah Cargill. In the same novel is Eppie Anderson, one of the servants at the Mowbray Arms, Old St. Ronan’s, held by Meg Dods. (2) In George Eliot’s Silas Marner the child of Godfrey Cass, brought up and adopted by Silas Marner, whose love transformed him from a miser into a tender, loving father. Ermangarde of Baldringham, Lady.—The Betrothed, Scott. Aunt of the Lady Eveline Berenger, “the Betrothed.” Ermeline.—The wife of Reynard, in the tale of Reynard the Fox. Ermina.—The heroine of Tasso’s Jerusalem Delivered, who fell in love with Tancred. When the Christian army besieged Jerusalem, she dressed herself in Clorinda’s armor to go to Tancred, but, being discovered, fled, and lived awhile with some shepherds on the banks of the Jordan. Meeting with Vafrino, sent as a secret spy by the crusaders, she revealed to him the design against the life of Godfrey, and, returning with him to the Christian camp, found Tancred wounded. She cured his wounds, so that he was able to take part in the last great day of the siege. Ernest, Duke.—A poetical romance by Henry of Veldig (Waldeck), contemporary with Frederick Barbarossa. It is a mixture of Greek and oriental myths and hero adventures of the crusader. Error.—FaËrie Queene, Spenser. A monster who lived in a den in “Wandering Wood,” and with whom the Red-cross Knight had his first adventure. She had a brood of one thousand young ones of sundry shapes, and these cubs crept into their mother’s mouth when alarmed, as young kangaroos creep into their mother’s pouch. The knight was nearly killed by the stench which issued from the foul fiend, but he succeeded in “rafting” her head off, whereupon the brood lapped up the blood, and burst with satiety. Escalus (es´ka-lus).—An ancient and kind hearted lord, in Shakespeare’s Measure for Measure, whom Vincentio, the duke of Vienna, joins with Angelo as his deputy during a pretended absence on a distant journey. Escanes (es´ka-nez).—A lord of Tyre, in Shakespeare’s Pericles. Esmeralda.—Notre Dame de Paris, Victor Hugo. A beautiful gypsy girl, who, with tambourine and goat, dances in the “place” before Notre Dame. Esmond, Henry.—A cavalier and fine-spirited gentleman in the reign of Queen Anne. Hero of Thackeray’s novel by the same name. Esmond.—A novel by W. M. Thackeray, published in 1852. Its most striking feature is its elaborate imitation of the style and even the manner of thought of the time of Queen Anne’s reign, in which its scenes are laid. Esprit des Lois [es-pre´ d lwa (or, Spirit of the Laws)].—A celebrated philosophical work by Montesquieu, published at Geneva in 1748. The author begins somewhat formally with the old division of politics into democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy. He discusses the principles of each, and their bearings on education, on positive law, on social conditions, on military strength (offensive and defensive) on individual liberty, on taxation and finance. Then an abrupt return is made from the effects to the causes of constitutions and polity. The theory of the influence of physical conditions, and especially of climate, on political and social institutions—a theory which is perhaps more than any other identified with the book—received special attention, and a somewhat disproportionate space is given to the question of slavery in this connection. From climate Montesquieu passes to the nature of the soil as in its turn affecting civil polity. He then attacks the subject of manners and customs as distinct from laws of trade and commerce, of the family, of jurisprudence, of religion. The book concludes with an elaborate examination of the feudal system in France. Essay on Man.—A poem by Alexander Pope, in four epistles: Of the Nature and State of Man With Respect to the Universe; Of the Nature and State of Man With Respect to Himself as an Individual; Of the Nature and State of Man With Respect to Society; and Of the Nature and State of Man With Respect to Happiness. Its fundamental idea is to the effect that the system of the universe is a “benevolent system, in which every virtue, as well as every passion, has its object and end.” “If,” says Professor Ward, “the Essay on Man were shivered into fragments, it would not lose its value; for it is precisely its details which constitute its moral as well as literary beauties. Nowhere has Pope so abundantly displayed his incomparable talent of elevating truisms into proverbs, in his mastery over language and poetic form.” Essays (or, Counsels Civil and Moral).—By Francis, Lord Bacon. In the dedication to his brother Anthony, the author says he published the Essays “because many of them had been stolen abroad in writing,” and he desired to give the world a correct version of his work. The word Essays, he says, “is late; but the thing is ancient, for Seneca’s Epistles to Lucilius, if you mark them well, are but essays, that is, dispersed meditations, though conveyed in the form of epistles.” “The transcendent strength of Bacon’s mind is visible.” says Hallam, “in the whole tenor of these Essays, unequaled as they must be, from the very nature of such compositions. They are deeper and more discriminating than any earlier, or almost any later, work, in the English language; full of recondite observations, long matured, and carefully sifted.” Estella.—The heroine of Dickens’ novel of Great Expectations. Estotiland, or Estotilandia.—An imaginary region in America, near the arctic circle, referred to by Milton as “cold Estotiland,” and variously fabled to have been discovered by Frisian fishermen in the fourteenth century, and by a Pole named John Scalve, in 1477. Etzel (et´sel), i. e., Attila.—King of the Huns, a monarch ruling over three kingdoms and more than thirty principalities; being a widower, he married Kriemhild, the widow of Siegfried. In the Nibelungenlied, where he is introduced, he is made very insignificant. EugÉnie Grandet (u-zha-ne´ gron-da´).—A novel by Balzac, written in 1833, published in 1834. The heroine, Eugenie, is sacrificed to the cold-blooded avariciousness of her father. This is one of Balzac’s best novels. Eulalia (u-la´li-Ä), St.—In the calendar of saints there is a virgin martyr called Eulalia. She was martyred by torture February 12, 308. Longfellow calls Evangeline the Sunshine of St. Eulalia. Eulenspiegel (oi´len-spe-gel).—The hero of a German tale, which relates the pranks and drolleries of a wandering cottager of Brunswick. Euphrasy.—Paradise Lost, Milton. The herb eye-bright, so called because it was once supposed to be efficacious in clearing the organs of sight. Hence, the Archangel Michael purged the eyes of Adam with it, to enable him to see into the distant future. Evan Dhu M’Combich.—Waverley, Scott. The foster-brother of M’Ivor. Evan Dhu of Lochiel.—Legend of Montrose, Scott. A Highland chief in the army of Montrose. Evangeline.—The title and heroine of a tale in hexameter verse by Longfellow, in two parts. Evangeline was the daughter of Benedict Bellefontaine, the richest farmer of Acadia (now Nova Scotia). At the age of seventeen she was legally betrothed by the notary-public to Gabriel, son of Basil the blacksmith; but next day all the colony was exiled by the order of George II., and their houses, cattle, and lands were confiscated. Gabriel and Evangeline were parted, and now, sustained by the brightness of hope, she wandered from place to place to find her betrothed. Basil had settled in Louisiana; but when Evangeline reached that distant land, Gabriel had gone. She sought him on the prairies, and, again far north, in Michigan, but ever a few days, a few weeks, too late. At length, grown old in this hopeless quest, she came to Philadelphia and became a sister of mercy. The plague broke out; and, as she visited the almshouse in ministration, she saw an old man who had been smitten with the pestilence. It was Gabriel. He tried to whisper her name; but death closed his lips. “All was ended now;” and “Side by side, in nameless graves, the lovers are sleeping.” Evangelist.—In Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, represents the effectual preacher of the gospel who opens the gate of life to Christian. Evans, Sir Hugh.—In Shakespeare’s Merry Wives of Windsor, a Welsh parson and school-teacher, ignorant but pedantic, who has a ludicrous quarrel with Dr. Caius. Excalibur (eks-kal´i-be~r), or Excalibar, or Escalibor.—The sword of the mythical King Arthur. Arthur received it from the hands of the Lady of the Lake. It had a scabbard the wearer of which could lose no blood. There seems, however, to have been also another sword called Excalibur in the early part of the story. This was the sword, plunged deep into a stone, which could be drawn forth only by the man who was to be king. After two hundred knights had failed, Arthur drew it out without difficulty. Excursion, The.—A poem, in blank verse, by William Wordsworth, published in 1814, and forming the second part of a poem in three parts, to be entitled The Recluse, which the author had at one time contemplated. It consists of nine books, respectively entitled The Wanderer, The Solitary, Despondency, Despondency Corrected, The Pastor, The Churchyard Among the Mountains, The Same Subject Continued, The Parsonage, Discourse of the Wanderer, and An Evening Visit to the Lake. Eyre (Âr), Jane.—A novel by Charlotte BrontË, published in 1847, with a dedication to William Makepeace Thackeray, as “the first social regenerator of the day.” The early scenes are laid in the Lowood Institution, which has been identified with a school established by the Rev. W. Carus Wilson, at Cowen’s Bridge, near Leeds, and which is described with stern but unpleasing realism. Much of the book was derived from the author’s own personal experience. Ezzelin, Sir.—Lara, Byron. The gentleman who recognizes Lara at the table of Lord Otho, and charges him with being Conrad the Corsair. A duel ensues, and Ezzelin is never heard of more. A serf used to say that he saw a huntsman one evening cast a dead body into the river which divided the lands of Otho and Lara, and that there was a star of knighthood on the breast of the corpse. F Faa, Gabriel.—Guy Mannering, Scott. Nephew of Meg Merrilies. One of the huntsmen at Liddesdale. Fadladeen.—The hypercritical grand chamberlain in Moore’s poem Lalla Rookh. Fadladeen’s criticism upon the several tales which make up the romance are very racy and full of humor; and his crestfallen conceit when he finds out that the poet was the prince in disguise is well conceived. Faerie Queene (fa´e-ri kwen), The.—A poem by Edmund Spenser, published in 1590. This great allegorical epic is divided into six books, of which the first contains the Legend of the Knight of the Red Cross, or Holiness; the second the Legend of Sir Guyon, or Temperance; the third the Legend of Britomartis, or Chastity; the fourth the Legend of Cambal and Telamond, or Friendship; the fifth the Legend of Artegall, or Justice; and the sixth the Legend of Sir Calidore, or Courtesy. There originally existed twelve books, but the last six, excepting two cantos on Mutability, were lost by the poet’s servant in crossing from Ireland to England—a circumstance to be deeply regretted by every lover of true poetry. The finest things in Spenser are the character of Una, in the first book, the House of Pride, the Cave of Mammoth, and the Cave of Despair; the account of Memory; the description of Belphoebe; the story of Florimel and the Witch’s Son; the gardens of Adonis and the Bower of Bliss; the Mask of Cupid; and Colin Clout’s Vision, in the last book. Fag.—A lying servant to Captain Absolute in Sheridan’s Rivals. Fagin.—An old Jew in Dickens’ Oliver Twist, who employs young persons of both sexes to carry on a systematic trade of robbery. Fainall, Mr. and Mrs.—Noted characters in Congreve’s comedy The Way of the World. Faineant, Le Noir (The Black Idler).—In Sir Walter Scott’s Ivanhoe, a name applied to Richard Coeur de Lion in disguise, by the spectators of a tournament, on account of his indifference during a great part of the action, in which, however, he was finally victorious. Fair Maid of Perth.—The title of a novel by Sir Walter Scott, and the name of the heroine. Fair Rosamond.—Prototype of many heroines of fiction, a daughter of Walter de Clifford. According to a popular legend, which has no foundation in fact, Henry II. built a labyrinth or maze to conceal her from Queen Eleanor, who discovered her by means of a silken clew and put her to death. She is commonly, though erroneously, stated to have been the mother of William Longsword and Geoffrey, archbishop of York. Fairservice, Andrew.—A shrewd Scotch gardener at Osbaldistone Hall in Rob Roy, Sir Walter Scott. Fairy of the Mine.—A malevolent being, supposed to live in mines, busying itself with cutting ore, turning the windlass, etc., and yet effecting nothing. Faithful.—One of the allegorical personages in Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, who dies a martyr before completing his journey. Faithful, Jacob.—The title and hero of a sea tale, by Captain Marryat (1835). Fakenham Ghost.—A ballad by Robert Bloomfield, author of The Farmer’s Boy. The ghost was a donkey. Fakreddin’s Valley.—Over the several portals of bronze were these inscriptions: (1) The Asylum of Pilgrims; (2) The Traveler’s Refuge; (3) The Depository of the Secrets of All the World. Falkland.—In Godwin’s novel called Caleb Williams. He commits murder, and keeps a narrative of the transaction in an iron chest. Williams, a lad in his employ, opens the chest, and is caught in the act by Falkland. The lad runs away, but is hunted down. This tale, dramatized by Colman is entitled The Iron Chest. Falstaff (fÂl´st?f), Sir John.—A famous character in Shakespeare’s comedy of the Merry Wives of Windsor, and in the first and second parts of his historical drama of Henry IV. He is as perfect a comic portrait as was ever sketched. In the former play he is represented as in love with Mrs. Ford and Mrs. Page, who make a butt and a dupe of him; in the latter he figures as a soldier and a wit; in both he is exhibited as a monster of fat—sensual, mendacious, boastful, and cowardly. In Henry V. his death is described by Mrs. Quickly. Fang.—(1) A sheriff’s officer, in the second part of Shakespeare’s King Henry IV. (2) Oliver Twist, Charles Dickens. A bullying insolent magistrate, who would have sent Oliver Twist to prison, on suspicion of theft, if Mr. Brownlow had not interposed. Fata Alcina.—Orlando Innamorato, Bojardo. Sister of Fata Morgana. She carried off Astolfo on the back of a whale to her isle, but turned him into a myrtle tree when she tired of him. Fata Morgana (fÄ´tÄ mor-gÄ´nÄ).—The name of a potent fairy, celebrated in the tales of chivalry, and in the romantic poems of Italy. She was a pupil of the enchanter Merlin, and the sister of Arthur, to whom she discovered the intrigue of his queen, Geneura, or Guinever, with Lancelot of the Lake. In the Orlando Innamorato of Bojardo, she appears at first as a personification of fortune, inhabiting a splendid residence at the bottom of a lake, and dispensing all the treasures of the earth, but she is afterward found in her proper station subject to the all potent Demogorgon. Also, as sister to King Arthur and pupil of Merlin. She lived at the bottom of the lake and dispensed good fortune as she liked. Fat Boy, The.—A laughable character in Dickens’ Pickwick Papers; a youth of astonishing obesity whose employment consists in alternate eating and sleeping. Fathom, Ferdinand, Count.—The title of a novel by Smollett, and the name of its principal character, a complete villain, who proceeds step by step to rob his benefactors and finally dies in misery and despair. Fatima (fÄ´te-mÄ).—(1) A female worker, in the story of Aladdin, in the Arabian Nights’ Entertainments. (2) The last of the wives of Bluebeard, and the only one who escaped being murdered by him. Faust (foust).—A celebrated tragedy by Goethe, the materials of which are drawn in part from the popular legends of Dr. Faustus, a famous magician of the sixteenth century. A rich uncle having left him a fortune, Faust ran to every excess, and, when his fortune was exhausted, made a pact with the devil (who assumed the name of Mephistopheles, and the appearance of a little gray monk), that, if he might indulge his propensities freely for twenty-four years, he would at the end of that period consign to the devil both body and soul. The compact terminated in 1550, when Faust disappeared. His sweetheart was Margherita, whom he seduced, and his faithful servant was Wagner. Faustus (fÂs´tus).—A tragedy name; represented as a vulgar sorcerer tempted to sell his soul to the devil (Mephistopheles), on condition of having a familiar spirit at his command, the possession of earthly power and glory, and unlimited gratification of his sensual appetites, for twenty-four years; at the end of which time, when the forfeit comes to be exacted, he shrinks and shudders in agony and remorse, imploring yet despairing of the mercy of heaven. This has been the theme of many writers. It is the subject of an opera by Gounod. Femmes Savantes (fam s?-vÄN´), Les (or, The Learned Women).—Comedy by MoliÈre. These women go in Fenella.—A fairy-like creature, a deaf and dumb attendant on the countess of Derby, in Sir Walter Scott’s Peveril of the Peak. Fenton (fen´ton).—A character in Shakespeare’s Merry Wives of Windsor, who wooes the rich Anne Page for her money, but soon discovers inward treasures in her which quite transform him. Feramorz (fer´a-morz).—Lalla Rookh, Thomas Moore. Feramorz in Lalla Rookh is the young Cashmerian poet, who relates poetical tales to Lalla Rookh, in her journey from Delhi to Lesser Bucharia. Lalla Rookh is going to be married to the young sultan, but falls in love with the poet. On the wedding morn she is led to her future husband, and finds that the poet is the sultan himself, who had gallantly taken this course to win the heart of his bride and beguile her journey. Ferdinand (fer´di-nand).—(1) A character in Shakespeare’s Tempest. He is a son of the king of Naples, and falls in love with Miranda, the daughter of Prospero, a banished duke of Milan. (2) King of Navarre, character in Love’s Labor’s Lost. Ferrers (fer´erz)—Endymion. The hero of Benjamin Disraeli’s novel Endymion. Ferrex and Porrex.—Two sons of Gorboduc, a mythical British king. Porrex drove his brother from Britain, and when Ferrex returned with an army he was slain, but Porrex was shortly after put to death by his mother. One of the first, if not the very first, historical plays in the English language was Ferrex and Porrex, by Thomas Norton and Thomas Sackville. Fib.—Nymphidia, Drayton. One of the fairy attendants to Queen Mab. Fidele (fi-de´le, or fi-dal´).—Subject of an elegy by Collins. Fidelie.—Cymbeline, Shakespeare. The name assumed by Imogen, when, attired in boy’s clothes, she started for Milford Haven to meet her husband Posthumus. Fidessa.—FaËrie Queene, Spenser. The companion of Sansfoy; but when the Red-cross Knight slew that “faithless Saracen,” Fidessa turned out to be Duessa, the daughter of Falsehood and Shame. See “Duessa.” Figaro (fe´gÄ-ro).—A character introduced by Beaumarchais in his plays Le Barbier de Seville, Le Mariage de Figaro, and La MÈre Coupable, used later by Mozart, Paisiello, and Rossini in operas. In the Barbier he is a barber; in the Mariage he is a valet. In both he is gay, lively, and courageous; his stratagems are always original, his lies witty, and his shrewdness proverbial. In the MÈre Coupable he has become virtuous and has lost his nerve. He also appears in Holcroft’s Follies of a Day, taken from Beaumarchais’ Mariage de Figaro. Finetta (fi-net´tÄ).—The Cinder Girl. A fairy tale by the Comtesse d’Aulnoy. This is merely the old tale of Cinderella slightly altered. Fingal (fing´gal).—A mythical hero, whose name occurs in Gaelic ballads and traditions, and in Macpherson’s Poems of Ossian. Fleance (fle´ans).—A son of Banquo, in Shakespeare’s tragedy of Macbeth. The legend relates that after the assassination of his father he escaped to Wales, where he married the daughter of the reigning prince, and had a son named Walter. This Walter afterward became lord high steward of Scotland, and called himself Walter the Steward. From him proceeded in a direct line the Stuarts of Scotland, a royal line which gave James VI. of Scotland, James I. of England. This myth has been seriously accepted by some as fact. Fledgeby.—Our Mutual Friend, Dickens. An overreaching, cowardly sneak who pretends to do a decent business under the trade name of Pubsey & Co. Florentius.—A knight whose story is related in the first book of Gower’s Confessio Amantis. He bound himself to marry a deformed hag, provided she taught him the solution of a riddle on which his life depended. Florian (flo-ryon´).—The Foundling of the Forest, W. Dimond. Discovered in infancy by the Count de Valmont, and adopted as his own son, Florian is lighthearted and volatile, but with deep affection, very grave, and the delight of all who know him. Florimel (flor´i-mel).—A female character in Spenser’s FaËrie Queene, of great beauty, but so timid that she feared the “smallest monstrous mouse that creeps on floor,” and was abused by everyone. She was noted for sweetness of temper amid great trials. The word Florimel signifies “honey-flower.” Florizel (flor´i-zel).—A prince of Bohemia, in Shakespeare’s Winter’s Tale, in love with Perdita. Fluellen (flÖ-el´en).—A Welsh captain, who is an amusing pedant, in Shakespeare’s Henry V. Flying Dutchman.—A spectral ship, seen in stormy weather off the Cape of Good Hope, and considered ominous of ill-luck. Captain Marryat has taken this theme for his novel The Phantom Ship. Folk.—Fairies, also called “people,” “neighbors,” “wights.” The Germans have their kleine volk (little folk), the Swiss their hill people and earth people. See Fairies. Ford.—Mr. and Mrs. Ford are characters in The Merry Wives of Windsor. Mrs. Ford pretends to accept Sir John Falstaff’s protestations of love, in order to punish him by her devices. Fortinbras (fÔr´tin-bras).—Prince of Norway, in Shakespeare’s tragedy Hamlet. Fortunatus (fÔr-tu-na´tus).—The hero in one of Straparolla’s fairy tales. The nursery tale of Fortunatus records that he had an inexhaustible purse. It is from the Italian fairy tales. Fortunio’s (fÔr-tu´ni-o) Horse.—Comrade not only possessed incredible speed, but knew all things, and was gifted with human speech. Francesco.—The Iago of Massinger’s Duke of Milan. Francesca da Rimini (fr?n-ches´k? d? re´me-ne).—A dramatic poem by James Henry Leigh Hunt published in 1816. Francesca was the daughter of Guido da Polenta, Lord of Ravenna, in the latter part of the thirteenth century, and was married to Lanciotto, son of Malatesta da Rimini, who, discovering her criminal intercourse with his brother, revenged himself by putting them both to death. Her story forms an episode in Dante’s Inferno. Frankenstein (frÄng´ken-stin) (or, the Modern Prometheus).—A novel by Mrs. Shelley, published in 1818. It was commenced in the summer of 1816, when Byron and the Shelleys were residing on the banks of the Lake of Geneva, and when, “during a week of rain, having amused themselves with reading German ghost stories, they agreed at last to write something in imitation of them. ‘You and I,’ said Lord Byron to Mrs. Shelley, ‘will publish ours together.’ He then began his tale of the Vampire;” but “the most memorable result,” writes Moore, “of their storytelling compact, was Mrs. Shelley’s wild and powerful romance of Frankenstein, one of those original conceptions that take hold of the public mind at once and forever.” The hero of the book, a native of Geneva, and a student, constructs a monster of grewsome human remains and gives it life by galvanism. The monster feels that he is unlike all other human beings, and in revenge for the injury inflicted upon him by his creator, murders his friend, his brother, and his bride, and finally seeks out Frankenstein himself, with a view to wreaking a similar revenge on him. The hero, however, happily escapes his enemy, who retires to the utmost extremity of the globe, in order to put an end to his miserable life; and Frankenstein himself falls ill and dies on his way home after his last final flight from the monstrosity whom he has himself brought into the world. Freeport, Sir Andrew.—The name of one of the members of the imaginary club under whose direction the Spectator was professedly published. He is represented as a London merchant of great eminence and experience, industrious, sensible and generous. French Revolution, The.—A history, in three parts, by Thomas Carlyle, published in 1837, and described by Lowell as “a series of word-pictures, unmatched for vehement power, in which the figures of such sons of earth as Mirabeau and Danton loom gigantic and terrible as in the glare of an eruption; their shadows swaying far and wide, grotesquely awful. But all is painted by eruptive flashes in violent light and shade. There are no half tints, no gradations, and we find it impossible to account for the continuance in power of less Titanic actors in the tragedy, like Robespierre, on any theory, whether of human nature or of individual character, supplied by Mr. Carlyle.” Friar Lawrence.—The Franciscan monk who attempted to befriend the lovers in Romeo and Juliet. Friar Tuck.—Chaplain and steward of Robin Hood. Introduced by Sir Walter Scott in Ivanhoe. He is a self-indulgent, combative Falstaff, a jolly companion to the outlaws in Sherwood forest. Friday.—Robinson Crusoe’s faithful man Friday pictured by Defoe. Froissart (froi´sÄrt).—The Cronicles of England, Fraunce, Spayne, Portyugale, Scotlande, Bretayne, Flanders, and other places adjoynynge, translated out of Frenche into our maternalle Englysche Tonge, by “John Bourchier, knight, Lord Berners.” Printed in 1523. The history extends from 1326 to 1400. Froissart resided in England as secretary to Queen Philippa from 1361 to 1366, and visited it again in 1395, when he paid a visit to Scotland. Frollo, Archdeacon Claude.—A noted character in Victor Hugo’s Notre Dame de Paris, absorbed in a bewildering search for the philosopher’s stone. Front de Boeuf.—Ivanhoe, Sir Walter Scott. A follower of Prince John of Anjou, and one of the knight’s challengers. Froth, Master.—A foolish gentleman in Shakespeare’s Measure for Measure. His name explains his character. Fusbos (fus´bos).—Utopia, Sir Thomas More. Minister of state to Artaxaminous, king of Utopia. Fyrapel, Sir.—The Leopard, the nearest kinsman of King Lion, in the beast epic of Reynard the Fox. G Gadshill.—A companion of Sir John Falstaff, in the first part of Shakespeare’s King Henry IV. Galahad (gal´a-had), Sir.—A celebrated knight of the Round Table who achieved the quest of the Holy Grail. Tennyson has made him the subject of one of his idylls. In Malory he is also represented as the perfect knight, clad in wonderful armor. He was the only knight who could sit in the “Siege Perilous” a seat reserved for the “knight without a flaw,” who achieved the quest of the “Holy Grail.” Galapas (gal´a-pas).—A giant of marvelous height in the army of Lucius, king of Rome. He was slain by King Arthur. Galaphrone, or Galafron.—A king of Cathay and father of Angelica in Bojardo’s Orlando Innamorato and Ariosto’s Furioso. Gamp, Mrs.—A nurse who is a prominent character in Dickens’ novel of Martin Chuzzlewit. She is celebrated for her constant reference to a certain Mrs. Harris, a purely imaginary person, for whose feigned opinions and utterances she professes the greatest respect, in order to give the more weight to her own. Gan, Ganelone, Ganelon, or Gano.—The character of Sir Ganelon was marked with spite, dissimulation, and intrigue, but he was patient, obstinate, and enduring. He loved solitude, disbelieved in the existence of moral good, and has become a byword for a false and faithless friend. Dante has placed him in his Inferno. Gander-Cleugh.—“Folly-Cliff,” that mysterious place where a person make a goose of himself, in Tales of My Landlord, Sir Walter Scott. Garcia, Pedro.—A mythical personage, of whom mention is made in the preface to Gil Bias, in which is related how two scholars of Salamanca discovered a tombstone with the inscription “Here lies interred the soul of the Licentiate Pedro Garcia,” and how, on digging beneath the stone, was found a leathern purse containing a hundred ducats. Gareth.—In Arthurian Romance a knight of the Round Table, who was first a scullion in King Arthur’s kitchen, but afterward became champion of the Lady Linet, or Lynette, whose sister LionÈs, or Lyonors, he delivered from Castle Perilous. Garganelle (gÄr-ga-nel´).—The mother of Gargantua in Rabelais’ celebrated romance of this name. Gargantua (gÄr-gan´tu-Ä).—Rabelais’ celebrated romance, the hero of which is a gigantic personage, about whom many wonderful stories are related. He lived for several centuries, and at last begot a son, Pantagruel, as wonderful as himself. The Pleasant Story of the Giant Gargantua and of his Son Pantagruel, so satirized the monastic orders of his time that it was denounced by the spiritual authorities. Francis I., however, protected the author, and allowed him to print the third part of it in 1545. Gargery (gar´jer-i), Mrs. Joe.—Great Expectations, Dickens. Pip’s sister. A virago, who kept her husband and Pip in constant awe. Joe Gargery, a blacksmith, married to Pip’s sister. A noble-hearted, simple-minded young man, who loved Pip sincerely. Joe Gargery was one of nature’s gentlemen. Gaspar, or Caspar.—(The white one), one of the three magi or kings of Cologne. His offering to the infant Jesus was frankincense, in token of divinity. Gaunt, Griffith.—Hero of a novel by Charles Reade, of same title. Gavotte.—Name given to a certain dance common among people in the upper Alps. Gawain, or Gawayne (gÄ´wan), Sir.—A nephew of King Arthur, and one of the most celebrated knights of the Round Table; noted for his sagacity and wonderful strength. He was surnamed “the courteous.” His brothers were Agravaine, Gaheris, and Gareth. Gebir (ga´ber).—A legendary eastern prince, said to have invaded Africa and to have given his name to Gibraltar. He is the subject of a poem of the same name by Walter Savage Landor. Gellatley (gel´at-li), Davie.—The name of a poor fool in Sir Walter Scott’s novel of Waverley. GeneviÈve (zhen-vyav´).—(1) The heroine of a ballad by Coleridge. (2) Under the form Genovefa, the name occurs in a German myth as that of the wife of the Count Palatine Siegfried, in the time of Charles Martel. Upon false accusations her husband gave orders to put her to death, but the servant intrusted with the commission suffered her to escape into the forests of Ardennes, where she lay concealed, until by accident his husband discovered her retreat, and recognized her innocence. Genevra.—A lady in Aristo’s Orlandos’ Furioso. Her honor is impeached, and she is condemned to die unless a champion appears to do combat for her. Her lover, Ariodantes, answers the challenge, kills the false accuser, and weds the dame. Spenser has a similar story in the FaËrie Queene, and Shakespeare availed himself of the main incident in his comedy of Much Ado About Nothing. Geraint (ge-rant), Sir.—One of the knights of the Round Table. His story is told in Tennyson’s Idylls of the King under Geraint and Enid. Geraldine.—A name frequently found in romantic poetry, especially Scott’s Lay of the Last Minstrel. The name is said to have been adopted from the heroine connected with Surrey, whose praises are celebrated in a famous sonnet. Gertrude of Wyoming.—Heroine of a poem by Thomas Campbell. Gesta Romanorum (jes´tÄ ro-ma-no´rum).—A collection of old romances compiled by Pierre Bercheure, prior of the Benedictine convent of St. Eloi, Paris. Shakespeare, Spenser, Gower, and many later writers have gone to this source. It took its present form in England about the beginning of the fourteenth century, the foundation coming from Roman writers, to which were added religious and mystical tales. Giaour (jour), The.—Byron’s tale called The Giaour is represented as told by a fisherman, a Turk, who had committed a crime which haunted him all his life. See Hassan. Gibbie, Goose.—A half-witted boy in Scott’s Old Mortality. Gibbie, Sir.—A simple-hearted, fine character in George Macdonald’s novel by the same name. Giant Despair.—Pilgrim’s Progress, Bunyan. A giant who is the owner of Doubting Castle, and who, finding Christian and Hopeful asleep upon his grounds, takes them prisoners, and thrusts them into a dungeon. Giant Grim.—Pilgrim’s Progress, Bunyan. A giant who seeks to stop the march of the pilgrims to the Celestial City, but is slain in a duel by Mr. Great-heart, their guide. Giant Slay-good.—Pilgrim’s Progress, Bunyan. A giant slain in a duel by Mr. Great-heart. Gil Blas (zhel blÄs).—A romance by Le Sage. The hero is the son of Blas of SantillanÊ squire or “escudero” to a lady, and brought up by his uncle, Canon Gil PerÊs. Gil Blas went to Dr. Godinez’s school of Oviedo and obtained the reputation of being a great scholar. He had fair abilities, a kind heart, and good inclinations, but was easily led astray by his vanity. Full of wit and humor, he was lax in his morals. Duped by others at first, he afterward played the same devices on those less experienced. As he grew in years, however, his conduct improved, and when his fortune was made, he became an honest, steady man. Glaucus (gl´kus).—A fisherman of Boeotia who has become the fisherman’s patron deity. Glaucus.—Son of Hippolytus. Being smothered in a tub of honey, he was restored to life by Æsculapius. Gloriana.—In Spenser’s FaËrie Queene, the “greatest glorious queen of FaËry land.” Glumdalca (glum-dal´kÄ).—Tom Thumb, Fielding. Queen of the giants, captive in the court of King Arthur. Glumdalclitch (glum-dal´klich).—Gulliver’s Travels, Swift. A girl nine years old “and only forty feet high.” Being such a “little thing,” the charge of Gulliver was committed to her during his sojourn in Brobdingnag. Glumms.—Peter Wilkins, Robert Pullock. The male population of the imaginary country Nosmubdsgrsutt, visited by Peter Wilkins. Both males and females had wings which served both for flying and for clothes. Godiva (go-di´vÄ).—A poem by Alfred Tennyson. The story of the lady and Peeping Tom of Coventry is told in full by Dugdale. Godiva was the wife of Leofric, earl of Mercia, and undertook to ride naked through the town if he would remit a tax under which the people groaned. The earl consented and the lady kept her word. Golden Ass, The.—A romance in Latin by Apuleius. It is the adventures of Lucian, a young man who had been transformed into an ass, but still retained his human consciousness. It tells us the miseries which he suffered at the hands of robbers, eunuchs, magistrates, and so on, till the time came for him to resume his proper form. It is full of wit, racy humor, and rich fancy, and contains the exquisite episode of Cupid and Psyche. Golden Legend, The.—The title of an ecclesiastical work in one hundred and seventy-seven sections, dating from the thirteenth century, written by one James de Voragine, a Dominican monk, and descriptive of the various saints’ days in the Roman calendar. It is deserving of study as a literary monument of the period, and as illustrating the religious habits and views of the Christians of that time. Goneril (gon´er-il).—The oldest of the three daughters to King Lear, in Shakespeare’s tragedy. Having received her moiety of Lear’s kingdom, the unnatural daughter first abridged the old man’s retinue, then gave him to understand that his company was not wanted and sent him out a despairing old man to seek refuge where he could find it. Her name is proverbial for filial ingratitude. Gonzalo (gon-zÄ´lo).—An honest old counselor in Shakespeare’s Tempest, a true friend to Prospero. Goody Blake.—A character in Wordsworth’s poem entitled Goody Blake and Harry Gill. A farmer forbids old Goody Blake to carry home a few sticks, which she had picked up from his land, and in revenge she invokes upon him the curse that he may “never more be warm;” and ever after “his teeth they chatter, chatter still.” Goody Two-Shoes.—The name of a well-known character in a nursery tale by Oliver Goldsmith. Goody Two-Shoes was a very poor child, whose delight at having a pair of shoes was unbounded. She called constant attention to her “two-shoes” which gave her the name. Gradgrind (grad´grind).—A hardware merchant in Dickens’ Hard Times. He is a man of hard facts and cultivates the practical. His constant demand in conversation is for “facts.” He allows nothing for the weakness of human nature, and deals with men and women as a mathematician with his figures. Gradgrind, Mrs.—Wife of Thomas Gradgrind. A little, thin woman, always taking physic, without receiving from it any benefit. Gradgrind, Tom.—Son of the above, a sullen young man, much loved by his sister. Gradgrind, Louise.—A faithful daughter and sister. Grandison, Sir Charles.—The hero of Richardson’s novel The History of Sir Charles Grandison. Designed to represent his ideal of a perfect hero—a union of the good Christian and the perfect English gentleman. Gratiano (grÄ-te-Ä´no).—(1) A friend to Antonio and Bassanio in Shakespeare’s Merchant of Venice. He “talks an infinite deal of nothing, more than any man in Venice.” (2) Brother to Brabantio, in Shakespeare’s tragedy of Othello. (3) A character in the Italian popular theater called Commedia dell’ Arte. He is represented as a Bolognese doctor, and has a mask with a black nose and forehead and red cheeks. Great-Heart, Mr.—In Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, the guide of Christian’s wife and children upon their journey to the Celestial City. Gremio (gre´mi-o).—In Shakespeare’s Taming of the Shrew, an old man who wishes to wed Bianca. Griffin-feet.—Fairy Tales, Comtesse d’Aulnoy. The mark by which the Desert Fairy was known in all her metamorphoses. Grimalkin.—A cat, the spirit of a witch. Any witch was permitted to assume the body of a cat nine times. Grimwig.—Oliver Twist, Dickens. An irascible old gentleman, who hid a very kind heart under a rough exterior. He was always declaring himself ready to “eat his head” if he was mistaken on any point on which he passed an opinion. Griselda (gri-zel´dÄ), The Patient.—A lady in Chaucer’s Clerk of Oxenford’s Tales, immortalized by her virtue and her patience. The model of womanly and wifely obedience, she comes victoriously out of cruel and repeated ordeals. The story of Griselda is first told in the Decameron. Boccaccio derived the incidents from Petrarch, who seems to have communicated them also to Chaucer, as the latter refers to Petrarch as his authority. Grub Street, London, is thus described in Dr. Johnson’s dictionary: “Originally the name of a street near Moorfields, in London, much inhabited by writers of small histories, dictionaries, and temporary poems, whence any production is called Grub street.” The name was freely used by Pope, Swift, and others. Grundy.—“What will Mrs. Grundy say?” (What will our rivals or neighbors say?) The phrase is from Tom Morton’s Speed the Plough, but “Mrs. Grundy” is not introduced into the comedy as one of the dramatis personÆ. The solicitude of Dame Ashfield, in this play, as to “what will Mrs. Grundy say?” has given the latter great celebrity, the interrogatory having acquired a proverbial currency. Gudrun (gÖ-drÖn´).—Edda, SÄmund Sigfusson. A lady, married to Sigurd by the magical arts of her mother and on the death of Sigurd to Atli (Attila), whom she hated for his cruelty, and murdered. She then cast herself into the sea, and the waves bore her to the castle of King Jonakun, who became her third husband. Gudrun.—North-Saxon poem. A model of heroic fortitude and pious resignation. She was the daughter of King Hettel (Attila), and the betrothed of Herwig, king of Heligoland. Guendolen (gwen´do-len).—A fairy whose mother was a human being. Guildenstern.—The name of a courtier in Shakespeare’s tragedy Hamlet. Guinevere (gwin´e-ver), or Guenever.—A corrupt form of Guanhumara, daughter of King Leodegrance of the land of Camelyard. She was the most beautiful of women, was the wife of King Arthur, but entertained a liaison with Sir Launcelot du Lac. Arthur, when informed of the conduct of Launcelot, went with an army to Brittany to punish him. Mordred, left as regent, usurped the crown, proclaimed that Arthur was dead, and tried to marry Guinevere; but she shut herself up in the Tower of London, resolved to die rather than marry the usurper. When she heard of the death of Arthur, she stole away to Almesbury, and became a nun. Gulliver, Lemuel.—The imaginary hero of Swift’s celebrated satirical romance known as Gulliver’s Travels. He is represented as being first a surgeon in London, and then a captain of several ships. After having followed the sea for some years he makes in succession four extraordinary voyages. Gummidge (gum´ij), Mrs.—In Dickens’ novel of David Copperfield, described herself as a “lone, lorn, creetur, and everythink that reminds me of creeturs that ain’t lone and lorn goes contrairy with me.” Gurton, Gammer.—The heroine of an old English comedy, long supposed to be the earliest in the language. Guy Mannering.—The second of Scott’s historical novels, published in 1815, just seven months after Waverley. The interest of the tale is well sustained; but the love scenes, female characters, and Guy Mannering himself are quite worthless. Not so the character of Dandy Dinmont, the shrewd and witty counselor Pleydell, the desperate, sea-beaten villainy of Hatteraick, the uncouth devotion of that gentlest of all pedants, poor Dominie Sampson, and the savage, crazed superstition of the gypsy-dweller in Derncleugh. Guyon (gi´on).—The impersonation of Temperance or Self-government in Spenser’s FaËrie Queene. He destroyed the witch Acrasia, and her bower, called the “Bower of Bliss.” His companion was Prudence. Sir Guyon represents the quality of temperance in the largest sense; meaning the virtuous self-government which holds in check not only the inferior sensual appetites but also the impulses of passion and revenge. Guy, Sir, Earl of Warwick.—The hero of a famous English legend, which celebrates the wonderful achievements by which he obtained the hand of his ladylove, the fair Felice, as well as the adventures he subsequently met with in a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. He is reputed to have lived in the reign of the Saxon King Athelstan. The romance of Sir Guy, mentioned by Chaucer in the Canterbury Tales, cannot be traced further back than the earlier part of the fourteenth century. His existence at any period is very doubtful. H Hadad.—One of the six wise men led by the guiding star to Jesus. Hagen.—The murderer of Siegfried, in the German epic, the Nibelungenlied. He is a pale-faced dwarf, who knows everything and whose sole desire is mischief. After the death of Siegfried he seized the “Nibelung hoard,” and buried it in the Rhine, intending to appropriate it. Kriemhild invited him to the court and had him slain. Haidee (hi-de´).—A beautiful young Greek girl in Byron’s poem, Don Juan. She is called the “beauty of the Cyclades.” Hakim.—The Talisman, Scott. Saladin, in the disguise of a physician, visited Richard Coeur de Lion in sickness; gave him a medicine in which the “talisman” had been dipped, and the sick king recovered. Hamlet.—A tragedy by Shakespeare. The chief character is Hamlet, prince of Denmark. The ghost of his father appears to him, and urges him to avenge his murder upon his uncle. But the prince feigns madness, and puts off his revenge from day to day by “thinking too precisely on the event.” Hamlet’s mother had married Claudius, king of Denmark, after the death of her former husband. Claudius prepared poisoned wine, which he intended for Hamlet; but the queen, not knowing it, drank it, was poisoned and died. Hamlet, seeing his mother fall dead, rushed on the king and killed him almost by accident, and is killed himself by a poisoned rapier in the hands of Laertes. Hanswurst (hÄns´vorst).—A pantomimic character formerly introduced into German comedies. It corresponds to the Italian Macaroni, the French Jean Potage, and the English Jack Pudding. Hardcastle, Mr.—A character in Goldsmith’s comedy of She Stoops to Conquer, represented as prosy and hospitable. Hardcastle, Mrs.—A very “genteel” lady indeed. Tony Lumpkin is her son by a former husband. Hard Times.—A novel by Dickens. Bounderby, a street Arab, raised himself to banker and cotton prince. When past fifty years of age he married Louisa, daughter of Thomas Gradgrind. The bank was robbed, and Bounderby believed Stephen Blackpool to be the thief, because he had dismissed him from his employ. The culprit was Tom Gradgrind, the banker’s brother-in-law, who escaped out of the country. In the dramatized version, the bank was not robbed, but Tom removed the money to another drawer for safety. Harlequin (hÄr´le-kin, or -´kwin).—The name of a well-known character in the popular extemporized Italian comedy. Harlowe, Clarissa.—The heroine of Richardson’s novel entitled The History of Clarissa Harlowe. In order to avoid a marriage urged upon her by her parents, she casts herself on the protection of Lovelace, who grossly abuses the confidence thus reposed in him. He subsequently proposes to marry her, but Clarissa rejects the offer. Haroun-al-Raschid (hÄ-ron´Äl-rash´id).—Caliph of the Abbasside race, contemporary with Charlemagne, and, like him, a patron of literature and the arts. Many of the tales in the Arabian Nights are placed in the caliphate of Haroun-al-Raschid. Harpagon (Är-pÄ-gÔn´).—The hero of MoliÈre’s comedy of L’Avare, represented as a wretched miser. Harpier, or Harper.—Some mysterious personage referred to by the witches in Shakespeare’s tragedy Macbeth. Hassan (hÄs´sÄn).—The Giaour, Byron. Caliph of the Ottoman empire, noted for his hospitality and splendor. In his seraglio was a beautiful young slave named Leila, who loved a Christian called the Giaour. Leila is put to death by an emir, and Hassan is slain by the Giaour. Caliph Hassan has become the subject of popular romance. Hassan, Al.—The Arabian emir of Persia, father of Hinda, in Moore’s Fire Worshipers. Hatto (hÄt´to).—In German legend, an archbishop of Mentz in the tenth century, who, for his hardheartedness to the poor in time of famine, was eaten by mice in the “Mouse Tower” on an island in the Rhine near Bingen. Robert Browning has made this legend the subject of a poem. Havelock the Dane (hav´e-lok).—A fisherman, known as Grim, rescued an infant named Havelock, whom he adopted. This infant was the son of the king of Denmark, and when the boy was restored to his royal sire Grim was laden with gifts. He built the town which he called after his own name. This is the foundation of the mediÆval tales about Havelock the Dane. Hazlewood, Sir Robert.—The old baronet of Hazlewood. Hazlewood, Charles.—Guy Mannering, Scott. Son of Sir Robert. In love with Lucy Bertram, whom he marries. Heart of Midlothian, The.—A novel by Sir Walter Scott, published in 1818. It has for heroines Jeanie and Effie Deans. Among the other characters are Dumbiedykes and Madge Wildfire. It has often been dramatized. “The Heart of Midlothian” was the popular name for the tollbooth at Edinburgh, the capital of the county of Midlothian. Heep, Uriah.—David Copperfield, Dickens. A detestable character, who, under the garb of the most abject humility, conceals a diabolic malignity. Mrs. Heep, Uriah’s mother, was a character equally to be despised for her hypocritical assumption of humility. Helena.—(1) A lady in Shakespeare’s Midsummer Night’s Dream, in love with Demetrius. (2) The heroine of Shakespeare’s All’s Well That Ends Well, in love with Bertram, who marries her against his will and leaves her, but is finally won by the strength of her affection. (3) A character in an old popular tale, reproduced in Germany by Tieck. Hermann and Dorothea.—The hero and heroine of Goethe’s poem of the same name. Hermengyld (her´men-gild).—Canterbury Tales, Chaucer. The wife of the lord-constable of Northumberland. She was converted by Constance, but was murdered by a knight. Hermengyld at the bidding of Constance restored sight to a blind Briton. Hermia (her´mi-Ä).—A lady in Shakespeare’s Midsummer Night’s Dream, in love with Lysander. Hermione.—The heroine of the first three acts of Shakespeare’s Winter’s Tale. Hernani, or Ernani.—The hero of Victor Hugo’s tragedy of the same name, and of Verdi’s opera, founded on the play. He was a Spanish noble in revolt against the Emperor Charles V. and killed himself from a high sense of honor. Hiawatha (hi-a-w´tÄ, or hi-a-w´thÄ), The Song of.—A poem by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, written in the following peculiar measure: Should you ask me, “Whence these stories?” ..... I should answer, I should tell you, ..... “I repeat them as I heard them From the lips of Nawadaha, The musician, the sweet singer.” The poem is entirely devoted to a description of life among the aboriginal tribes of America. It was published in 1855. Hiawatha is a mythical person believed by some of the North American Indians to have been sent among them to clear their rivers, forests, and fishing-grounds, and to teach them the arts of peace. When the white man came, then Hiawatha knew that the time of his departure was at hand, when he must go To the kingdom of Ponemah, The land of the Hereafter. Highland Mary.—A song by Robert Burns, which Burns himself thought was in his happiest manner, and which refers, he says, to one of the most interesting passages of his youthful days. By this he means his attachment to Mary, a servant in the family of Mr. Hamilton, “who will be remembered,” says Alexander Smith, “with Dante’s Beatrice and Petrarch’s Laura.” It was arranged that the lovers should become man and wife, and that Mary should go to her friends to prepare for the wedding. But before her departure came the farewell scene so touchingly described in the poem: Our parting was fu’ tender; And, pledging aft to meet again, We tore oursels asunder: But oh! fell death’s untimely frost That nipt my flower sae early! Now green’s the sod, and cauld’s the clay, That wraps my Highland Mary! Hilda.—A New England girl of the most sensitive delicacy and purity of mind, in Hawthorne’s romance, The Marble Faun. She is an artist, living in Rome, and typifies, perhaps, the conscience. Hildebrand (hil´de-brand).—The Nestor of German romance, a magician and champion. Hildesheim (hil´des-him).—In an old German legend, the monk of Hildesheim, doubting how a thousand years with God could be “only one day,” listened to the melody of a bird, as he supposed, for only three minutes, but found that he had been listening to it for a hundred years. Hobbididance.—The name of one of the fiends mentioned by Shakespeare in Lear, and taken from the history of the Jesuits’ impostures. Hohenlinden (ho´en-lin´den).—A poem by Thomas Campbell, published in 1802, celebrating the battle of Hohenlinden, gained by Moreau and the French over the Austrians. The poet visited the battle field on December 3, 1800. Holofernes (hol-o-fer´nez).—(1) A pedant living in Paris, under whose care Gargantua is placed for instruction. (2) A pedantic schoolmaster in Shakespeare’s Love’s Labor’s Lost. Holt, Felix.—The hero of George Eliot’s novel by the same name. Home, Sweet Home.—A popular lyric contained in the drama of Clari, the Maid of Milan, by John Howard Homilies.—The latter entries in the Peterborough Chronicle and a few homilies are almost all that we have left of the literature of the twelfth century. Some of these homilies are copied or imitated from those of Ælfric. Honeycomb (hun´i-kom), Will.—One of the members of the imaginary club by whom the Spectator was professedly edited. He is distinguished for his graceful affectation, courtly pretension, and knowledge of the gay world. Honeyman, Charles.—A fashionable preacher in Thackeray’s novel, The Newcomes. Hopeful.—A pilgrim in Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, who accompanies Christian to the end of his journey. Hop-o’-my-Thumb.—A character in the tales of the nursery. Tom Thumb and Hop-o’-my-Thumb are not the same, although they are often confounded. Tom Thumb was the son of peasants, knighted by King Arthur, and was killed by a spider. Hop-o’-my-Thumb was a nix, the same as the German “daumling,” the French “le petit pouce,” and the Scotch “Tom-a-lin” or “Tamlane.” He was not a human dwarf, but a fay. Horatio (ho-ra´shi-o).—Hamlet, Shakespeare. An intimate friend of Hamlet, a prince, a scholar, and a gentleman. Horatius Cocles.—Captain of the bridge gate over the Tiber. He and two men to help him held the bridge against vast approaching armies. Subject and title of a poem by Lord Macauley. Horner, Jack.—The name of a celebrated personage in the literature of the nursery. A Somersetshire tradition says that the plums which Jack Horner pulled out of the Christmas pie alluded to the title deeds of the abbey estates at Wells, which were sent to Henry VIII., in a pasty, and were abstracted on the way by the messenger, a certain Jack Horner. Hortense (hÔr-ten´s, or or-tons´).—Bleak House, Dickens. The vindictive French maid-servant of Lady Dedlock. In revenge for the partiality shown by Lady Dedlock to Rosa, Hortense murdered Mr. Tulkinghorn, and tried to throw the suspicion of the crime on Lady Dedlock. House of the Seven Gables, The.—A romance by Nathaniel Hawthorne, published in 1851. “In The House of the Seven Gables,” says R. H. Hutton, “we have a picture studied to impress on us that both personal character and the malign influences of evil action are transmitted, sometimes with accumulating force, even through centuries, blighting every generation through which they pass. The subject would apparently involve a series of sketches, but only two are introduced from the past, and the family characteristics are so anxiously preserved as to make even these seem like slight modifications of some of the living group. The only incident in the tale is the light thrown upon a crime—which had been committed thirty years before the story opens—by the sudden death of the principal representative of a family from the same disease, in the same chair, and under the same circumstances, as those of the old ancestor and founder of the family, whose picture hangs above the chair.” Hubbard, Old Mother.—A well-known nursery rhyme. Mother Hubbard’s Tale, by Edmund Spenser, is a satirical fable in the style of Chaucer. Hubert de Burgh (bÖrg, or berg).—Justice of England, created Earl of Kent, introduced by Shakespeare into King John. He is the one to whom the young prince addresses his piteous plea for life. The lad was found dead soon afterward, either by accident or foul play. Hubert, Saint.—The legend of Saint Hubert makes him a patron saint of huntsmen. Hudibras (hu´di-bras).—The title and hero of a celebrated satirical poem by Samuel Butler. Hudibras is a Presbyterian justice of the time of the commonwealth. Hugh of Lincoln.—A legendary personage who forms the subject of Chaucer’s Prioress’ Tale, and also of an ancient English ballad. Wordsworth has given a modernized version of this tale. Hugo Hugonet.—Castle Dangerous, Scott. Minstrel of the earl of Douglas. Humphrey.—The imaginary collector of the tales in Master Humphrey’s Clock, by Charles Dickens. Humpty Dumpty.—The hero of a well-known nursery rhyme. The name signifies humped and dumpy, and is the riddle for an egg. Huon de Bordeaux (Ü-Ôn´de bor-do´).—A hero of one of the romances of chivalry bearing this name. Hural Oyun.—In the fairy tales found in the Koran, these are the black-eyed daughters of paradise. They are created from muck, and are free from all physical weakness and are always young. It is held out to every male believer that he will have seventy-two of these girls as his household companions in paradise. Hylas (hi´las).—A beautiful boy, beloved by Hercules, who was drawn into a spring by the enamored nymphs. The story has been treated by Bayard Taylor, and by William Morris in his Life and Death of Jason. Hypatia (hi-a´shiÄ).—A novel by the Rev. Charles Kingsley, the scene of which is laid in Alexandria, at a time when Christianity was gaining ground against Paganism and the neo-Platonism of the schools. Hypatia herself was born about the year 370, and, after attracting to her lectures on philosophy a large and brilliant auditory, was torn to pieces by the rabble of her native city in 415. Hypatia appeared in 1853. Hyperion (hi-pe´ri-on, or hi-per-i´on).—A romance in four books, by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. This work, which was the result of an extensive tour in Germany, was published in 1839, and with much that is purely fanciful and imaginative, contains much that came within the actual experience of the author who is represented, idealized, in the character of Paul Flemming. The episode with Mary Ashburton is supposed to have reference to a real occurrence. The book is full of description and of eloquent discussion, besides being interspersed with snatches of legend and of song. Hypocrites’ Isle.—An island described by Rabelais in one of his satires. He pictures this island of Hypocrites as wholly inhabited by people of low and defiled natures, as, by sham saints, spiritual comedians, seducers, and “such-like sorry rogues who live on the alms of passengers like the hermit of Lamont.” I Iago (e-Ä´go).—Othello, Shakespeare. Othello’s ensign and the villain of the play. Iago is said to be a character next to a devil, yet not quite a devil, which Shakespeare alone could execute without scandal. Idleness, The Lake of.—FaËrie Queene, Spenser. Whoever drank thereof grew instantly “faint and weary.” The Red Cross Knight drank of it, and was readily made captive by Orgoglio. Idylls of the King.—A series of poems by Tennyson. Taken together they form a parable of the life of man. Each idyll taken as a separate picture represents the war between sense and soul. In Lancelot and Guinevere the lower nature leads them astray and there is intense struggle before the higher nature prevails. In Vivien, Tristram, and Modred, the base and sensual triumph. In Arthur, Sir Galahad and Percivale, it is the victory of the spiritual. Ignaro.—FaËrie Queene, Spenser. Fosterfather of Orgoglio. Spenser says this old man walks one way and looks another, because ignorance is always “wrong-headed.” Iliad (il´e-ad).—A famous Greek epic poem by Homer. It is the tale of the siege of Troy, in twenty-four books. It is written in Greek hexameters, and commemorates the deeds of Achilles and other Greek heroes at the siege of Troy. Books one, two and three are introductory to the war. Paris proposes to decide the contest by a single combat, and Menelaus accepts the challenge. Paris, being overthrown, is carried off by Venus, and Agamemnon demands that the Trojans shall give up Troy in fulfillment of the compact, and the siege follows. The gods take part, and frightful slaughter ensues. At length Achilles slays Hector, and the battle is at an end. Old Priam, going to the tent of Achilles, craves the body of his son Hector; Achilles gives it up, and the poem concludes with the funeral rites of the Trojan hero. Vergil continues the tale from this point, shows how the city was taken and burnt, and then continues with the adventures of Æneas, who escapes from the burning city, and makes his way to Italy. Imogen (im´o-jen).—The wife of Posthumus, and the daughter of Cymbeline in the play of Shakespeare’s under title Cymbeline. “Of all Shakespeare’s women,” says Hazlitt, “she is, perhaps, the most tender and the most artless.” Incantation.—Is derived from a Latin root meaning simply “to sing.” It is the term in use to denote one of the most powerful and awe-inspiring modes of magic, resting on a belief in the mysterious power of words solemnly conceived and passionately uttered. Inchcape Rock.—It is dangerous for navigators, and therefore the abbot of Aberbrothock fixed a bell on a float, which gave notice to sailors. Southey says that Ralph the Rover, in a mischievous joke, cut the bell from the buoy, and it fell into the sea; but on his Inferno, The.—Divine Comedy, Dante. Epic poem in thirty-four cantos. Inferno is the place of the souls who are wholly given up to sin. The ascent is through Purgatory to Paradise. Ingoldsby Legends (ing´goldz-bi lej´endz, or le´jendz).—A collection of legends in prose and verse, supposed to have been found in the family chest of the Ingoldsby family, and related by Thomas Ingoldsby. Of the poetical pieces it is not too much to say that, for originality of design and diction, for quaint illustration and musical verse, they are not surpassed in the English language. From the days of Hudibras to our time, the drollery invested in rhyme has never been so amply or so felicitously exemplified; and if derision has been unsparingly applied, it has been to lash knavery and imposture. In Memoriam.—A poem by Alfred Tennyson, published in 1850, and consisting of one hundred and thirty “short swallow flights of song,” in a measure which Tennyson has made his own. It is well known that these “brief lays, of sorrow born,” were written in memory of the author’s friend, Arthur Henry Hallam, who died in 1833. They are characterized by George MacDonald as forming “the poem of the hoping doubters, the poem of our age—the grand minor organ fugue of In Memoriam. It is the cry of the bereaved Psyche into the dark infinite after the vanished love. His friend is nowhere in his sight, and God is silent. Death, God’s final compulsion to prayer, in its dread, its gloom, its utter stillness, its apparent nothingness, urges the cry. Moanings over the dead are mingled with the profoundest questionings of philosophy, the signs of nature, and the story of Jesus, while now and then the star of the morning, bright Phosphor, flashes a few rays through the shifting cloudy dark. And if the sun has not arisen on the close of the book, yet the aurora of the coming dawn gives light enough to make the onward journey possible and hopeful.” Innocents Abroad.—By Mark Twain. Travelers seeing Europe without any illusions. The fun consists in an irreverent application of modern common sense to historic associations, ridiculing sentimental humbug. An air of innocence and surprise adds to the drolleries of their adventures. Instauratio Magna (in-stÂ-ra´shi-o mag´nÄ).—The title (The Great Restoration) which Bacon gave to his Magnum Opus, the design of which was for six divisions:—(1) The Advancement of Learning; (2) the Novum Organum; (3) the Experimental History of Nature; (4) the Scala Intellectus, which leads from experience to science; (5) the Bodronic, or anticipations of the second philosophy; and (6) Active Science, or experiment. Of these, only the first two, and a portion of the third (Sylva Sylvarum), were published. The idea that was to run through the Instauratio was that invention must be based upon experience, and experience upon experiment. Interludes, The.—Springing from the moralities and bearing some resemblance to them, though nearer the regular drama, are the interludes, a class of compositions in dialogue, much shorter and more merry and farcical. They were generally played in the intervals of a festival. Invocation.—An address at the commencement of a poem, in which the author calls for the aid of some divinity, particularly of his muse. Iphigenia (if´i-je-ni´Ä).—The heroine of Euripides’ tragedy Iphigenia in Aulis, and of Goethe’s tragedy Iphigenia auf Tauris. She was placed on the altar in a rash vow by her father. Artemis at the last moment snatched her from the altar and carried her to heaven, substituting a hind in her place. The similarity of this legend to the scripture stories of Jephthah’s vow and Abraham’s offering of his son Isaac is noticeable. Iras.—A strongly delineated character in Ben Hur, a Tale of The Christ, by Lew Wallace. Iras.—A female attendant on Cleopatra in Shakespeare’s play, Antony and Cleopatra. Isaac of York.—A wealthy Jew, the father of Rebecca, in Sir Walter Scott’s novel, Ivanhoe. Isabella.—The heroine in Shakespeare’s comedy, Measure for Measure. Island of Lanterns.—In the celebrated satire of Rabelais, an imaginary country inhabited by false pretenders to knowledge. The name was probably suggested by the City of Lanterns, in the Greek romance of Lucian. Swift has copied this same idea in his Island of Laputa. Island of St. Brandan.—A marvelous flying island, the subject of an old and widely spread legend of the middle ages. Though the island of St. Brandan has been a disappointment to voyagers, it has been a favorite theme with poets. Island of the Blest.—Imaginary island in the west. Hither the favorites of the gods were conveyed without dying, and dwelt in never-ending joy. The name first occurs in Hesiod’s Works and Days. This phrase is often used in modern literature. Ithuriel (i-thÖ´ri-el).—In Milton’s Paradise Lost, an angel commissioned by Gabriel to search through paradise, in company with Zephon, to find Satan, who had eluded the vigilance of the angelic guard, and effected an entrance into the garden. It is related that Ithuriel found Satan “squat like a toad, close at the ear of Eve,” and transformed him by a touch of his spear into his proper shape. Ivanhoe.—A novel by Sir Walter Scott. The hero, also Ivanhoe, figures as Cedric of Rotherwood’s disinherited son, the favorite of King Richard I., and the lover of the Lady Rowena, whom, in the end, he marries. The scene is laid in England in the reign of Richard I., and we are introduced to Robin Hood in Sherwood forest, banquets in Saxon halls, tournaments, and all the pomp of ancient chivalry. Rowena, the heroine, is quite thrown into the shade by the gentle, meek, yet high-souled Rebecca. Ivory Gate of Dreams.—Dreams which delude pass through the ivory gate, but those which come true through the horn gate. J Jack and the Bean-Stalk.—A nursery legend said to be an allegory of the Teutonic Al-fader, the “red hen” representing the all-producing sun, the “money-bags” the fertilizing rain, and the “harp” the winds. Jack-in-the-Green.—A prominent character in Maypole dances. Jack Robinson.—A famous comic song by Hudson. Jack Sprat.—The hero of a nursery rhyme. Jack and his wife form a fine combination in domestic economy. Jack the Giant-killer.—The name of a famous hero in the literature of the nursery, the subject of one of the Teutonic or Indo-European legends, which have become nationalized in England and America. Jaquenetta (jak-e-net´Ä).—Love’s Labor’s Lost, Shakespeare. A country wench courted by Don Adriano de Armado. Jaques (zhÄ´kes).—A lord attending upon the exiled duke, in Shakespeare’s As You Like It. A contemplative character who thinks and does—nothing. He is called the “melancholy Jaques,” and affects a cynical philosophy. He could “suck melancholy out of a song, as a weasel sucks eggs.” Jarley, Mrs.—The proprietor of a waxwork show in Dickens’ Old Curiosity Shop. She has lent her name to a popular game of parlor tableaux. Jarndyce (jÄrn´dis), John.—A prominent figure in Dickens’ Bleak House, distinguished for his philanthropy, easy good-nature and good sense, and for always saying, “The wind is in the east,” when anything went wrong with him. The famous suit of Jarndyce vs. Jarndyce, in this novel, is a satire upon the court of chancery. Jarvie, Nicol.—A prominent character in Sir Walter Scott’s novel Rob Roy. He is a bailie of Glasgow. Javert (zhÄ-var´).—An officer of the police force in Les MisÉrables, by Victor Hugo. He is the incarnation of inexorable law. Jarvis.—A faithful old servant, in Moore’s The Gamester, who tries to save his master, Beverley, from his fatal passion of gambling. Jaup.—An old woman at Middlemas village, in Scott’s The Surgeon’s Daughter. Jekyll, Doctor, and Mr. Hyde.—A singular romance by Robert Louis Stevenson. The hero is a duplex character—Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Doctor Jekyll is a benevolent and upright physician, who by means of a potion is able to transform himself for a time into a second personality, Mr. Hyde, of a brutal and animal nature. Jellyby (jel´i-bi), Mrs.—A character in Dickens’ novel, Bleak House, a type of sham philanthropy. She spends her time and energy on foreign missions to the neglect of her family. Mrs. Jellyby is quite overwhelmed with business correspondence relative to the affairs of Borrioboola Gha. Jenkins, Winifred.—The name of Miss Tabitha Bramble’s maid in Smollett’s Expedition of Humphrey Clinker. She makes ridiculous blunders in speaking and writing. Jenkinson, Ephraim.—A green old swindler, whom Dr. Primrose met in a public tavern. Dr. Primrose sold the swindler his horse, Old Blackberry, for a draft upon Farmer Flamborough. Jeroboam (jer-o-bo´am) Sermon.—One of Dr. Emmons’ sermons, which made a great noise at the time. It was known as his Jeroboam Sermon. It was written on the occasion of Jefferson’s inauguration as president, and, although Jefferson is not named, the delineation of the character of Jeroboam is such that no one can doubt the personal application intended. Jerusalem Delivered.—An epic in twenty books, by Torquato Tasso. The crusaders, encamped on the plains of Tortosa, chose Godfrey for their chief, and Alandine, king of Jerusalem, made preparations for defense. The Christian army having reached Jerusalem, the king of Damascus sent Armida to beguile the Christians. It was found that Jerusalem could never be taken without the aid of Rinaldo. Godfrey, being informed that the hero was dallying with Armida in the enchanted island, sent to invite him back to the army; he returned, and Jerusalem was taken. Armida fled into Egypt, and offered to marry any knight who slew Rinaldo. The love of Rinaldo returned, he pursued her and she relented. The poem concludes with the triumphant entry of the Christian army into the Holy City, and their devotions at the tomb of the Redeemer. The two chief episodes are the loves of Olindo and Sofronia, and of Tancred and Clorinda. Jessica (jes´i-kÄ).—The beautiful daughter of Shylock, in Shakespeare’s Merchant of Venice. Jones, Tom.—The hero of Fielding’s novel entitled The History of a Foundling, represented as a model of generosity, openness, and manly spirit, though thoughtless and dissipated. Joyeuse (zhwÄ-yez´).—The sword of Charlemagne as mentioned in romances of chivalry. Joyeuse Garde (zhwÄ-yez´ gÄrd).—The residence of the famous Lancelot du Lac. Judith.—The heroine in the book by the same name in the Apocrypha. She was a beautiful Jewess of Bethulia, who, when her town was besieged by Holofernes, the general of Nebuchadnezzar, attended him in his tent, and, when he was drunk, killed him, whereupon her townsmen fell upon the Assyrians and defeated them with great slaughter. The tale is not mentioned by Josephus, and has, from an early period, been held to be an allegory. It has frequently furnished poets and painters with subjects. Julius CÆsar.—An historical tragedy by William Shakespeare. The poet was in this, as in other plays, materially assisted by North’s translation of Plutarch. “Shakespeare’s Julius CÆsar,” says Hazlitt, “is not equal, as a whole, to either of his other plays taken from the Roman history. It is inferior in interest to Coriolanus, and both in interest and power to Antony and Cleopatra. It, however, abounds in admirable and affecting passages, and is remarkable for the profound knowledge of character, in which Shakespeare could hardly fail.” K Kadir, Al.—The night on which the Koran was sent down to Mohammed. Al Kadir is supposed to be the seventh of the last ten nights of Ramadan, or the night between the twenty-third and twenty-fourth days of the month. Kay.—A foster brother of King Arthur, and a rude and boastful knight of the Round Table. He was the butt of King Arthur’s court. Called also Sir Queux. He appears in the Boy and the Mantle, in Percy’s Reliques. Sir Kay is represented as the type of rude boastfulness, Sir Gawain of courtesy, Sir Launcelot of chivalry, Sir Mordred of treachery, Sir Galahad of chastity, Sir Mark of cowardice. Kehama (ke-hÄ´mÄ).—A Hindu rajah who obtains and sports with supernatural power. His adventures are related in Southey’s poem entitled The Curse of Kehama. Kenilworth.—A novel by Sir Walter Scott. This is very superior to The Abbot and The Monastery. For interest it comes next to Ivanhoe, and the portrait of Queen Elizabeth is lifelike and correct. That of Queen Mary is given in The Abbot. Full of courtly gayeties and splendor, the novel contains the unhappy tale of the beautiful Amy Robsart, which cannot fail to excite our sympathy and pity. Kent, Earl of.—A rough, plain-spoken, but faithful nobleman in Shakespeare’s King Lear, who follows the fallen fortunes of the king, disguised as a servant, under the assumed name of Caius. Kenwigs (ken´wigz).—A family in Dickens’ novel Nicholas Nickleby, including a number of little girls who differed from one another only in the length of their frilled pantalets and of their flaxen pigtails tied with bows of blue ribbon. Kilkenny Cats.—Two cats, in an Irish story, which fought till nothing was left but their tails. It is probably a parable of a local contest between Kilkenny and Irishtown, which impoverished both boroughs. Kilmansegg, Miss.—An heiress with great expectations and an artificial leg of solid gold, in Hood’s poem, A Golden Legend. King Horn.—A metrical romance which was very popular in the thirteenth century. King Horn is a beautiful young prince who is carried away by pirates; but his life is spared, and after many wonderful adventures he weds a princess, and regains his father’s kingdom. King Lear.—A tragedy by Shakespeare whose hero is a fabulous or legendary king of Britain. He had three daughters, and when four score years old, wishing to retire from the active duties of sovereignty, resolved to divide his kingdom between them, but was persuaded to disinherit Cordelia. The beauty of the play is the exquisite character of Cordelia, who is a “perfect woman.” King Log and King Stork.—Characters in a celebrated fable of Æsop, which relates that the frogs, grown weary of living without a government, petitioned Jupiter for a king. Jupiter accordingly threw down a log among them, which made a satisfactory ruler till the frogs recovered from their fright and discovered his real nature. They, therefore, entreated Jupiter for another king, whereupon he sent them a stork, who immediately began to devour them. Klaus, Peter.—The hero of an old popular tradition of Germany—the prototype of Rip Van Winkle—represented as a goatherd. Knickerbocker, Diedrich.—The imaginary author of a humorous fictitious History of New York, written by Washington Irving. Knight of the Swan.—Lohengrin, son of Parsival, because his boat was drawn by a swan. Knights of the Round Table.—King Arthur’s knights were so called because they sat with him at a round table made by Merlin for King Leodogran. This king gave it to Arthur on his marriage with Guinevere, his daughter. Koppenberg.—The mountain of Westphalia to which the pied piper (Bunting) led the children, when the people of Hamelin refused to pay him for killing their rats. Browning’s poem, The Pied Piper, tells the tale. L Lady of Lyons, The.—A drama, by Lord Lytton, in which Pauline Deschappelles, daughter of a Lyonese merchant, rejects the suits of Beauseant, Glavis, and Claude Melnotte, who therefore combined. Claude, who was a gardener’s son, aided by the other two, passed himself off as Prince Como, married Pauline, and brought her home to his mother’s cottage. The proud beauty was very indignant, and Claude left her to join the French army. He became a colonel, and returned to Lyons. He found his father-in-law on the eve of bankruptcy, and that Beauseant had promised to satisfy the creditors if Pauline would consent to marry him. Pauline was heartbroken; Claude revealed himself, paid the money required, and carried home the bride. Lady of Shalott, The.—A poem by Alfred Tennyson, founded on an incident in King Arthur. It is descriptive of “a being whose existence passes without emotion, without changes, without intelligible motive for living on, without hope or fear, here or hereafter.” Lady of the Lake, The.—A poem in six cantos by Sir Walter Scott, published in 1810. “Measured even by the standard of the Minstrel and Marmion, the Lady of the Lake possessed,” says Palgrave, “merits of its own, which raised his reputation still higher. Jeffrey’s prediction has been perfectly fulfilled, that the Lady of the Lake would be ‘oftener read than either of the former,’ and it is generally acknowledged to be, in Lockhart’s words, ‘the most interesting, romantic, picturesque, and graceful of his great poems.’” The descriptions of scenery, which form one of the chief charms of the poem, render it, even now, one of the most minute and faithful handbooks to the region in which the drama of Ellen and the Knight of Snowdon is laid. Lake Poets, The.—Wordsworth, Southey, and Coleridge, who lived about the lakes of Cumberland. Lalla Rookh (lal´Ä rÖk).—An oriental romance by Thomas Moore, consisting of four tales in verse, entitled The Veiled Prophet of Khorassan, Paradise and the Peri, The Fire-Worshipers, and The Light of the Harem, and connected by a short prose narrative, in which it is described how Lalla Rookh, daughter of the Emperor Aurungzebe, journeys toward Bucharia to L’Allegro (lÄl-la´gro).—A descriptive poem by John Milton, probably written during his college life. L’Amour MÉdecin (la-moor´ mad-saN´) (or, The Love Doctor).—A comedy by MoliÈre, written about the year 1665. Lucinde, the daughter of Sganarelle, is in love, and the father calls in four doctors to consult upon the nature of her malady. They see the patient, and retire to consult together, but talk about Paris, about their visits, about the topics of the day; and when the father enters to know what opinion they have formed, they all prescribe different remedies, and pronounce different opinions. Lisette then calls in a “quack” doctor (Clitandre, the lover), who says he must act on the imagination, and proposes a seeming marriage, to which Sganarelle assents. The assistant being a notary, Clitandre and Lucinde are married. Lampoon.—A personal satire, often bitter and malignant. These libels, carried to excess in the reign of Charles II., acquired the name of lampoons from the burden sung to them: “Lampone, lampone, camerada lampone.” Land of Beulah.—The paradise in which souls wait before the resurrection. In Pilgrim’s Progress the land from which the pilgrims enter the Celestial City. The name is found in Isaiah lxii., 4. Land of Bondage.—Name given to Egypt in the Bible. Land of Cakes.—A name sometimes given to Scotland, because oatmeal cakes are a common national article of food, particularly among the poorer classes. Land of Nod.—In common speech sleepy-land or land of dreams. Land of Promise.—The land promised to Abraham—Canaan. Land of Shadows.—A place of unreality, sometimes meaning land of ghosts. Land o’ the Leal.—An unknown land of happiness, loyalty, and virtue. Caroline Oliphant, baroness Nairne, meant heaven in her song and this is now its accepted meaning. Land of Wisdom.—A name given to Normandy, in France, because of the wise customs which have prevailed there, and also because of the skill and judgment of the people in making laws. Land of Veda (ve´dÄ).—Name often given to India. Landlady’s Daughter.—She rowed Flemming “over the Rhine-stream, rapid and roaring wide,” and told to him the story of the Liebenstein. Last Days of Pompeii (pom-pa´ye), The.—A novel by Bulwer Lytton, Edward George, Baron Lytton, which was published in 1834. The interest of the book is one of situation and of action rather than of character. The scenes which linger on our memories longest are the noonday excursion on the Campanian seas, the temple of Isis, with its hidden machinery; the funeral pomp and dirge of the murdered ApÆcides, Lydon perishing in the unequal struggle; the price which was to have been paid for a father’s liberty; and lastly, the grand catastrophe, a subject which called forth all Lord Lytton’s brilliant powers. Last of the Mohicans.—The Indian chief Uncas is so called by Cooper in his novel of that title. Launfal (lÄn´fal), Sir.—Steward of King Arthur. James Russell Lowell has a poem entitled The Vision of Sir Launfal. Lavaine.—Son of the lord of Astolat, who accompanied Sir Lancelot when he went to tilt for the ninth diamond. Lavaine is described as young, brave, and a true knight. He was brother to Elaine. Lavinia (la-vin´i-Ä) and Palemon.—Lavinia was the daughter of Acasto, patron of Palemon. Through Acasto Palemon gained a fortune and wandered away from his friend. Acasto lost his property, and dying, left a widow and daughter in poverty. Palemon often sought them, but could never find them. One day, a lovely modest maiden came to glean in Palemon’s fields. The young squire was greatly struck with her exceeding beauty and modesty, but she was known as a pauper and he dared not give her more than a passing glance. Upon inquiry he found that the beautiful gleaner was the daughter of Acasto; he proposed marriage, and Lavinia was restored to her rightful place. Leonato (le-o-nÄ´to).—Governor of Missina in Shakespeare’s Much Ado About Nothing. He prematurely accredited the accusations against his daughter, Hero. Leonine (le´o-nin).—In Shakespeare’s Pericles. Servant to Dionyza. The latter conspired with him to murder Marina, and was saved from the crime only by the intervention of pirates. LÉonore (la-o-nor´).—In MoliÈre’s L’ecole des Maris, sister of Isabelle, an orphan; brought up by Ariste according to his notions of training a girl to make him a good wife. He put her on her honor, tried to win her confidence and love, gave her all the liberty consistent with propriety and social etiquette, and found that she loved him, and made a fond and faithful wife. Leviathan (le-vi´a-than) (or, the Matter, Form, and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil).—A work by Thomas Hobbes, published in 1651. In Leviathan, Hobbes’ peculiar theories in politics received their fullest and ablest expression. They found an illustrious opponent in Lord Clarendon, who, in 1676, published A Brief View and Survey of the Dangerous and Pernicious Errors to Church and State in Mr. Hobbes’ book Entitled Leviathan. Little Dorrit.—The heroine and title of a novel by Charles Dickens. Little Dorrit was born and brought up in the Marshalsea prison, Bermondsey, where her father was confined for debt; and when about fourteen years of age she used to do needlework, to earn a subsistence for herself and her father. The child had a pale, transparent face; was quick in expression, though not beautiful in feature. Her eyes were a soft hazel, and her figure slight. The little dove of the prison was idolized by the prisoners, and when she walked out, every man in Bermondsey who passed her, touched or took off his hat out of respect to her good works and active benevolence. Her father, coming into a property, was set free at length, and Little Dorrit married Arthur Clennam, the marriage service being celebrated in the Marshalsea, by the prison chaplain. Little John.—A big, stalwart fellow, named John Little, who encountered Robin Hood, and gave him a sound thrashing, after which he was rechristened, and Robin stood godfather. Little John is introduced by Sir Walter Scott in The Talisman. Little Nell.—Old Curiosity Shop, Dickens. The prominent character of the story, pure and true, though living in the midst of selfishness and crime. She was brought up by her grandfather, who was in his dotage, and who tried to eke out a narrow living by selling curiosities. At length, through terror of Quilp, the old man and his grandchild stole away, and led a vagrant life. Lochinvar (lock´in-var).—A young highlander, in the poem of Marmion, was much in love with a lady whose fate was decreed that she should marry a “laggard.” Young Lochinvar persuaded the too-willing lassie to be his partner in a dance; and, while the guests were intent on their amusements, swung her into his saddle and made off with her before the bridegroom could recover from his amazement. Locksley.—So Robin Hood is sometimes called, from the village in which he was born. Locksley Hall.—A poem by Tennyson, in which the hero, the lord of Locksley Hall, having been jilted by his cousin Amy for a rich boor, pours forth his feelings in a flood of scorn and indignation. The poem is understood to have been occasioned by a similar incident in the poet’s own life, but this has been questioned. Lohengrin (lo´hen-grin).—The Knight of the Swan; the hero of a romance by Wolfram von Eschenbach, a German minnesinger of the thirteenth century, and also of a modern musical drama by Richard Wagner. He was the son of Parsival, and came to Brabant in a ship drawn by a white swan, which took him away again when his bride, disobeying his injunction, pressed him to discover his name and parentage. Lorelei, or Loreley (lo´re-li).—In German poetry and romance, a siren supposed to haunt the Lurlenberg rock on the Rhine, and lure sailors and fisherman to destruction. She is the subject of a beautiful ballad by Heine. Lorna Doone.—A novel by R. D. Blackmore, published in 1869, the scene of which is laid in Exmoor. The Doones are a family of robbers and freebooters from which Lorna, otherwise Lady Lorna Dugal, is rescued by John Ridd, a young man. Ridd finally broke up the band, drove them from Doone valley, and married Lorna. Love’s Labor’s Lost.—A comedy by Shakespeare. Ferdinand, king of Navarre, with three lords named Biron, Dumain, and Longaville, agree to spend three years in study, during which time no woman was to approach the court. The compact signed, all went well until the princess of France, attended by Rosaline, Maria, and Katharine, besought an interview respecting certain debts said to be due from the king of France to the king of Navarre. The four gentleman fell in love with the four ladies. The love of the king sought the princess, by right, Biron loved Rosaline, Longaville admired Maria, and Dumain adored Katharine. In order to carry their suits, the four gentlemen, disguised as Muscovites, presented themselves before the ladies; but the ladies, being warned of the masquerade, Lusiad (lu´si-ad), The.—A Portuguese poem by Luiz CamoËns, in 1572. The Lusiad celebrates the chief events in the history of Portugal, and is remarkable as the only modern epic poem which is pervaded by anything approaching the national and popular spirit of ancient epic poems. Bacchus was the guardian power of the Mohammedans, and Venus, or Divine Love, of the Lusians. The fleet first sailed to Mozambique, then to Melinda (in Africa), where the adventurers were hospitably received and provided with a pilot to conduct them to India. In the Indian Ocean, Bacchus tried to destroy the fleet; Venus, however, calmed the sea, and Gama arrived in India in safety. Having accomplished his object, he returned to Lisbon. Among the most famous passages are the tragical story of Inez de Castro, and the apparition of the giant Adamastor, who appears as the spirit of the storm to Vasco da Gama, when crossing the cape. The versification of The Lusiad is extremely charming. M Mab.—The queen of the fairies, famous in English literature if only on account of the exquisite description of her put into the mouth of Mercutio, in Romeo and Juliet, beginning “O, then, I see Queen Mab hath been with you.” Macbeth.—One of Shakespeare’s most celebrated tragedies, whose chief characters are Macbeth, king of Scotland, and Lady Macbeth, his murderously ambitious wife. Urged by the latter he kills Duncan, the rightful king, and in turn is himself slain by Macduff. The tale of Macbeth and Banquo was borrowed from the legendary history of Scotland, but the interest of the play is not historical. It is a tragedy of human life, intensely real, the soul, with all its powers for good or evil, deliberately choosing evil. The three witches in the desert place, in thunder, lightning, storm, strike the keynote of evil suggestion. The awfulness of soul destruction is felt in Macbeth and Lady Macbeth as in no other of Shakespeare’s dramas. Macheath, Captain.—A highwayman who is the hero of Gay’s Beggar’s Opera. Mac-Ivor (mak-e´vor), Fergus.—Waverley, Scott, Fergus Mac-Ivor is a prominent character in the novel, and his sister, Flora Mac-Ivor, the heroine. They are of the family of a Scottish chieftain. Macreons, The Island of.—Pantagruel, Rabelais. The title is given to Great Britain, derived from a Greek word meaning long-lived, “because no one is put to death there for his religious opinions.” Rabelais says the island “is full of antique ruins and relics of popery and ancient superstitions.” Madasima, Queen.—An important character in the old romance called Amadis de Gaul; her constant attendant was Elisabat, a famous surgeon with whom she roamed in solitary retreats. Madoc (mad´ok).—A poem by Southey, founded on one of the legends connected with the early history of America. Madoc, a Welsh prince of the twelfth century, is represented as making the discovery of the western world. His contests with the Mexicans form the subject. Maidens’ Castle.—An allegorical castle mentioned in Malory’s History of Prince Arthur. It was taken from a duke by seven knights, and held by them till Sir Galahad expelled them. It was called The Maidens’ Castle because these knights made a vow that every maiden who passed it should be made a captive. Maid Marian.—A half mythical character, but the name is said to have been assumed by Matilda, daughter of Robert, Lord Fitzwalter, while Robin Hood remained in a state of outlawry. The name is considered the foundation of the word marionettes, from Maid Marian’s connection with the morris dance, or May-day dance, at which she was said to appear. Maid of Athens.—Made famous by Lord Byron’s song of this title. Twenty-four years after this song was written an Englishman sought out “the Athenian maid,” and found a beggar without a vestige of beauty. Maid of Saragossa.—Childe Harold, Byron. A young Spanish woman distinguished for her heroism during the defense of Saragossa in 1808-1809. She first attracted notice by mounting a battery where her lover had fallen, and working a gun in his place. Malade Imaginaire, Le (or, The Imaginary Invalid).—A comedy by MoliÈre. Mons. Argan, who took seven mixtures and twelve lavements in one month instead of twelve mixtures with twenty lavements, as he had hitherto done. “No wonder,” he says, “I am not so well.” He fancies his wife loves him dearly, and that his daughter is undutiful, because she declines to marry a young medical prig instead of Cleante, whom she loves. His brother persuades “the malade” to counterfeit death, in order to test the sincerity of his wife and daughter. The wife rejoices greatly at his death, and proceeds to filch his property, when Argan starts up and puts an end to her pillage. Next comes the daughter’s turn. When she hears of her father’s death, she bewails him with great grief, says she has lost her best friend, and that she will devote her whole life in prayer for the repose of his soul. Argan is delighted, starts up in a frenzy of joy, declares she is a darling, and shall marry the man of her choice freely, and receive a father’s blessing. Malaprop (mal´a-prop), Mrs.—A character in Sheridan’s Rivals, noted for her blundering use of words. Malbecco.—FaËrie Queene, Spenser. The husband of a young wife, Helinore, and himself a crabbed, jealous old fellow. Malengrin.—A character in Spenser’s FaËrie Queene, who carried a net on his back “to catch fools with.” The name has grown to mean the personification of guile or flattery. Malepardus.—The castle of Master Reynard, the Fox, in the beast epic of Reynard the Fox. Malvoisin.—Ivanhoe, Scott. One of the challenging knights at the tournament (Sir Philip de Malvoisin). Sir Albert de Malvoisin was a preceptor of the Knights Templar. Mambrino (mÄm-bre´no).—Poems, Ariosto, etc. A king of the Moors, who was the possessor of an enchanted golden helmet, which rendered the wearer invulnerable and which was the object of eager quest to the paladins of Charlemagne. This helmet was borne away by the knight Rinaldo. In Don Quixote we are told of a barber who was caught in a shower of rain, and who, to protect his hat, clapped his brazen basin on his head. Don Quixote insisted that this basin was the helmet of the Moorish king; and, taking possession of it, wore it as such. Managarm.—Prose Edda. The largest and most formidable of the race of giants. He dwells in the Iron-wood, Jamvid. Managarm will first fill himself with the blood of man, and then he will swallow up the moon. This giant symbolizes war, and the iron wood in which he dwells is the wood of spears. Manfred.—A poem by Byron. Manfred sold himself to the prince of darkness, and received from him seven spirits to do his bidding. They were the spirits of “earth, ocean, air, night, mountains, winds, and the star of his own destiny.” Wholly without human sympathies, the count dwelt in splendid solitude among the Alpine mountains. He loved Astarte, and was visited by her spirit after her death. In spirit form she told Manfred that he would die the following day; and, when asked if she loved him, she signed “Manfred,” and vanished. Manon l’Escaut (mÄ-non´ les-ko).—A French novel by A. F. PrÉvost. Manon is the “fair mischief” of the story. Her charms seduce and ruin the chevalier des Grieux, who marries her. After marriage, the selfish mistress becomes converted into the faithful wife, who follows her husband into disgrace and banishment, and dies by his side in the wilds of America. The object of this novel, like that of La Dame aux CamÉlias, by Dumas fils, is to show how true hearted, how self-sacrificing, how attractive, a fille de joie may be. Mantalini (man-ta-le´ne).—Nicholas Nickleby, Dickens. The husband of madame; he is a man doll, noted for his white teeth, his oaths, and his gorgeous morning gown. This “exquisite” lives on his wife’s earnings, and thinks he confers a favor on her by spending. Madame Mantalini is represented as a fashionable dressmaker near Cavendish Square, London. Marble Faun, The.—A romance by Hawthorne, published in 1860. The English edition, published in the same year, is called Transformation, or the Romance of Monte Beni. See Donatello. The sole idea of the Marble Faun is to illustrate the intellectually and morally awakening power of a sudden impulsive sin, committed by a simple, joyous, instinctive, “natural” man. The whole group of characters is imagined solely with a view to the development of this idea. Marcellus (mÄr-sel´us).—Hamlet, Shakespeare. An officer of Denmark, to whom the ghost of the murdered king appeared before it presented itself to Prince Hamlet. Marchioness, The.—Old Curiosity Shop, Dickens. A half-starved maid-of-all-work, in the service of Sampson Brass and his sister Sally. She was so lonesome Mariana (mÄ-re-Ä´nÄ).—In Tennyson’s poem The Moated Grange, a young damsel, who sits in the moated grange, looking out for her lover, who never comes. (2) In Shakespeare’s Measure for Measure Mariana is a lovely and lovable lady, betrothed to Angelo, who, during the absence of Vincentio, the duke of Vienna, acted as his lord deputy. Her pleadings to the duke for Angelo are wholly unrivaled. Martin’s Summer, St.—Halcyon days; a time of prosperity; fine weather. Mentioned by Shakespeare in Henry VI., etc. Masora.—A critical work or canon, whereby is fixed and ascertained the reading of the text of the Hebrew version of the Bible. Mauth Dog.—Lay of the Last Minstrel, Scott. A black specter spaniel that haunted the guard room of Peeltown in the Isle of Man. A drunken trooper entered the guard room while the dog was there, but lost his speech, and died within three days. Mazeppa (mÄ-zep´Ä).—A poem by Byron. Mazeppa was a Cossack of noble family who became a page in the court of the king of Poland, and while in this capacity intrigued with Theresia, the young wife of a count, who discovered the amour, and had the young page lashed to a wild horse, and turned adrift. McFingal.—The hero of Trumbull’s political poem of the same name; represented as a burly New England squire, enlisted on the side of the Tory part of the American revolution, and constantly engaged in controversy with Honorius, the champion of the Whigs. Measure for Measure.—A comedy by Shakespeare. There was a law in Vienna that made it death for a man to live with a woman not his wife; but the law was so little enforced that the mothers of Vienna complained to the duke of its neglect. So the duke deputed Angelo to enforce it; and, assuming the dress of a friar, absented himself awhile, to watch the result. Scarcely was the duke gone, when Claudio was sentenced to death for violating the law. His sister Isabel went to intercede on his behalf, and Angelo told her he would spare her brother if she would become his Phryne. Isabel told her brother he must prepare to die, as the conditions proposed by Angelo were out of the question. The duke, disguised as a friar, heard the whole story, and persuaded Isabel to “assent in words,” but to send Mariana (the divorced wife of Angelo) to take her place. This was done; but Angelo sent the provost to behead Claudio, a crime which “the friar” contrived to avert. Next day the duke returned to the city, and Isabel told her tale. Finally the duke married Isabel, Angelo took back his wife, and Claudio married Juliet. Medea (me-de´Ä).—A play by Euripides. The Medea came out in 431 B.C. along with the poet’s Philoctetes, Dictys, and the satiric Reapers (the last was early lost). It was based upon a play of Neophron’s, and only obtained the third prize, Euphorion being first, and Sophocles second. It may accordingly be regarded as a failure in its day—an opinion apparently confirmed by the faults (viz., Ægeus and the winged chariot) selected from it as specimens in Aristotle’s Poetica. There is considerable evidence of there being a second edition of the play, and many of the variants, or so-called interpolations, seem to arise from both versions being preserved and confused. Nevertheless, there was no play of Euripides more praised and imitated. MÉdecine MalgrÉ Lui, Le (mad-saN´ mal-gra´lwe lu), (or, The Doctor in Spite of Himself).—A comedy by MoliÈre. The “enforced doctor” is Sganarelle, a fagot maker, who is called in by GÉronte to cure his daughter of dumbness. Sganarelle soon perceives that the malady is assumed in order to prevent a hateful marriage, and introduces her lover as an apothecary. The dumb spirit is at once exorcized, and the lovers made happy with “pills matrimonial.” In 1733 Fielding produced a farce called The Mock Doctor, which was based on this comedy. The doctor he calls “Gregory,” and GÉronte “Sir Jasper.” Lucinde, the dumb girl, he calls “Charlotta;” and Anglicizes her lover’s name, LÉandre, into “Leander.” Meg Merrilies (mer´i-lez).—A prominent character in Scott’s Guy Mannering, a half-crazy gypsy or sibyl. Meistersingers (mis´ter-sing-ers).—In Germany an association of master tradesmen, to revive the national minstrelsy, which had fallen into decay with the decline of the minnesingers or love minstrels (1350-1523). Their subjects were chiefly moral or religious, and constructed according to rigid rules. Melissa (me-lis´Ä).—Orlando Furioso, Ariosto. The prophetess who lived in Merlin’s cave. Bradamante gave her the enchanted ring to take to Rogero; so, assuming the form of Atlantes, she not only delivered Rogero but disenchanted all the forms metamorphosed in the island where he was captive. Melnotte, Claude.—Lady of Lyons, Bulwer. The son of a gardener in love with Pauline, “the Beauty of Lyons,” but treated by her with contempt. Beauseant and Glavis, two other rejected suitors, conspired with him to humble her. Merchant of Venice.—A comedy by Shakespeare. Antonio the merchant, signs a bond in order to borrow money from Shylock, a Jew, for Bassanio, the lover of Portia. If the loan was repaid within three months, only the principal would be required; if not, the Jew should be at liberty to claim a pound of flesh from Antonio’s body. The ships of Antonio being delayed by contrary winds, the merchant was unable to meet his bill, and the Jew claimed the forfeiture. Portia, in the dress of a law doctor, conducted the defense, and saved Antonio by reminding the Jew that a pound of flesh gave him no drop of blood. Merlin.—The name of an ancient Welsh prophet and enchanter. He is often alluded to by the older poets, especially Spenser, in his FaËrie Queene, and also figures in Tennyson’s Idylls of the King. In the History of Prince Arthur by Malory, Merlin is the prince of enchanters and of a supernatural origin. He is said to have built the Round Table and to have brought from Ireland the stones of Stonehenge. Merlin’s Cave.—In Dynevor, near Carmarthen, noted for its ghastly noises of rattling iron chains, groans, and strokes of hammers. The cause is said to be this: Merlin set his spirits to fabricate a brazen wall to encompass the city of Carmarthen, and, as he had to call on the Lady of the Lake, bade them not slacken their labor till he returned; but he never did return, for Vivian held him prisoner by her wiles. Merry Wives of Windsor, The.—A comedy by Shakespeare. It is said that Queen Elizabeth was so pleased with the Falstaff of Henry IV. that she commanded Shakespeare to show how he conducted himself when in love. For the plot he was probably but little indebted to other writers. The Two Lovers of Pisa from Straparola, in Tarleton’s News Out of Purgatory, and a story from Il Pecorone which suggests the hiding of Falstaff in the soiled linen, may possibly have suggested some of the incidents. John Dennis wrote a play, The Comical Gallant, or the Amours of Sir John Falstaff, in 1702, in which The Merry Wives may be recognized. Messiah (me-si´Ä), The.—An epic poem in fifteen books, by F. G. Klopstock. The subject is the last days of Jesus, his crucifixion and resurrection. Middlemarch: A Study of Provincial Life.—A novel, by George Eliot, published in 1872, and characterized by The Quarterly Review “as the most remarkable work of the ablest of living novelists, and, considered as a study of character, unique.” The heroine is Dorothea Brooke, first married to Mr. Casaubon, afterward to Will Ladislaw. Among the other characters are Mr. Lydgate, Rosamond Vincy, Mary Garth, and Mrs. Cadwallader. Midlothian, or Mid-Lothian (mid-lo´THi-an), The Heart of.—A tale by Scott, of the Porteous riot, in which the incidents of Effie and Jeanie Deans are of absorbing interest. Effie was seduced by Geordie Robertson (alias George Staunton), while in the service of Mrs. Saddletree. She murdered her infant, and was condemned to death; but her half sister Jeanie went to London, pleaded her cause before the queen, and obtained her pardon. Jeanie, on her return to Scotland, married Reuben Butler; and Geordie Robertson (then Sir George Staunton) married Effie. Sir George being shot by a gypsy boy, Effie (i. e., Lady Staunton) retired to a convent on the continent. Midsummer Night’s Dream.—A comedy by Shakespeare. The author says there was a law in Athens that if a daughter refused to marry the husband selected for her by her father, she might be put to death. Ægeus, an Athenian, promised to give his daughter Hermia in marriage to Demetrius; but, as the lady loved Lysander, she refused to marry the man selected by her father, and fled from Athens with her lover. Demetrius went in pursuit of her, followed by Helena, who doted on him. All four came to a forest, and fell asleep. In their dreams a vision of fairies passed before them, and, on awaking, Demetrius resolved to forego Hermia, who disliked him, and to take to wife Helena, who sincerely loved him. When Ægeus was informed thereof, he readily agreed to give his daughter to Lysander, and the force of the law was not called into action (1592). Mildendo.—Gulliver’s Travels, Swift. The metropolis of Lilliput, the wall of which was two feet and a half in height, and at least eleven inches thick. The emperor’s palace, called Belfaborac, was in the center of the city. Miles Standish (or, Courtship of Miles Standish).—A poem by H. W. Longfellow. From this poem the robust figures of the Puritan captain in his haps and mishaps, and of John Alden and Priscilla, are now part of our national treasures. Miller, Daisy.—Title and heroine of a story by Henry James. An American girl traveling in Europe, where her innocence, ignorance, and disregard of European customs and standards of propriety put her in compromising situations, and frequently expose her conduct to misconstruction. Mill on the Floss.—A novel by George Eliot, published in 1860. There is a simplicity about The Mill on the Floss which reminds us of the classic tragedy. The vast power of nature over the career and fate of a family is figured forth in the river, beside which the child Maggie played, filling her mother’s heart with gloomy and not unveracious presentiments, and down which she passed with Stephen in her hour of temptation, with Tom in her last moments; the whole strength of association and of the ties and instinct of blood breaking in at every critical point in the story, like the voice of a Greek chorus, full of traditionary warning and stern common sense, but speaking in the dialect of English rusticity, and by the mouths of Mr. Tulliver and his wife’s relations. Minna von Barnhelm (min´Ä fon bÄrn´helm).—A comedy by Lessing, published in 1767. It is the first German national drama which deals with contemporary events. Minnehaha (min-e-hÄ´hÄ).—Hiawatha, Henry W. Longfellow. The daughter of the arrow maker of Dacotah, and wife of Hiawatha. She was called Minnehaha from the waterfall of that name. Minnesingers (min´e-sing-erz).—A name given to the German lyric poets of the middle ages, on account of love being the principal theme of their lays, the German word “minne” being used to denote a pure and faithful love. Miranda.—The Tempest, Shakespeare. The daughter of Prospero, the exiled duke of Milan, and niece of Antonio, the usurping duke. She is brought up on a desert island, with Ariel, the fairy spirit, and Caliban, the monster, as her only companions. Miriam.—A beautiful and mysterious woman in Hawthorne’s romance The Marble Faun, for love of whom Donatello commits murder, thus becoming her partner in crime. Misanthrope, Le (mi-zÄN-trop´, lu).—A comedy by MoliÈre, produced in 1666. This play is an almost inexhaustible source of allusions, quotations, proverbial sayings, etc. Its principal interest lies in the development of various pairs of opposing characters in even their lightest shades. It is the ideal of classic comedy. Alceste, the impatient, but not cynical, hero. CÉlimÈne the coquette, Oronte the fop, Éliante the reasonable woman, Arsinoe the mischief maker, are all immortal types. MisÉrables, Les [(mi-za-rabl´, lÂ); or, The Unfortunates.]—A novel by Victor Hugo, in five parts: Fantine, Cosette, Marius, L’Idylle Rue Plumet, and Jean Valjean. It was published in 1862. Morte d’Arthur (mÔrt dÄr´ther).—(1) Compilation of Arthurian tales, called on the title page The History of Prince Arthur, compiled from the French by Sir Thomas Malory, and printed by William Caxton in 1470. It is divided into three parts. The first part contains the birth of King Arthur, the establishment of the Round Table, the romance of Balin and Balan, and the beautiful allegory of Gareth and Linet. The second part is mainly the romance of Sir Tristram. The third part is the romance of Sir Launcelot, the quest of the holy grail, and the death of Arthur, Guinevere, Tristram, Lamorake, and Launcelot. (2) An idyll by Tennyson, called The Passing of Arthur, in the Idylls of the King. The poet supposes Arthur (wounded in the great battle of the west) to be borne off the field by Sir Bedivere. The wounded monarch directed Sir Bedivere to cast Excalibur into the mere. Sir Bedivere then carried the dying king to a barge, in which were three queens, who conveyed him to the island valley of Avilion. Mualox.—The Fair God, Lew Wallace. The old paba or prophet who assured Nenetzin that she was to be the future queen in her father’s palace. Much Ado About Nothing.—A comedy by Shakespeare. It was first printed in 1600. The play was known as Benedict and Bettris in 1613, and is probably the same as Love’s Labor’s Won. The story of Hero is taken with some variations from one of Bandello’s tales, which probably was borrowed from the story of Geneura and Ariodantes in the Orlando Furioso of Ariosto. This part of the play, however, is subordinated by Shakespeare to the loves of Benedict and Beatrice. Mucklebacket.—The Antiquary, Scott. Name of a conspicuous family, consisting of Saunders Mucklebacket, the old fisherman of Musselcrag; Old Elspeth, mother of Saunders; Maggie, wife of Saunders; Steenie, the eldest son, who was drowned; Little Jennie, Saunders’ child. Mumblecrust, Madge.—A character in Edall’s Ralph Roister Doister, whose name was subsequently employed in Dekker’s Satiro-Mastix, and the comedy of Patient Grissel. Madge is mentioned in the MS. comedy of Misogonus. MÜnchausen (mÜnch´hou-zen), The Baron.—A hero of most marvelous adventures, and the fictitious author of a book of travels filled with most extravagant tales. The name is said to refer to Hieronymus Karl Friedrich von MÜnchausen, a German officer in the Russian army, noted for his marvelous stories. Mutual Friend, Our.—A novel by Charles Dickens. The “mutual friend” is Mr. Boffin, the golden dustman, who was the mutual friend of John Harmon and of Bella Wilfer. The tale is this: John Harmon was supposed to have been murdered by Julius Handford; but it was Ratford, who was murdered by Rogue Riderhood, and the mistake arose from a resemblance between the two persons. By his father’s will, John Harmon was to marry Bella Wilfer; but John Harmon knew not the person destined by his father for his wife, and made up his mind to dislike her. After his supposed murder, he assumed the name of John Rokesmith, and became the secretary of Mr. Boffin, “the golden dustman,” residuary legatee of old John Harmon, by which he became possessor of one hundred thousand dollars. Boffin knew Rokesmith, but concealed his knowledge for a time. At Boffin’s house John Harmon (as Rokesmith) met Bella Wilfer, and fell in love with her. Mr. Boffin, in order to test Bella’s love, pretended to be angry with Rokesmith for presuming to love Bella; and, as Bella married him, he cast them both off “for a time,” to live on John’s earnings. A babe was born, and then the husband took the young mother to a beautiful house, and told her he was John Harmon, that the house was their house, that he was the possessor of five hundred thousand dollars through the disinterested conduct of their “mutual friend,” Mr. Boffin, and the young couple live happily with Mr. and Mrs. Boffin, in wealth and luxury. My Novel.—A work of fiction by Edward, Lord Lytton, published in 1853. It is described as the “great work which marks the culminating point in Lord Lytton’s genius, the work to which, with a rare estimate of his own powers, he has given the singularly appropriate title of My Novel.... If we except one or two melodramatic scenes, it is throughout an admirable work.... The plot is complex, but it is unfolded with marvelous directness and ingenuity, and, notwithstanding the digressions, the interest never for a moment flags.” Among the characters are Squire Hazeldean, Mr. Dale, Dick Avenel, Leonard Fairfield, and Harley L’Estrange. N Nathan the Wise [Nathan der Wise (nÄ´tÄn der vi´ze).]—A drama by G. E. Lessing, so called from the name of its principal character. Its tendency is toward religious tolerance, especially in the episode of the three rings, which was taken from Boccaccio. Nathan is a persecuted but noble Jew, an ideal character resembling Moses Mendelssohn. Natty Bumppo.—Called “Leather-Stocking.” He appears in five of Cooper’s novels: (1) The Deerslayer; (2) The Pathfinder; (3) As “Hawk-eye” in The Last of the Mohicans; (4) “Natty Bumppo” in The Pioneers; and (5) as the “Trapper” in The Prairie, in which he dies. NeÆra (ne-e´rÄ).—The name of a girl mentioned by the Latin poets Horace, Vergil, and Tibullus; sometimes also introduced into modern pastoral poetry as the name of a mistress or sweetheart. Nepenthe.—A care-dispelling drug, which Polydamna, wife of Thonis, king of Egypt, gave to Helen. A drink containing this drug “changed grief to mirth, melancholy to joyfulness, and hatred to love.” The water of Ardenne had the opposite effects. Homer mentions this drug nepenthe in his Odyssey. It is also mentioned in Poe’s Raven. New Atlantis, The.—An imaginary island in the middle of the Atlantic. Bacon, in his allegorical fiction, so called, supposes himself wrecked on this island, Newcomes, The.—Memoirs of a Most Respectable Family, by William Makepeace Thackeray. The hero is Clive Newcome, a young artist, son of Colonel Newcome, and cousin of Ethel Newcome, whom he marries after the death of his first wife, Rosa Mackenzie. Among the other characters are Comte de Florac, Charles Honeyman, “J. J.,” Fred Bayham, Lady Kew, Jack Belsize, Dr. Goodenough, and others. Colonel Newcome, is “the finest portrait,” says Hannay, “that has been added to the gallery of English fiction since Sir Walter’s time. The pathos, at once manly and delicate, with which his ruin and death are treated, places Thackeray in a high rank in poetic sentiment.” Nibelungenlied (ne´be-loong-en-led).—An historic poem, generally called the German Iliad. It is the only great national epic that European writers have produced since antiquity, and belongs to every country that has been peopled by Germanic tribes, as it includes the hero traditions of the Franks, the Burgundians and the Goths, with memorials of the ancient myths carried with them from Asia. The poem is divided into two parts, and thirty-two lieds, or cantos. The first part ends with the death of Siegfried, and the second part with the death of Kriemhild. The death of Siegfried and the revenge of Kriemhild have been celebrated in popular songs dating back to the lyric chants now a thousand years old. These are the foundation of the great poem. Nicholas Nickleby.—A novel by Dickens. The mother of the hero, Nicholas, is a widow fond of talking and of telling long stories with no connection. She imagined her neighbor, a mildly insane man, was in love with her because he tossed cabbages and other articles over the garden wall. She had a habit of introducing in conversation topics wholly irrelevant to the subject under consideration, and of always declaring, when anything unanticipated occurred, that she had expected it all along, and had prophesied to that precise effect on divers (unknown) occasions. Nicholas Nickleby has to make his own way in the world. He first goes as usher to Mr. Squeers, schoolmaster at Dotheboys Hall; but leaves in disgust with the tyranny of Squeers and his wife, especially to a poor boy named Smike. Smike runs away from the school to follow Nicholas, and remains his humble follower till death. At Portsmouth, Nicholas joins the theatrical company of Mr. Crummles, but leaves the profession for other adventures. He falls in with the Brothers Cheeryble, who make him their clerk; and in this post he rises to become a merchant, and finally marries Madeline Bray. Nightingale, Ode to a.—Poem by John Keats, which “was written,” says Leigh Hunt, “in a house at the foot of Highgate Hill, on the border of the fields looking toward Hampstead. The poet had then his mortal illness upon him, and knew it; never was the voice of death sweeter.” Notre Dame de Paris.—A prose romance by Victor Hugo, published in 1831. The scene is laid in Paris at the end of the reign of Louis XI. It is a vigorous but somber picture of mediÆval manners. Nourmahal (nÖr-ma-hÄl´).—Lalla Rookh, Moore. “Light of the Harem.” She was for a season estranged from the sultan, till he gave a grand banquet, at which she appeared in disguise as a lute-player and singer. The sultan was so enchanted with her performance that he exclaimed, “If Nourmahal had so played and sung, I could forgive her all;” whereupon the sultana threw off her mask. Nucta.—Paradise and the Peri, Moore. The name given to the miraculous drop which falls from heaven, in Egypt, on St. John’s day, and is supposed to stop the plague. Nun of Nidaros.—Tales of a Wayside Inn, Longfellow. The abbess of the Drontheim convent, who heard the voice of St. John while she was kneeling at her midnight devotions. Nut-Brown Maid.—Reliques, Percy. The maid who was wooed by the “banished man.” The “banished man” described to her the hardships she would have to undergo if she married him; but finding that she accounted these hardships as nothing compared with his love, he revealed himself to be an earl’s son, with large hereditary estates in Westmoreland, and married her. O Obermann (o-ber-mÄn´).—The impersonation of high moral worth without talent, and the tortures endured by the consciousness of this defect. This name was given to the hero and imaginary author of a work of the same name by Etienne Pivert de Senancourt, a French writer. Oberon (o´be-ron).—King of the fairies, whose wife was Titania. Shakespeare introduces both Oberon and Titania in his Midsummer Night’s Dream. He and Titania, his queen, are fabled to have lived in India, and to have crossed the seas to northern Europe to dance by the light of the moon. Oberon the Fay.—A humpty dwarf only three feet high, but of angelic face, lord and king of Mommur. Odyssey (od´i-si).—Homer’s epic poem recording the adventures of Odysseus (Ulysses) in his voyage home from Troy. The poem opens in the island of Calypso, with a complaint against Neptune and Calypso for preventing the return of Odysseus to Ithaca. Telemachos, the son of Odysseus, starts in search of his father, accompanied by Pallas in the guise of Mentor. He goes to Pylos to consult old Nestor, and is sent by him to Sparta, where he is told by Menelaus that Odysseus is detained in the island of Calypso. In the meantime, Odysseus leaves the island, and, being shipwrecked, is cast on the shore of PhÆacia. After twenty years’ absence Odysseus returns to his home. Penelope is tormented by suitors. To excuse herself, Penelope tells her suitors he only shall be her husband who can bend Odysseus’ bow. None can do so but the stranger, who bends it with ease. Odysseus is recognized by his wife, and the false suitors are all slain, and peace is restored to Ithaca. Œdipus (ed´i-pus) Coloneus [(ko-lo-ne´us); or, Œdipus at Colonus (ko-lo´nus)].—A tragedy of Sophocles, which was not exhibited till four years after his death, and was said to be the last he wrote. In it Œdipus, driven from Thebes by Creon, with his daughters, Antigone and Ismene, seeks asylum with Theseus at Athens, and there obtains pardon from the gods, and peace. Œdipus Tyrannus (ti-ran´us).—A tragedy by Sophocles, of uncertain date, “placed by the scholiasts, and by most modern critics, at the very summit of Greek tragic art.” Ogier (o-zhya´) the Dane.—One of the paladins of the Charlemagne epoch. Also made the hero of an ancient French romance, and the subject of a ballad whose story is probably a contribution from the stores of Norman tradition, Holger, or Olger, Danske, being the national hero of Denmark. He figures in Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso. O’Groat.—A name often alluded to in early English parables or sayings coming from the legend of John O’Groat’s House. This ancient building was supposed to stand on the most northerly point in Great Britain. John of Groat and his brothers were originally from Holland. According to tradition, the house was of an octagonal shape, being one room with eight windows and eight doors, to admit eight members of the family, the heads of eight different branches of it, to prevent their quarrels for precedence at table, which, on a previous occasion, had well-nigh proved fatal. Oldbuck, Jonathan.—Antiquary, Scott. The character whose whimsies gave name to the novel. He is represented as devoted to the study and accumulation of old coins, medals, and relics. He is irritable, sarcastic, and cynical from an early disappointment in love, but full of humor and a faithful friend. Old Curiosity Shop, The.—A tale by Charles Dickens. An old man, having run through his fortune, opened a curiosity shop in order to earn a living and brought up a granddaughter, named Nell [Trent], fourteen years of age. The child was the darling of the old man, but, deluding himself with the hope of making a fortune by gaming, he lost everything, and went forth, with the child, a beggar. Their wanderings and adventures are recounted till they reach a quiet country village, where the old clergyman gives them a cottage to live in. Here Nell soon dies, and the grandfather is found dead upon her grave. The main character, next to Nell, is that of a lad named Kit [Nubbles], employed in the curiosity shop, who adored Nell as “an angel.” This boy gets in the service of Mr. Garland, a genial, benevolent, well-to-do man, in the suburbs of London; but Quilp hates the lad, and induces Brass, a solicitor of Bevis Marks, to put a five pound banknote in the boy’s Old Man of the Sea.—In the Arabian Nights, a monster encountered by Sindbad the sailor in his fifth voyage. After carrying him upon his shoulders a long time, Sindbad at last succeeds in intoxicating him, and effects his escape. The Old Man of the Sea was also made the title of a humorous and well-known poem by O. W. Holmes. Old Mortality, the best of Scott’s historical novels. Morton is the best of his young heroes, and serves as an excellent foil to the fanatical and gloomy Burley. The two classes of actors, viz., the brave and dissolute cavaliers, and the resolute oppressed covenanters, are drawn in bold relief. The most striking incidents are the terrible encounter with Burley in his rocky fastness; the dejection and anxiety of Morton on his return from Holland; and the rural comfort of Cuddie Headrigg’s cottage on the banks of the Clyde, with its thin blue smoke among the trees, “showing that the evening meal was being made ready.” Old Mortality is an itinerant antiquary, whose craze is to clean the moss from gravestones, and keep their letters and effigies in good condition. Old Red Sandstone.—One of the most noted of Hugh Miller’s famous writings on geological subjects. It revealed his discovery of fossils in a formation which, up to that time, had been deemed almost destitute of them. Oliver.—As You Like It, Shakespeare. Son and heir of Sir Rowland de Bois, who hated his youngest brother, Orlando, and whom he planned to murder by indirect methods. Orlando, finding it impossible to live in his brother’s house, fled to the forest of Arden, where he joined the society of the banished duke. Oliver pursued him, and as he slept in the forest a snake and a lioness lurked near to make him their prey. Orlando chanced to be passing, slew the two monsters, and then found that the sleeper was his brother Oliver. Oliver’s feelings underwent a change, and he loved his brother as much as he had before hated him. In the forest the two brothers met Rosalind and Celia. The former, who was the daughter of the banished duke, married Orlando; and the latter, who was the daughter of Frederick, the usurping duke, married Oliver. Oliver Twist.—A novel by Charles Dickens. Thackeray, writing of this novel, in the character of “Ikey Solomons,” says: “The power of the writer is so amazing that the reader at once becomes his captive, and must follow him whithersoever he leads: and to what are we led? Breathless to watch all the crimes of Fagin, tenderly to deplore the errors of Nancy, to have for Bill Sikes a kind of pity and admiration, and an absolute love for the society of the Dodger. All these heroes stepped from the novel on to the stage; and the whole London public, from peers to chimney sweeps, were interested about a set of ruffians whose occupations are thievery, murder, and prostitution.” A remarkable feature of the work, and one which, on its publication, brought considerable odium on the writer, was its unsparing exposure of the poor-law and the workhouse system, which led to its representation on the stage being forbidden for a time. Olivia.—Twelfth Night, Shakespeare. A rich countess, whose love was sought by Orsino, duke of Illyria; but, having lost her brother, Olivia lived for a time in entire seclusion, and in no wise reciprocated the duke’s love. Olivia fell in love with Viola, who was dressed as the duke’s page, and sent her a ring. Mistaking Sebastian (Viola’s brother) for Viola, she married him out of hand. Ophelia (o-fe´liÄ).—Hamlet, Shakespeare. Daughter of Polonius, the chamberlain. Hamlet fell in love with her, but, after his interview with the Ghost, finds that his plans must lead away from her. During his real or assumed madness, he treats her with undeserved and angry rudeness, and afterward, in a fit of inconsiderate rashness, kills her father, the old Polonius. The terrible shock given to her mind by these events completely shatters her intellect, and leads to her accidental death by drowning. Organon (Ôr´ga-non).—The name given to the first work on logic by Aristotle. He is said to have created the science of logic. The Organon has been enlarged and recast by some modern authors, especially by Mr. John Stuart Mill in his System of Logic, into a structure commensurate with the vast increase of knowledge and extension of positive method belonging to the present day. Origin of Species, The.—A work by Charles Robert Darwin, in which he put forward his theory of “natural selection.” It was published in 1859, and by many is regarded as the most important scientific work of the nineteenth century. Orlando Furioso (or-lÄn´do fÖ-re-o´so).—An epic poem in forty-six cantos, by Ariosto, which occupied his leisure for eleven years, and was published in 1516. This poem, which celebrates the semi-mythical achievements of the paladins of Charlemagne in the wars between the Christians and the Moors, became immediately popular, and has since been translated into all European languages, and passed through innumerable editions. Ormulum (Ôr´mu-lum).—The Ormulum is a collection of metrical homilies, one for each day of the year; but the single existing copy gives the homilies for thirty-two days only. There are very few French words in the poem, but Scandinavian words and constructions abound. The writer, Orm, or Ormin, belonged to the east of England, and he and his brother Walter were Augustinian monks. He makes no use of rhyme, but his verses are smooth and regular. Osbaldistone (os-bÂl´dis-ton).—Rob Roy, Scott. A family name in the story which tells of nine of the members: (1) the London merchant and Sir Hildebrand, the heads of two families; (2) the son of the merchant is Francis; (3) the offspring of the brother are Percival, the sot; Thorncliffe, the bully; John, the gamekeeper; Richard, the horse-jockey; Wilfred, the fool; and Rashleigh, the scholar, by far the worst of all. This last worthy is slain by Rob Roy, and dies cursing his cousin Frank, whom he had injured. O’Shanter.—See Osman (os-mÄn´).—Sultan of the East, conqueror of the Christians, a magnanimous man. He loved Yara, a young Christian captive. This forms the subject of a once famous ballad. Osrick (oz´rik).—A court fop in Shakespeare’s Hamlet. He is made umpire by Claudius in the combat between Hamlet and Laertes. Osseo.—Hiawatha, Longfellow. Son of the Evening Star. When broken with age, he married Oweenee, one of ten daughters of a northland hunter. She loved him in spite of his ugliness and decrepitude, because “all was beautiful within him.” As he was walking with his nine sisters-in-law and their husbands, he leaped into the hollow of an oak tree and came out strong and handsome; but Oweenee at the same moment was changed into a weak old woman. But the love of Osseo was not weakened. The nine brothers and sisters-in-law were transformed into birds. Oweenee, recovering her beauty, had a son, whose delight was to shoot the birds that mocked his father and mother. An Algonquin legend gave the foundation of the story. Othello (o-thel´o).—A tragedy by Shakespeare. The chief character is a Moor of Venice, who marries Desdemona, the daughter of a Venetian senator, and is led by his ensign, Iago, a consummate villain, to distrust her fidelity and virtue. Iago hated the Moor both because Cassio, a Florentine, was preferred to the lieutenancy instead of himself, and also from a suspicion that the Moor had tampered with his wife; but he concealed his hatred so well that Othello wholly trusted him. Iago persuaded Othello that Desdemona intrigued with Cassio, and urged him on till he murdered his bride. Outre-Mer (ootr-mÈr).—A Pilgrimage Beyond the Sea.—A series of prose tales and sketches by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, published in 1835. “The Pays d’Outre-Mer,” says the writer, “is a name by which the pilgrims and crusaders of old designated the Holy Land. I, too, in a certain sense, have been a pilgrim of Outre-Mer; for to my youthful imagination the Old World was a kind of Holy Land, lying afar off beyond the blue horizon of the ocean. In this, my pilgrimage, I have traversed France from Normandy to Navarre; smoked my pipe in a Flemish inn; floated through Holland in a Trekschuit; trimmed my midnight lamp in a German university; wandered and mused amid the classic scenes of Italy; and listened to the gay guitar and merry castanet on the borders of the blue Guadalquivir.” P Pacolet (pak´o-let).—In Valentine and Orson, an old romance, a character who owned an enchanted steed, often alluded to by early writers. The name of Pacolet was borrowed by Steele for his familiar spirit in the Tatler. The French have a proverb, “It is the horse of Pacolet;” that is, it is one that goes very fast. Page.—Merry Wives of Windsor, Shakespeare. Name of a family of Windsor, conspicuous in the play. When Sir John Falstaff made love to Mrs. Page, Page himself assumed the name of Brook. Sir John told the supposed Brook his whole “course of wooing.” Page, Anne.—Daughter of the above, in love with Fenton. Slender calls her “the sweet Anne Page.” Page, Mrs.—Wife of Mr. Page, of Windsor. When Sir John Falstaff made love to her, she joined with Mrs. Ford to dupe him and punish him. Palamon.—(1) A character in The Knight’s Tale in Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, in love with Emilia, who is also beloved by Palamon’s friend, Arcite. (2) In Falconer’s poem of The Shipwreck, is in love with the daughter of Albert, the commander of the vessel in which he sails. (3) In Thomson’s poem of Autumn in The Seasons, is a young man, “the pride of swains,” in love with Lavinia. He is a poetical representation of Boaz, while Lavinia is intended for Ruth. Pangloss (pan´glos), Doctor.—(1) A poor pedant, in Colman the Younger’s comedy of the Heir at Law, who has been created an Artium Societatis Socius (A. S. S.). He is remarkable for the aptness, if triteness, of his quotations. (2) An optimist philosopher in Voltaire’s Candide. Pantagruelian (pan-tag´rÖ-el-an) Law Case.—Pantagruel, Rabelais. This case, having nonplused all the judges in Paris, was referred to Lord Pantagruel for decision. After much “statement” the bench declared, “We have not understood one single circumstances of the defense.” Then Pantagruel gave sentence, but his judgment was as unintelligible as the case itself. So, as no one understood a single sentence of the whole affair, all were perfectly satisfied. Paracelsus (par-a-sel´sus).—A dramatic poem by Robert Browning, published in 1835. It is a work of singular beauty, and is replete with lofty and solemn thoughts on the fate of genius and the chance and change of life. The Paracelsus of the poem is a very different person from the Paracelsus of history—the brilliant and daring quack who professed to have discovered the philosopher’s stone, but who, by the introduction of opium among the remedies of the PharmacopÆia, in some wise made amends for his absurd extravagance. Paradise and the Peri.—The second tale in Moore’s poetical romance of Lalla Rookh. The Peri laments her expulsion from heaven, and is told that she will be readmitted if she will bring to the gate of heaven the “gift most dear to the Almighty.” After several failures the Peri offered the “Repentant Tear,” and the gates flew open to receive the gift. Paradise Lost.—An epic poem by Milton. The poem opens with the awaking of the rebel angels in hell after their fall from heaven, the consultation of their chiefs how best to carry on the war with God, and the resolve of Satan to go forth and tempt newly created man to fall. Satan reaches Eden, and finds Adam and Eve in their innocence. This is told in the first four books. The next four books contain the Archangel Raphael’s story of the war in heaven, the fall of Satan, and the creation of the world. The last four books describe the temptation and the fall of man, and tell of the redemption of man by Christ, and the expulsion from Paradise. Paradise Regained.—An epic by Milton on the redemption of man. In this poem the author tells of the journey of Christ into the wilderness after his baptism, and its four books describe the temptation of Christ by Satan. Parallel Lives of Greeks and Romans.—A celebrated biographical work by Plutarch, consisting of forty-six comparisons. In spite of all exceptions on the score of inaccuracy, want of information, or prejudice, Plutarch’s Lives must remain one of the most valuable relics of Greek literature, not only because they stand in the place of many volumes of lost history, but also because they are written with a graphic and dramatic vivacity such as we find in few biographies, ancient or modern; because they are replete with reflections which, if not profound, are always moderate and sensible; and because the author’s aim throughout is to enforce the highest standard of morality of which a heathen was capable. As one of his most enthusiastic admirers has said, “He stands before us as the legate, the ambassador, and the orator on behalf of those institutions whereby the old-time men were rendered wise and virtuous.” Partington (pÄr´ting-ton), Mrs.—An imaginary old lady whose laughable sayings have been recorded by an American humorist, B. P. Shillaber. Paul and Virginia.—A popular romance by Bernardin de St. Pierre. According to a tradition, or version, Paul and Virginia are brought up in the belief that they are brother and sister. Don Antonio is sent to bring her to Spain, and make her his bride. She is taken by force on board ship, but scarcely has the ship started, when a hurricane dashes it on the rocks and it is wrecked. Alhambra, a runaway slave, whom Paul and Virginia had befriended, rescues Virginia, who is brought to shore and married to Paul. Antonio is drowned. Pauline.—The Lady of Lyons in Bulwer-Lytton’s play of this name. She was married to Claude Melnotte, a gardener’s son, who pretended to be a count. Paul Pry.—Paul Pry, John Poole. An idle, inquisitive, meddlesome fellow, who has no occupation of his own, and is forever poking his nose into other people’s affairs. He always comes in with the apology “I hope I don’t intrude.” Peau de Chagrin (po du shÄ-grin), “The Ass’ Skin.”—A story by Balzac. The hero becomes possessed of a magical wild ass’ skin, which yields him the means of gratifying every wish; but for every wish thus gratified the skin shrank somewhat, and at last vanished, having been wished entirely away. Life is a peau d’Âne, for every vital act diminishes its force, and when all its force is gone, life is spent. Peeping Tom of Coventry.—A tailor of Coventry, the only soul in the town mean enough to peep at the Lady Godiva as she rode naked through the streets to relieve the people from oppression. Peggotty (peg´o-ti), Clara.—The nurse of David Copperfield in Dickens’ novel of this name. Being very plump, whenever she makes any exertion some of the buttons on the back of her dress fly off. Peggotty, Dan’l.—Brother of David Copperfield’s nurse. Dan’l was a Yarmouth fisherman. His nephew, Ham Peggotty, and his brother-in-law’s child, “little Em’ly,” lived with him. Peggotty, Em’ly.—She was engaged to Ham Peggotty; but being fascinated with Steerforth she eloped. She was afterward reclaimed, and emigrated to Australia. Peggotty, Ham.—Represented as the very beau ideal of an uneducated, simple-minded, honest, and warm-hearted fisherman. He was drowned in his attempt to rescue Steerforth from the sea. Pendennis (pen-den´is), The History of.—By William Makepeace Thackeray. The hero, Arthur Pendennis, reappears in the author’s Adventures of Philip, and is represented as telling the story of The Newcomes. Pendennis.—Name of the hero of a novel by Thackeray, published in 1849 and 1850, the immediate successor of Vanity Fair. Literary life is described in the history of Pen, a hero of no very great worth. Pendennis, Laura.—Sister of Arthur, considered one of the best of Thackeray’s characters. Pendennis, Major.—A tuft-hunter, who fawns on his patrons for the sake of wedging himself into their society. Penseroso (pen-se-ro´so), Il.—A poem by John Milton, written as a companion to L’Allegro. The latter is composed in the character of a cheerful, the former in that of a melancholy man, and the whole tone of each poem is regulated accordingly. The one begins with the dawn, the other with evening. The one opens with the lark, the other with the nightingale, and so on. Pepys’ (peps, or pips, or pep´is) Diary.—A book by Samuel Pepys, written in shorthand, and deciphered and published in 1825. It extends over the nine years from 1660 to 1669, and is the gossipy chronicle of that gay and profligate time. We have no other book which gives so lifelike a picture of that extraordinary state of society. Peregrine Pickle (per´e-grin pik´l).—The title of a novel by Smollett. Peregrine Pickle is a savage, ungrateful spendthrift, fond of practical jokes, and suffering with evil temper the misfortunes brought on himself by his own willfulness. Peter Bell.—A tale in verse, by Wordsworth. A wandering tinker, subject of Wordsworth’s poem, whose hard heart was touched by the fidelity of an ass to its dead master. Shelley wrote a burlesque of this poem, entitled Peter Bell the Third, intended to ridicule the ludicrous puerility of language and sentiment which Wordsworth often affected. This burlesque was given the name of the Third because it followed a parody already published as Peter the Second. Petruchio (pe-trÖ´cho, or ki-o).—A gentleman of Verona, in Shakespeare’s Taming of the Shrew. A very honest fellow, who hardly speaks a word of truth, and succeeds in all his tricks. He acts his assumed character to the life, with untired animal spirits, and without a particle of ill-humor. PhÆdo (fe´do), or PhÆdon (fe´don).—An ancient and well known work by Plato, in which the doctrine of the immortality of the soul is most fully set forth. It is in the form of a dialogue, which combines, with the abstract philosophical discussion, a graphic narrative of the last hours of Socrates, which, for pathos and dignity, is unsurpassed. PhÉdre (fa´dr).—A tragedy by Racine, produced January 1, 1677. It was founded on the story of PhÆdra, daughter of Minos, king of Crete, and wife of Theseus. Philip.—The Madness of Philip, Josephine Daskam. A representation of the unregenerate child—“the child of strong native impulses who has not yet yielded to the shaping force of education; the child, therefore, of originality, of vivacity, of humor, and of fascinating power of invention in the field of mischief.” Philippics (fi-lip´iks), The.—A group of nine orations of Demosthenes, directed against Philip of Macedon. The real adversary in all these famous speeches is not so much the king of Macedon as the sloth and supineness of the Athenians, and the influence of the peace party, whether honest or bribed by Philip. They are the first Philippic, urging the sending of a military force to Thrace, delivered 351 B. C; three orations in behalf of the city of Olynthus (destroyed by Philip), delivered in 349-348; the oration On the Peace, 346; the second Philippic, 344; the oration On the Embassy, 344; the speech On the Chersonese, 341; and the third Philippic, 341. The name is also given to a series of fourteen orations of Cicero against Mark Antony, delivered 44-43 B.C. Philtra.—FaËrie Queene, Spenser. A lady of large fortune, betrothed to Bracidas; but, seeing the fortune of Amidas daily increasing, and that of Bracidas getting smaller, she attached herself to the more prosperous younger brother. Phineas (fin´e-as).—Uncle Tom’s Cabin, Mrs. Stowe. The quaker, an “underground railroad” man who helped the slave family of George and Eliza to reach Canada, after Eliza had crossed the river on cakes of floating ice. Phyllis (fil´is).—In Vergil’s Eclogues, the name of a rustic maiden. This name, also written Phillis, has been in common use as meaning any unsophisticated country girl. Pickwick (pik´wik), Mr. Samuel.—The hero of the Pickwick Papers, by Charles Dickens. He is a simple-minded, benevolent old gentleman, who wears spectacles and short black gaiters. He founds a club, and travels with its members over England, each member being under his guardianship. They meet many laughable adventures. Pied Piper of Hameln (hÄ´meln).—Old German legend. Robert Browning, in his poem entitled The Pied Piper, has given a metrical version. The legend recounts how a certain musician came into the town of Hameln, in the country of Brunswick, and offered, for a sum of money, to rid the town of the rats by which it was infested. Having executed his task, and the promised reward having been withheld, he in revenge blew again his pipe, and by its tones drew the children of the town to a cavern in the side of a hill, which, upon their entrance, closed and shut them in forever. Piers Plowman (pers plou´man).—A satirical poem of the fourteenth century. The hero falls asleep, like John Bunyan, on the Malvern hills, and has different visions, which he describes, and in which he exposes the corruptions of society, the dissoluteness of the clergy, and the allurements to sin. The author is supposed to be Robert or William Langland. No other writings so faithfully reflect the popular feeling during the great social and religious movements of that century as the bitterly satirical poem. The Vision of Piers Plowman. In its allegory, the discontent of the commons with the course of affairs in church and state found a voice. Pietro.—The Ring and the Book, Browning. The professed father of Pompilia, criminally assumed as his child to prevent certain property from passing to an heir not his own. Pilgrim’s Progress.—A celebrated allegory by Bunyan. It recounts the adventures of the hero, Christian, from his conversion to his death. He wanders from the way to Doubting Castle, and is held there by Giant Despair. His sins are a pack; his Bible is a chart, his minister Evangelist, his conversion a flight from the City of Destruction, his struggle with besetting sins a fight with Apollyon, his death a toilsome passage over a deep stream which flows between him and heaven. Pilot, The.—Title of a sea-story by Cooper, which was called the “first sea-novel of the English language.” It was published in the year 1823, and soon translated into Italian, German, and French. It is founded on the adventures of John Paul Jones. Pinch, Tom.—A character in Dickens’ Martin Chuzzlewit, distinguished by his guilelessness, his oddity, and his exhaustless goodness of heart. Pippa (pep´pÄ) Passes.—A drama, Italian in scene and character, by Robert Browning. “It is,” says Stedman, “a cluster of four scenes, with prologue, epilogue, and interludes, half prose, half poetry, varying with the refinement of the dialogue. Pippa is a delicately pure, good, blithesome peasant maid. It is New Year’s Day at Ardo. She springs from bed at sunrise, resolved to enjoy to the full her sole holiday. Others may be happy throughout the year; haughty Ottima and Sebald, the lovers on the hill; Jules and Phene, the artist and his bride; Luigi and his mother; Monsignor, the bishop; but Pippa has only this one day to enjoy. Now, it so happens that she passes, this day, each of the groups or persons we have named, at an important crisis in their lives, and they hear her various carols as she trills them forth in the innocent gladness of her heart. Pippa Passes is a work of pure art, and has a wealth of original fancy and romance, apart from its wisdom.” It appeared in 1842. Pistol (pis´tol).—A follower of Falstaff, in Shakespeare’s comedy of The Merry Wives of Windsor, and in the second part of King Henry IV. “A roguing beggar, a cantler, an upright man that liveth by cozenage.” Pocket.—Great Expectations, Dickens. Name of a family prominent in the story. Pocket.—A real scholar, educated at Harrow, and an honor-man at Cambridge, but, having married young, he had to take up the calling of “grinder” and literary fag for a living. Pip was placed in his care. Pocket, Herbert.—Son of Mr. Matthew Pocket, wonderfully hopeful, but had not the stuff to push his way into wealth. Pocket, Mrs.—Daughter of a city knight, brought up to be an ornamental nonentity, helpless, shiftless, and useless. She was the mother of eight children, whom she allowed to “tumble up” as best they could, under the charge of her maid, Flopson. Pocket, Sarah.—Sister of Matthew Pocket, a little, dry, old woman, with a small face that might have been made of walnut-shell, and a large mouth. Poor Richard’s Almanac.—An almanac published by Benjamin Franklin, 1732-1757, noted for its maxims. He made it the medium for teaching thrift, temperance, order, cleanliness, chastity, forgiveness, and so on. The maxims or precepts of these almanacs generally end with the words, “as poor Richard says.” Portia (pÔr´shiÄ).—In The Merchant of Venice, a rich heiress, whose hand and fortune hang upon the right choosing between a gold, a silver, and a leaden casket. She is in love with Bassanio, who, luckily, chooses well. She appears at the trial of Antonio as a “young doctor of Rome,” named Balthazar. Poyser (poi´zer), Mrs.—A character in Adam Bede. Some of her wonderfully shrewd and humorous observations have passed into the language. Here are some specimens: “It seems as if them as aren’t wanted here are th’ only folks as aren’t wanted in the other world.” “I’m not denyin’ the women are foolish; God Almighty made ’em to match the men.” “It’s hard to tell which is Old Harry when everybody’s got boots on.” “There’s many a good bit o’ work done with a sad heart.” “It’s poor work allays settin’ the dead above the livin’. It ’ud be better if folks ’ud make much on us beforehand, istid o’ beginning when we’re gone.” “Some folks’ tongues are like the clocks as run on strikin’ not to tell you the time of day, but because there’s summat wrong in their own inside.” PrÉcieuses Ridicules (pra-syuz´ ri-di-kul´), Les.—A comedy by MoliÈre, in ridicule of the PrÉcieuses, as they were styled, forming the coterie of the Hotel de Rambouillet in the seventeenth century. The soirÉes held in this hotel were a great improvement on the licentious assemblies of the period; but many imitators made the thing ridiculous, because they lacked the same presiding talent and good taste. The two girls of MoliÈre’s comedy are Madelon and Cathos, the daughter and niece of Gargibus, a bourgeois. They change their names to PolixÈne and Aminte, which they think more genteel, and look on the affectations of two flunkies as far more distinguÉs than the simple, gentlemanly manners of their masters. However, they are cured of their folly, and no harm comes of it. Prelude (pre´lud, or prel´ud), The, or The Growth of a Poet’s Mind.—An autobiographical poem, in blank verse, by William Wordsworth. It was intended as an introduction to “a philosophical poem, containing views of Man, Nature, and Society; and to be entitled Primrose (prim´roz), Rev. Charles.—Vicar of Wakefield, Goldsmith. A clergyman, rich in heavenly wisdom, but poor indeed in all worldly knowledge. Primrose, Moses.—Brother of the above, noted for giving in barter a good horse for a gross of worthless green spectacles with copper rims. Primrose, Olivia.—The eldest daughter of the doctor. Pretty, enthusiastic, a sort of HebÊ in beauty. “She wished for many lovers,” and eloped with Squire Thorndill. Primrose, Sophia.—The second daughter of Dr. Primrose. She was “soft, modest, and alluring.” Princess: a Medley.—A poem by Alfred Tennyson. “It is,” says Stedman, “as he entitles it, a medley, constructed of ancient and modern materials—a show of mediÆval pomp and movement, observed through an atmosphere of latterday thought and emotion. The poet, in his prelude, anticipates every stricture, and to me the anachronisms and impossibilities of the story seem not only lawful, but attractive. Tennyson’s special gift of reducing incongruous details to a common structure and tone is fully illustrated in a poem made— “‘To suit with time and place, A Gothic ruin and a Grecian house, A talk at college and of ladies’ rights, A feudal knight in silken masquerade.’ Other works of our poet are greater, but none is so fascinating. Some of the author’s most delicately musical lines are herein contained. The tournament scene is the most vehement and rapid passage in the whole range of Tennyson’s poetry. The songs reach the high water mark of lyrical compositions. The five melodies—As Thro’ the Land, Sweet and Low, The Splendor Falls, Home They Brought and Ask Me No More—constitute the finest group of songs produced in our century, and the third seems to many the most perfect English lyric since the time of Shakespeare.” The name of the Princess is Ida. Priscilla (pri-sil´Ä).—Courtship of Miles Standish, Longfellow. A Puritan maiden who is wooed by Captain Standish through the mediation of his friend, John Alden, who is in love with Priscilla. She prefers John Alden and marries him after the captain’s supposed death. The captain, however, appears at the close of the wedding service, and the friends are reconciled. Prometheus (pro-me´thus) Bound.—A tragedy of Æschylus, of uncertain date. Prometheus is fabled to have made men of clay, and to have imparted life to them by means of fire brought from heaven. It was said that for this he was bound to the rock by order of Zeus, that he resisted all efforts to subdue his will and purpose, bade defiance to the father of the gods, and disappeared in an appalling tempest. Mrs. Browning published a poetical translation in 1833. Prospero (pros´pe-ro).—Tempest, Shakespeare. Rightful duke of Milan, deposed by his brother. Drifted on a desert island, he practised magic, and raised a tempest in which his brother was shipwrecked. Ultimately Prospero “broke his wand,” and his daughter married the son of the King of Naples. Puff, Mr.—In Sheridan’s farce The Critic, a hack writer, who, having failed at other occupations, tries criticism for a living, and is a “professor of the art of puffing.” Puss in Boots.—The subject and title of a well-known nursery tale derived from a fairy story in the Nights of the Italian author Straparola, and Charles Perrault’s Contes des FÉes. The wonderful cat secures a princess and a fortune for his master, a poor young miller, whom he passes off as the rich marquis of Carabas. Pygmalion (pig-ma´li-on) and Galatea (gal-a-te´Ä).—A mythological comedy, by W. S. Gilbert, embodying the fable of the Athenian sculptor who prayed the gods to put life into the statue of Galatea which he had fashioned. In the comedy, Galatea evokes the jealousy of the sculptor’s wife Cynisca; and, after causing great misery by her very innocence, voluntarily returns to the original stone. Pyncheon (pin´chon).—The name of an ancient but decayed family in Hawthorne’s romance The House of the Seven Gables. There are: (1) Judge Pyncheon, a selfish, cunning, worldly man. (2) His cousin Clifford, a delicate, sensitive nature, reduced to childishness by long imprisonment and suffering. (3) Hepzibah, the latter’s sister, an old maid who devotes herself to the care of Clifford. (4) A second cousin, Phoebe, a fresh, cheerful young girl, who restores the fallen fortunes of the family and removes the curse which rested on it. Q Quasimodo (kwa-si-mo´do).—Notre Dame de Paris, Hugo. A misshapen dwarf, one of the prominent characters in the story. He is brought up in the cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris. One day, he sees Esmeralda, who had been dancing in the cathedral close, set upon by a mob, and he conceals her for a time in the church. When, at length, the beautiful gypsy girl is gibbeted, Quasimodo disappears mysteriously, but a skeleton corresponding to the deformed figure is found after a time in a hole under the gibbet. Quaver.—The Virgin Unmasked, Fielding. A singing-master, who says, “if it were not for singing-masters, men and women might as well have been born dumb.” He courts Lucy by promising to give her singing-lessons. Queen Lab.—Arabian Nights. The queen of magic, ruler over the enchanted city, in the story of Beder, prince of Persia. She transforms men into horses, mules, and other animals. Beder marries her, defeats her plots against him, but is himself turned into an owl for a time. Quentin Durward (kwen´tin der´wÄrd).—A novel by Sir Walter Scott. A story of French history. The delineations of Louis XI. and Charles the Bold of Burgundy will stand comparison with any in the whole range of fiction or history. Quickly, Mistress.—Merry Wives of Windsor, Shakespeare. A serving woman to Dr. Caius, a French physician. She is the go-between of three suitors for “sweet Anne Page,” and with perfect disinterestedness wishes all three to succeed. Quickly, Mistress Nell.—Hostess of a tavern in Eastcheap, frequented by Harry, Prince of Wales, Sir John Falstaff, and all their disreputable crew. Quidnunkis.—Title and name of hero in a fable found or written by Gay in 1726. This hero was a monkey which climbed higher than its neighbors, and fell into a river. Quilp (kwilp).—Old Curiosity Shop, Dickens. A hideous dwarf, cunning, malicious, and a perfect master in tormenting. Of hard, forbidding features, with head and face large enough for a giant, he lived on Tower hill, collected rents, advanced money to seamen, and kept a sort of wharf, calling himself a ship-breaker. Quintus Fixlein.—Title of a romance by Jean Paul Richter and the name of the principal character. Quirk, Gammon, and Snap.—A firm of rascally, scheming, hypocritical solicitors in Warren’s Ten Thousand a Year. R Raby, Aurora.—In Byron’s Don Juan. She was a rich, noble English orphan, “a rose with all its sweetest leaves yet folded.” Radigund.—FaËrie Queene, Spenser. Queen of the fabled Amazons. Having been rejected by Bellodant “the Bold,” she revenged herself by degrading all the men who fell into her power by dressing them like women, and giving them women’s work. Ramayana [(rÄ´-mÄ´y?-n?); Rama-ayana, the goings or doings of Rama].—One of the two great epics of India, the other being the Mahabharata. It is ascribed to a poet, Valmiki, and consists at present of about twenty-four thousand stanzas, divided into seven books. It is the production of one man, though many parts are later additions, such as those in which Rama is represented as an incarnation of Vishnu, all the episodes in the first book, and the whole of the seventh. It was at first handed down orally, and variously modified in transmission, and afterward reduced to writing. Ramona (ra-mo´nÄ).—Title of a romance by Helen Hunt Jackson. Ramona saw the American Indian followed by “civilization” while retreating slowly but surely toward his own extinction, and had herself a share in the tragedy. Ramona is considered the great romance of Indian life. Random (ran´dom).—Roderick Random, Smollett. A young Scotch scapegrace in quest of fortune. At one time he revels in prosperity, again he is in utter destitution. He roams at random, in keeping with his name. Rappaccini (rap-Ä-che´ne).—Mosses from an Old Manse, Hawthorne. A doctor in whose garden grew strange plants whose juices and fragrance were poison. His daughter, nourished on these odors, became poisonous herself. Her lover found an antidote which she took, but the poison meant life and the antidote meant death to her. Rasselas (ras´e-las).—An imaginary romance by Dr. Johnson. According to the custom of his country, Abyssinia, Rasselas was confined in paradise, with the rest of the royal family. This paradise was in the valley of Amhara, surrounded by high mountains. It had only one entrance, a cavern concealed by woods, and closed by iron gates. He escaped with his sister Nekayah and Imlac the poet, and wandered about to find what condition or rank of life was the most happy. After investigation, he found no lot without its drawbacks, and resolved to return to the “Happy Valley.” Raud the Strong.—Tales of a Wayside Inn, Henry W. Longfellow. The viking who worshiped the old gods and lived by fire and sword. King Olaf went against him, sailing from Drontheim to Salten Fjord. Raven, The.—A poem by Edgar Allan Poe, published in 1845, which has attained a world-wide popularity. For the author’s account of the mode of its construction, see The Philosophy of Composition, an essay, in the collected edition of his works. The last verse runs: Ravenswood.—Bride of Lammermoor, Scott. The lord of Ravenswood, an old Scotch nobleman and a decayed royalist. His son Edgar falls in love with Lucy Ashton, daughter of Sir William Ashton, Lord-Keeper of Scotland. The lovers plight their troth, but Lucy is compelled to marry Frank Hayston, laird of Bucklaw. The bride, in a fit of insanity, attempts to murder the bridegroom and dies. Bucklaw goes abroad. Colonel Ashton, seeing Edgar at the funeral of Lucy, appoints a hostile meeting; and Edgar, on his way to the place appointed, is lost in the quicksands. A prophecy, noted as a curse, hung over the family and was thus fulfilled. Raymond.—In Jerusalem Delivered, by Tasso. Raymond was known as the Nestor of the crusaders, slew Aladine, the king of Jerusalem, and planted the Christian standard upon the tower of David. Rebecca.—Ivanhoe, Scott. Daughter of Isaac the Jew, in love with Ivanhoe. Red-cross Knight.—The Red-cross Knight is St. George, the patron saint of England, and, in the obvious and general interpretation, typifies holiness, or the perfection of the spiritual man in religion. In Spenser’s FaËrie Queene the task of slaying a dragon was assigned to him as the champion of Una. Redgauntlet (red-gÄnt´let).—One of the principal characters in Sir Walter Scott’s novel of the same name, a political enthusiast and Jacobite, who scruples at no means of upholding the cause of the Pretender and finally accompanies him into exile. His race bore a fatal mark resembling a horseshoe which appeared on the face of Red-gauntlet as he frowned when angry. Red-Riding-Hood.—This nursery tale is, with slight variations, common to Sweden, Germany, and France. In Charles Perrault’s Contes des FÉes it is called Le Petit Chaperon Rouge. Religio Medici (re-lij´i-o med´i-si).—A prose work by Sir Thomas Browne. “The Religio Medici,” says the elder Lytton, “is one of the most beautiful prose poems in the language; its power of diction, its subtlety and largeness of thought, its exquisite conceits and images, have no parallel out of the writers of that brilliant age when Poetry and Prose had not yet divided their domain, and the Lyceum of Philosophy was watered by the mixing of the wine!” Representative Men.—A work by Emerson which more nearly than any of his other works, gives expression to his system as a whole. The topics are: (1) Plato, the Philosopher; (2) Swedenborg, the Mystic; (3) Montaigne, the Skeptic; (4) Shakespeare, the Poet; (5) Napoleon, the Man of the World; (6) Goethe, the Writer. The mental portraits sketched under these six heads give us Emerson himself, so far as he is capable of being formulated at all. Republic, The.—A work composed by Plato four hundred years before Christ. The Republic is not, as the title would suggest, a political work, like the Politics of Aristotle. The principles and government of an ideal moral organism, of which the rulers shall be types of fully developed and perfectly educated men, are the real subject. In the Republic we find the necessity of virtue to the very idea of social life proved in the first book; then the whole process of a complete moral and scientific education is set forth. It has been said that the most complete record of the beliefs or opinions of Plato are found in this work. Reveries of a Bachelor.—By D. G. Mitchell. The Reveries is a collection of sketches of life and character, painted in such a dreamlike, delicate manner as to make the reader lose for the time being the full consciousness of his surroundings. It has called forth a number of imitators more or less successful, no one of whom, however, is comparable to the original. Reynard (ra´nÄrd, or ren´Ärd) the Fox.—A beast-epic, so called. This prose poem is a satire on the state of Germany in the middle ages. Reynard represents the Church; Isengrin the wolf (his uncle) typifies the baronial element; and Nodel the lion stands for the regal power. The plot turns on the struggle for supremacy between Reynard and Isengrin. Reynard uses all his endeavors to victimize everyone, especially his uncle Isengrin, and generally succeeds. Richelieu (resh-y-loo´), or The Conspiracy.—A drama in five acts, by Edward, Lord Lytton; produced in 1839, the part of the hero being played by Macready. For some of the incidents the author confesses himself indebted to the authors of Cinq Mars and Picciola. Among the characters are Baradas, the favorite; De Mauprat, in love with Julie; Julie de Mortemar herself; Marion de Lorme, mistress of Orleans; Orleans himself; Louis XIII., and others. Rights of Man, The.—“Being an answer to Mr. Burke’s Attack on the French Revolution,” by Thomas Paine. This work, which was published in 1791-1792, procured for the writer the distinction of a trial for sedition, which he escaped by flying to France. Rinaldo (ri-nal´do).—A Christian hero in Tasso’s Jerusalem Delivered. He was the son of Bertoldo and Sophia, and nephew of Guelpho, but was brought up by Matilda. He was one of Charlemagne’s paladins, and cousin to Orlando. Having killed Charlemagne’s nephew Berthelot, he was banished and outlawed. After various adventures and disasters, he went to the Holy Land, and, on his return, succeeded in making peace with the emperor. Ring and the Book, The.—A poem by Robert Browning, published in 1869. It is the story of a tragedy which took place at Rome in 1698. The versified narrative of the child Pompilia’s sale to Count Guido, of his cruelty and violence, of her rescue by a young priest, the pursuit, the lawful separation, the murder by Guido of the girl and her putative parents, the trial and condemnation of the murderer, and the affirmation of his sentence by the pope—all this is made to fill out a poem of twenty-one thousand lines; but these include ten different versions of the tale, besides the poet’s prelude, in which latter he gives a general outline of it. The chapters which contain the statements of the priest lover and Pompilia are full of tragic beauty and emotion. The pope’s soliloquy, though too prolonged, is a wonderful piece of literary metempsychosis. Rip Van Winkle.—A tale by Washington Irving, adapted from the old German legend of Peter Klaus, a goatherd, who drank a miraculous draught of wine in a dell of the Harz mountains, which brought on sleep from which he did not wake until twenty years after, when he returned to his native village to find everything changed, and no one who knew him. In Irving’s tale the hero is a Dutchman living in America, and the scene is the Catskill mountains. The story is most picturesquely told, and has been effectively dramatized, the leading personage being illustrated by the genius of Jefferson. Rivals, The.—A comedy by Richard Brinsley Sheridan, produced at Covent Garden, London, in 1775, and described by Hazlitt as “a play of even more action and incident, but of less wit and satire, than The School for Scandal. It is as good as a novel in the reading, and has the broadest and most palpable effect upon the stage.” Roaring Camp, The Luck of.—A prose sketch by Francis Bret Harte, an American poet, in which the softening effects of the presence of a little child in a camp of ruffians are very touchingly described. It has been dramatized. Rob Roy.—A romance by Sir Walter Scott which is founded on some passages in the career of the famous Highlander, Robert MacGregor, who was popularly Roderick, or Roderic (rod´er-ik) Dhu.—Lady of the Lake, Scott. An outlaw and chief of a band of Scots who resolved to win back what had been lost to the Saxons. In connection with Red Murdock he sought the life of the Saxon Fitz-James. Roderigo (rod-e-re´go).—In Shakespeare’s Othello, a Venetian in love with Desdemona, who, when the lady eloped with Othello, hated the “noble Moor.” Roland (ro´land).—The hero of one of the most ancient and popular epics of early French or Frankish literature, and, according to tradition, the favorite nephew and captain of the Emperor Charlemagne. Roland is the hero of ThÉroulde’s Chanson de Roland; of Turpin’s Chronique; of Bojardo’s Orlando Innamorato; of Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso. Romance of the Rose.—A poetical allegory, begun by Guillaume de Lorris in the latter part of the thirteenth century, and continued by Jean Meung in the first half of the fourteenth century. The poet dreams that Dame Idleness conducts him to the Palace of Pleasure, where he meets many adventures among the attendant maidens, Youth, Joy, Courtesy, and others, by whom he is conducted to a bed of roses. He singles out one, when an arrow from Love’s bow stretches him fainting on the ground. Fear, Slander, and Jealousy are afterward introduced. Romeo.—In Shakespeare’s tragedy of Romeo and Juliet, a son of Montague, in love with Juliet, the daughter of Capulet, who was the head of a noble house of Verona, in feudal enmity with the house of Montague. Romeo and Juliet.—A tragedy by William Shakespeare. Romeo, a son of Montague, in love with Juliet, the daughter of Capulet; but between the houses of Montague and Capulet there existed a deadly feud. As the families were irreconcilable, Juliet took a sleeping draught, that she might get away from her parents and elope with Romeo. Romeo, thinking her to be dead, killed himself; and when Juliet awoke and found her lover dead, she also killed herself. Romola (rom´o-lÄ).—A novel of Italian life and character by George Eliot. Romola is a marvelously able story of the revival of the taste and beauty and freedom of Hellenic manners and letters, under Lorenzo de’ Medici and the scholars of his court, side by side with the revival of Roman virtue, and more than the ancient austerity and piety, under the great Dominican Savonarola. This period of history is one which of all others may well have engrossing interest for George Eliot. Treasures of learning and discipline, amassed for mankind ages before, for ages stored and hidden away, see again the sun, are recognized and put to use. What use they will be put to, with what new and fruitful effects on the state and the citizen, with what momentary and with what lasting consequences, this she strives to discover; this she follows through the public history of Italy during the modern invasion of Charles VIII., and the events which succeed his invasion, and through the private fortunes of her admirably chosen group of characters, some of them drawn from life, all of them true to nature. Rosetta (ro-zet´tÄ) Stone.—Found at Rosetta in the delta of the Nile, contains equivalent inscriptions in hieroglyphics in demotic and in Greek letters. The meaning of the Greek text being known, the hieroglyphics could be translated. Rowena (ro-e´nÄ).—A Saxon princess, ward of Cedric of Rotherwood, in Sir Walter Scott’s romance of Ivanhoe. Rumpelstilzchen.—Old German Tales. According to Grimm, this name is a compound, but the spirit represented is one familiar to all German children. The original story tells of him as a dwarf who spun straw into gold for a certain miller’s daughter. S Sacripant (sak´ri-pant), King.—(1) King of Circassia, and a lover of Angelica, in Bojordo and Ariosto. (2) A personage in Tassoni’s mock heroic poem, Rape of the Bucket, represented as false, brave, noisy and hectoring. Sagas (sÄ´gas).—Title of the ancient traditions which form the substance of the history and mythology of the Scandinavian races. The language in which they are written is supposed to be the old Icelandic. In the Edda there are numerous sagas. As our Bible contains the history of the Jews, religious songs, moral proverbs, and religious stories, so the Edda contains the history of Norway, religious songs, a book of proverbs, and numerous stories. The original Edda was compiled and edited by SÆmund Sigfusson, an Icelandic priest and scald, in the eleventh century. It contains twenty-eight parts or books, all of which are in verse. Two hundred years later Snorri Sturleson, of Iceland, abridged, rearranged, and reduced to prose the Edda, and his work was called The Younger Edda. In this we find the famous story called by the Germans the Nibelungenlied. Besides the sagas contained in the Eddas, there are numerous others, and the whole saga literature makes over two hundred volumes. Among them are the VÖlsunga Saga, which is a collection of lays about the early Teutonic heroes. The Saga of St. Olaf is the history of this Norwegian king. Frithjof’s Saga contains the life and adventures of Frithjof of Iceland. Snorri Sturleson, at the close of the twelfth century, made the second great collection of chronicles in verse, called the Heimskringla Saga. This is a most valuable record of the laws, customs and manners of the ancient Scandinavians. Sakuntala.—A famous drama by KÂlidasa. The daughter of Viswamita and a water nymph, abandoned by her parents, and brought up by a hermit. One day, King Dushyanta came to the hermitage, and persuaded Sakuntala to marry him. In due time a son was born, but Dushyanta left his bride at the hermitage. When the boy was six years old, his mother took him to the king, and Dushyanta recognized his wife by a ring which he had given her. Sakuntala was now publicly proclaimed queen, and the boy (whose name was BhÂrata) became the founder of the glorious race of the BhÂratas. Samson Agonistes (sam´son ag-o-nis´tez).—A sacred drama by Milton. Samson, blind and bound, triumphs over his enemies. As in the Bible story, he grasps two of the supporting pillars, and perishes in the general ruin. Sancho Panza (sang´ko pan´zÄ).—The esquire and counterpart of Don Quixote in Cervantes’ famous novel. He has much shrewdness in practical matters, and a store of proverbial wisdom. He rode upon an ass and was noted for his proverbs. Sartor Resartus (sÄr´tor re-sÄr´tus), (i. e., The Tailor Patched).—The title of an old Scottish ballad, being The Life and Opinions of Herr TeufelsdrÖckh, in Three Books, by Thomas Carlyle. It may be described as a kind of philosophical romance, in which the author gives us, in the form of a review of a supposed German work on dress, and a notice of the writer, his opinions on things in general. The hero, it has been said, seems to be intended for a portraiture of human nature as affected by the moral influence to which a cultivated mind would be exposed by acquaintance with the transcendental philosophy of Fichte. Satyrane (sat´i-ran), Sir.—FaËrie Queene, Spenser. A noble knight who delivered Una from the fauns and satyrs. The meaning seems to be that Truth, driven from the towns and cities, took refuge in caves and dens where for a time it lay concealed. At length Sir Satyrane (Luther) rescues Una from bondage; but no sooner is this the case than she falls in with Archimago, to show how very difficult it was at the time of the Reformation to separate Truth from Error. Sawyer, Bob.—Pickwick Papers, Dickens. A drinking young doctor who tries to establish a practice at Bristol, but without success. Sam Weller calls him “Mr. Sawbones.” Scalds, or Skalds.—Court poets and chroniclers of the ancient Scandinavians. They resided at court, were attached to the royal suite, and attended the king in all his wars. These bards celebrated in song the gods, the kings of Norway, and national heroes. Few complete Skaldic poems have survived, but a multitude of fragments exist. Scarlet Letter, The.—A romance by Nathaniel Hawthorne, published in 1850. The heroine, Hester Prynne, was condemned to wear conspicuously the letter “A” in scarlet, token of her sin as mother of her child, Pearl, whose father was not known. She was first exposed in disgrace on a raised scaffold, then served a term in prison, and afterward gained a moderate support for herself and child by embroidering. She refused to reveal the name of the father, although she might then be allowed to lay aside the letter. He was always near, held an important position, and lived a life of wearing remorse. After his death Hester Prynne took her child to another country, but returned to spend her old age in seclusion and comfort Scheherazade, or Sheherazade (she-he´rÄ-zad).—Arabian Nights. The fabled relater of the stories in these “Entertainments.” Scaramouche (skar´a-mouch).—An Italian character whose traits are cowardice and boastfulness. He is of Spanish creation, copied into Italian comedy. Schlemihl (shlem´el), Peter.—The name of the hero of a little work by Chamisso, a man who sells his shadow to the devil. The name has become a byword for any poor, silly, and unfortunate fellow. Schneider (shni´der).—Rip Van Winkle’s dog, in Boucicault’s dramatization of Irving’s Rip Van Winkle. The name of the dog in the story is “Wolf.” School for Scandal, The.—A comedy by Richard Brinsley Sheridan, produced at Covent Garden, London, in 1777, and characterized by Hazlitt as, “if not the most original, perhaps the most finished and faultless comedy which we have. The scene in which Charles Surface sells all the old family pictures but his uncle’s, who is the purchaser in disguise, and that of the discovery of Lady Teazle when the screen falls, are among the happiest and most highly wrought that comedy, in its wide and brilliant range, can boast. Besides the art and ingenuity of this play, there is a genial spirit of frankness and generosity that relieves the heart as well as clears the lungs. While it strips off the mask of hypocrisy, it inspires a confidence between man and man.” School for Wives [L’Ecole des Femmes (lÄ-kol´ da fam´)].—A comedy by MoliÈre. Arnolph has a crotchet about the proper training of girls to make good wives, and tries his scheme upon Agnes, whom he adopts from a peasant’s cottage, and designs in due time to make his wife. He sends her from early childhood to a convent, where difference of sex and the conventions of society are wholly ignored. When removed from the convent, she treats men as if they were schoolgirls, kisses them, plays with them, and treats them with girlish familiarity. The consequence is, a young man name Horace falls in love with her, and makes her his wife, and Arnolph loses his painstaking. School of Husbands [L’Ecole des Maris (lÄ-kol´ da mÄ-re´)] A comedy by MoliÈre. Ariste and Sganarelle, two brothers, bring up LÉonor and Isabelle, two orphan sisters, according to their systems for making them in time their model wives. Sganarelle’s system was to make the woman dress plainly, live retired, attend to domestic duties, and have few indulgences. Ariste’s system was to give the woman great liberty, and trust to her honor. Isabelle, brought up by Sganarelle, deceived him and married another; but LÉonor, brought up by Ariste, made him a fond and faithful wife. Scottish Chiefs, The.—A romantic story by Jane Porter, published in 1810, and counting among its heroes Robert Bruce and Sir William Wallace. Scourge of God.—Attila, king of the Huns. A. P. Stanley says the term was first applied to Attila in the Hungarian Chronicles. It is found in a legend belonging to the eighth or ninth century. Scrooge (skrÖj), Ebenezer.—Christmas Carol, Dickens. The prominent character, made partner, executor, and heir of old Jacob Marley, stockbroker. Seasons, The.—A series of poems by James Thomson, which appeared in the following order: Winter; Summer; Spring; and Autumn; the whole being republished, with the famous Hymn. Horace Walpole said that he would rather have written the most absurd lines by Lee than The Seasons; but Wordsworth, on the other hand, speaks of it as “a work of inspiration. Much of it,” he says, “is written from himself, and nobly from himself.” Sebastian (se-bas´tian).—(1) Brother of Viola, in Twelfth Night. They were twins, and so much alike that they could not be distinguished except by their dress. Sebastian and his sister being shipwrecked, escaped to Illyria. Here Sebastian was mistaken for his sister (who had assumed man’s apparel), and was invited by the Countess Olivia to take shelter in her house from a street broil. Olivia was in love with Viola, and thinking Sebastian to be the object of her love, married him. (2) Brother of Alfonso, king of Naples, in The Tempest. (3) Father of Valentine and Alice, in Beaumont and Fletcher’s Mons. Thomas. Sedley, Mr.—Vanity Fair, Thackeray. A wealthy London stockbroker, brought to ruin in the money market just prior to the battle of Waterloo. Selith.—One of the two guardian angels of the Virgin Mary and St. John the divine, in Klopstock’s Messiah. Sempronius (sem-pro´ni-us).—In Shakespeare’s Timon of Athens, a flatterer of Timon, who excuses himself from lending Timon money on the ground that others had been asked first. Senena.—Madoc, Southey. A Welsh maiden in love with Caradoc. Under the assumed name of Mervyn she became the page of the Princess Goervyl, that she might follow her lover to America, where Madoc colonized Caer-Madoc. Senena was promised in marriage to another; but when the wedding day arrived the bride was nowhere to be found. Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy.—By Laurence Sterne, published in 1768. Sterne describes this work as follows: “It is a subject which works well, and suits the frame of mind in which I have been for some time past. I told you my design in it was to teach us to love the world and our fellow creatures better than we do—so it runs most upon these gentler passions and affections which add so much to it.” Serena (sa-ra´nÄ).—FaËrie Queene, Spenser. Allured into the fields by the mildness of the weather, to gather wild flowers for a garland, she was attacked by the Blatant Beast, which carried her off in its mouth. Her cries attracted to the spot Sir Calidore, who compelled the beast to drop its prey. Sesame.—In Arabian tales given as the talismanic word which would open or shut the door leading into the cave of the forty thieves. In order to open it, the words to be uttered were, “Open, Sesame!” and in order to close it, “Shut, Sesame!” Sesame is a plant yielding grain which is sometimes used for food, and from which an oil is expressed. When Cassim forgot the word, he substituted “Barley,” but without effect. Sesame has come into general use in connection with any word or act which will open the way for accomplishment of the thing desired. Seven Lamps of Architecture, The.—A treatise on architecture by Ruskin, published in 1849. The “seven lamps” are those of Sacrifice, Truth, Power, Beauty, Life, Memory, and Obedience. They are symbolic rules for the guidance of the student. Sganarelle (sgÄ-nÄ-rel´).—The hero of MoliÈre’s comedy La Mariage Force. He is represented as a humorist of about fifty-three, who, having a mind to marry a fashionable young woman, but feeling a doubt, consults his friends upon this momentous question. Receiving no satisfactory counsel, and not much pleased with the proceedings of his bride elect, he at last determines to give up his engagement, but is cudgeled into compliance by the brother of his intended. Shallow.—A braggart and absurd country justice in Shakespeare’s Merry Wives of Windsor, and in the second part of King Henry IV. Shandy, Mrs.—The mother of Tristram Shandy in Sterne’s novel of this name. She is the ideal of nonentity, a character individual from its very absence of individuality. Shandy, Tristram.—The nominal hero of Sterne’s The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gent. Shandy, Walter.—The name of Tristram Shandy’s father in Sterne’s novel of this name, a man of an active and metaphysical, but at the same time a whimsical, cast of mind, whom too much and too miscellaneous learning had brought within a step or two of madness. Sharp, Becky.—A leading character in Thackeray’s Vanity Fair, the daughter of a poor painter, dashing, selfish, unprincipled, and very clever. Shepherd of Salisbury Plain, The.—The hero and title of a religious tract by Hannah More. The shepherd is noted for his homely wisdom and simple piety. Shepherd’s Calendar, The.—Twelve eclogues in various meters, by Spenser, one for each month. January: Colin Clout (Spenser) bewails that Rosalind does not return his love. February: Cuddy, a lad, complains of the cold, and Thenot laments the degeneracy of pastoral life. March: Willie and Thomalin discourse of love. April: Hobbinol sings a song on Eliza. May: Palinode exhorts Piers to join the festivities of May, but Piers replies that good shepherds who seek their own indulgence expose their flocks to the wolves. June: Hobbinol exhorts Colin to greater cheerfulness. July: Morrel, a goatherd, invites Thomalin to come with him to the uplands. August: Perigot and Willie contend in song, and Cuddy is appointed arbiter. September: Diggon Davie complains to Hobbinol of clerical abuses. October: On poetry. November: Colin being asked by Thenot to sing, excuses himself because of his grief for Dido, but finally sings her elegy. December: Colin again Shepherd’s Pipe.—Pan, in Greek mythology, was the god of forests, pastures, and flocks, and the reputed inventor of the shepherd’s flute or pipe. Sheridan’s Ride.—A lyric by T. B. Read, one of the few things written during the heat of the Civil war that is likely to survive. She Stoops to Conquer.—A comedy by Oliver Goldsmith, said to have been founded on an incident which actually occurred to its author. When Goldsmith was sixteen years of age, a wag residing at Ardagh directed him, when passing through that village, to Squire Fetherstone’s house as the village inn. The mistake was not discovered for some time, but all concerned enjoyed the joke. She Stoops to Conquer is one of the gayest, pleasantest, and most amusing pieces of English comedy. Shingebis.—In Longfellow’s Hiawatha, the diver who challenged the North Wind and put him to flight in combat. Shocky.—The Hoosier Schoolmaster, Edw. Eggleston. The little lad from the poorhouse who adores the schoolmaster and early warns him of plans for upsetting his authority. He is also a small poet, not in rhyming, but in comprehension of things about him and in his way of looking at life, and he grows to be a helper in the Church of the Best Licks, founded by the schoolmaster. Shylock.—A sordid, avaricious, revengeful Jew, in Shakespeare’s Merchant of Venice. Siege Perilous, The.—The Round Table contained sieges, or seats, in the names of different knights. One was reserved for him who was destined to attainment in the quest of the Holy Grail. This seat was called “perilous” because if anyone sat therein except he for whom it was reserved, he would “lose himself.” It finally bore the name of Sir Galahad. Siegfried (seg´fred).—The hero of various Scandinavian and Teutonic legends, particularly of the old German epic poem, the Nibelungenlied. He is represented as a young warrior of physical strength and beauty, and in valor superior to all men of his time. He cannot easily be identified with any historical personage. Sikes, Bill.—A brutal thief and housebreaker in Dickens’ novel Oliver Twist. He murders his mistress, Nancy, and, in trying to lower himself by a rope from the roof of a building where he had taken refuge from the crowd, he falls, and is choked in a noose of his own making. Sikes had an ill-conditioned, savage dog, the beast-image of his master, which he kicked and loved, ill-treated and fondled. Silas Marner (mÄr´ner).—A novel by George Eliot, published in 1861. This novel is one of the authoress’ most beautiful stories, the most poetical of them all—the tale of Silas Marner, who deems himself deserted and rejected utterly of God and man, and to whom, in his deepest misery, in place of lost gold, a little foundling girl is sent. This tale is the most hopeful of all her books. The contemplation of the renewal of enterprise and energy, which comes with little children, and of the promise with which each new generation gilds the crown of honor for its sires, is pleasant and grateful to her. She writes upon her title page the lines of Wordsworth: A child, more than all other gifts That earth can offer to declining man, Brings hope with it and forward-looking thoughts. The weaver of Raveloe and Eppie are creations after Wordsworth’s own heart. Silken Thread.—Gulliver’s Travels. In the kingdom of Lilliput, the three great prizes of honor are “fine silk threads six inches long, one blue, another red, and a third green.” The thread is girt about the loins, and no ribbon of the Legion of Honor, or of the Knight of the Garter, is worn more worthily or more proudly. Sindbad (sind´bad) the Sailor.—A character in the Arabian Nights, in which is related the story of his strange voyages and wonderful adventures. Sinon.—In Vergil’s Æneid the cunning Greek who, by a false tale, induced the Trojans to drag the wooden horse into Troy. Sir Roger de Coverley (kuv´er-li).—In Addison’s The Spectator. The prototype of this famous character was Sir John Pakington, a hypothetical baronet of Coverley or Cowley, near Oxford. Skeleton in Armor, The.—A lyric by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, suggested to him while riding on the seashore at Newport. A year or two previous a skeleton had been dug up at Fall River, clad in broken and corroded armor; and the idea occurred to him of connecting it with the Round Tower at Newport, generally known hitherto as the Old Windmill, though now claimed by the Danes as a work of their early ancestors. Sketch-Book, The.—A series of short tales, sketches, and essays, published by Washington Irving in 1820. They are chiefly descriptive of English manners and scenery, and have often been reprinted. Skylark, Ode to the.—By Percy Bysshe Shelley, written in 1820. “In sweetness,” says Leigh Hunt, “and not even there in passages, the Ode to the Skylark is inferior only to Coleridge—in rapturous passion to no man. It is like the bird it sings—enchanting, profuse, continuous, and alone; small, but filling the heavens.” Hail to thee, blithe spirit! Bird thou never wert, That, from heaven, or near it, Pourest thy full heart In profuse strains of unpremeditated art. Slick, Sam.—The hero of various humorous narratives, by Haliburton, illustrating and exaggerating the peculiarities of the Yankee character and dialect. Slop, Dr.—The name of a choleric and uncharitable physician in Sterne’s Tristram Shandy, Gent. Slough of Despond.—Pilgrim’s Progress, Bunyan. A deep bog, which Christian had to pass on his way to the Wicket Gate. Sly, Christopher.—Taming of the Shrew, Shakespeare. A keeper of bears and a tinker and a sad drinker, son of a peddler. Sofronia (sof-ro´ni-Ä).—A young Christian of Jerusalem, the heroine of an episode in Tasso’s Jerusalem Delivered. She and her lover, Olinda, are condemned to death by Aladine, king of Jerusalem. The king finally, at the solicitation of Clorinda, spares them and they are married. Sohrab (sÖ-hrÂb´) and Rustum.—An episode, or narrative in verse, by Matthew Arnold. The story is told in prose in Sir John Malcolm’s History of Persia. “The powerful conception of the relation between the two chieftains, and the slaying of the son by the father, are,” says Stedman, “tragical and heroic. The descriptive passage at the close beginning— But the majestic river floated on, for diction and breadth of tone would do honor to any living poet.” Song of Roland.—An ancient song recounting the deeds of Roland, the renowned nephew of Charlemagne, slain in the pass of Roncesvalles. At the battle of Hastings, Taillefer advanced on horseback before the invading army, and gave the signal for onset by singing this famous song. Spanker, Lady Gay.—In London Assurance, by Boucicault, is a woman of great spirit, devoted to the chase. Speed.—An inveterate punster and the clownish servant of Valentine, one of the two “gentlemen” in Shakespeare’s The Two Gentlemen of Verona. Spenlow (spen´lo).—Lavinia and Clarissa, in Dickens’ David Copperfield, two spinster aunts of Dora Spenlow, with whom she lived at the death of her father. Squeers.—Name of a family prominent in Dickens’ Nicholas Nickleby. Wackford Squeers, master of Dotheboys Hall, in Yorkshire, is a vulgar, conceited, ignorant schoolmaster, overbearing and mean. He steals the boys’ pocket money, clothes his son in their best suits, half starves them, and teaches them next to nothing. Ultimately he is transported for theft. Mrs. Squeers, a raw-boned, harsh, heartless virago, with no womanly feeling for the boys put under her charge. Miss Fanny Squeers, daughter of the schoolmaster. Miss Fanny falls in love with Nicholas Nickleby, but later hates him because he is insensible to the soft impeachment. Master Wackford Squeers, over-bearing, self-willed and passionate. Squire of Dames.—A personage introduced by Spenser in the FaËrie Queene, and whose curious adventures are there recorded. The expression is sometimes applied to a person devoted to the fair sex. Steerforth (ster´forth), James.—David Copperfield, Dickens. The young man who led little Em’ly astray. When tired of his toy, he proposed to her to marry his valet. Steerforth, being shipwrecked off the coast of Yarmouth, Ham Peggotty tried to rescue him, but both were drowned. Stentor (sten´tor).—A Grecian herald in the Trojan war whom Homer describes as great-hearted, brazen-voiced Stentor, accustomed to shout as loud as fifty other men. Stephano (stef´a-no).—(1) In Tasso’s Jerusalem Delivered, earl of Carnuti, the leader of four hundred men in the allied Christian army. He was noted for his military prowess and wise counsel; (2) a drunken butler in Shakespeare’s The Tempest; (3) servant to Portia in Shakespeare’s Merchant of Venice. Stiggins, Rev. Mr.—A red-nosed, hypocritical “shepherd,” or Methodist parson, in Dickens’ Pickwick Papers, with a great appetite for pineapple rum. He is the spiritual adviser of Mrs. Weller, and lectures on temperance. Strephon (stref´on).—The shepherd in Sir Philip Sidney’s Arcadia, who makes love to the beautiful Urania. It is a stock name for a lover, Chloe being usually the corresponding lady. Strongback.—One of the seven attendants of Fortunio, in D’Aulnoy’s Fairy Tales. He could never be overweighted, and could fell a forest in a few hours without fatigue. Summer, St. Martin’s.—The fine weather which generally occurs in October and November; referred to in Henry VI. T Tabard (tab´ard), The.—Is the inn, in High Street, Southwark, London, from which Chaucer makes his pilgrims start on their journey to Canterbury. It took its name from its sign—a tabard. Tale of Two Cities, A.—A novel, by Charles Dickens, originally produced in All the Year Round for 1859, and afterward republished in complete form. The author says he first conceived the main idea of the story when acting, with his children and friends, in Wilkie Collins’ drama of The Frozen Deep. His narrative is drawn from the scenes of the French revolution of 1789; and it was one of Dickens’ hopes, he says, to add something to the popular and picturesque means of understanding that terrible time; “though no one,” he continues, “can hope to add anything to the philosophy of Carlyle’s wonderful book.” Tales of a Wayside Inn.—Name given by Longfellow to a collection of short poems arranged by himself and collected together much in the same form as Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales. These “tales” were mostly gathered from old literature and translated into Longfellow’s own verses—only one, The Birds of Killingworth, being said to be entirely original. Seven narratives are represented: the Landlord, the Student, the Spanish Cavalier, the Jew, the Sicilian, the Musician, and the Theologian. Four colonial tales are included in the work: Paul Revere’s Ride, Elizabeth, Lady Wentworth, and The Rhyme of Sir Christopher. Taming of the Shrew, The.—A comedy by Shakespeare. The incident of Vincentio’s personation by the pedant was borrowed by Shakespeare from George Gascoigne’s Supposes. The chief characters are Petruchio and his wife Katharine, the shrew. Tam O’Shanter.—The title of a poem by Burns, and the name of its hero, a farmer, who, riding home very late and very drunk from Ayr, in a stormy night, had to pass by the kirk of Alloway, a place reputed to be a favorite haunt of the devil and his friends and emissaries. On approaching the kirk, he perceived a light gleaming through the windows; but, having got courageously drunk, he ventured on till he could look into the edifice, when he saw a dance of witches. His presence became known, and in an instant all was dark; and Tam, recollecting himself, turned and spurred his horse to the top of her speed, chased by the whole fiendish crew. It is a current belief that witches, or any evil spirits, have no power to follow a poor wight any farther than the middle of the next running stream. Fortunately for Tam, the River Doon was near, and he escaped, while the witches held only the tail of his mare Maggie. It has been said of Tam O’Shanter that in no other poem of the same length can there be found so much brilliant description, pathos, and quaint humor, nor such a combination of the terrific and the ludicrous. Tancred (tang´kred).—In Tasso’s Jerusalem Delivered, was the greatest of all the Christian warriors, except Rinaldo. Tartufe, or Tartuffe (tar-tuf´).—One of MoliÈre’s best known comedies. Tartuffe is a religious hypocrite and impostor, who uses “religion” as the means of gaining money, covering deceit, and promoting self-indulgence. He is taken up by one Orgon, a man of property, who promises him his daughter in marriage; but, his true character being exposed, he is not only turned out of the house, but is lodged in jail for felony. Isaac Bickerstaff adapted MoliÈre’s comedy to the English stage, under the title of The Hypocrite. Tartuffe he calls “Dr. Cantwell,” and Orgon “Sir John Lambert.” It is thought that “Tartuffe” is a caricature of PÈre la Chaise, the confessor of Louis XIV., who was very fond of truffles (French, truffes), and that this suggested the name to the dramatist. Task, The.—A poem by William Cowper. “The Task,” says Southey, “was at once descriptive, moral, and satirical. The descriptive parts everywhere bore evidence of a thoughtful mind and a gentle spirit, as well as of an observant eye; and the moral sentiment which pervaded them gave a charm in which descriptive poetry is often found wanting. The best didactic poems, when compared with The Task, are like formal gardens in comparison with woodland scenery.” “The Task,” says Hazlitt, “has fewer blemishes than The Seasons; but it has not the same capital excellence, the ‘unsought grace’ of poetry, the power of moving and infusing the warmth of the author’s mind into that of the reader.” Teazle (te´zl), Lady.—The heroine of Sheridan’s comedy The School for Scandal, and the wife of Sir Peter Teazle, an old gentleman who marries late in life. She is represented as being “a lively and innocent, though imprudent, country girl, transplanted into the midst of all that can bewilder and endanger her, but with enough of purity about her to keep the blight of the world from settling upon her.” Teazle, Sir Peter.—A character in Sheridan’s play The School for Scandal, husband of Lady Teazle. TÉlÉmaque (ta-la-m?k´), Les Aventures de: “Adventures of Telemachus”.—A romance by Fenelon, published in 1699. It is founded on the legendary history of Telemachus, and is one of the classics of French literature. Though the beautiful fiction of Telemachus, which has much in common with, and was doubtless suggested to Fenelon by the Argenis, be rather an epic poem in prose than a romance, it seems to have led the way to several political romances, or, at least, to have nourished a state for this species of composition. Tell, William.—Title of a drama by Schiller. The hero is chief of the confederates of the forest cantons of Switzerland, and son-in-law of Walter FÜrst. Having refused to salute the Austrian cap which Gessler, the Austrian governor, had set up in the market-place of Altdorf, he was condemned to shoot an apple from the head of his own son. He succeeded in this perilous task, but, letting fall a concealed arrow, was asked by Gessler with what object he had secreted it. “To kill thee, tyrant,” he replied, “if I had failed.” The governor now ordered him to be carried in chains across the Lake Lucerne to KÜssnacht Castle, “there to be devoured alive by reptiles”; but, a violent storm having arisen on the lake, he was unchained, that he might take the helm. Gessler was on board; and, when the vessel neared the castle, Tell leaped ashore, gave the boat a push into the lake, and shot the governor. After this he liberated his country from the Austrian yoke. Tempest, The.—One of Shakespeare’s fairy plays. The story runs: Prospero, duke of Milan, was dethroned by his brother Antonio, and left on the open sea with his three-year-old daughter Miranda, in “a rotten carcass of a boat.” In this they were carried to an enchanted island, uninhabited except by a hideous creature, Caliban, the son of a witch. Prospero was a powerful enchanter, and soon had not only Caliban, but all the spirits of the region under his control, including Ariel, chief of the spirits of the air. Years afterward Antonio, Alfonso, Sebastian and other friends of the usurper came near the island. Prospero, by his magic, raises a storm which casts their ship on the shore and the whole party are spellbound and brought to Prospero. Plots and counterplots follow, bringing in Caliban and clowns; but all are made ridiculous and are defeated by Prospero and Ariel. Tessa (tes´Ä).—In George Eliot’s novel of Romola is the peasant girl who is deceived into marriage with Tito Melema. Thangbrand.—Tales of a Wayside Inn, Henry W. Longfellow. King Olaf’s drunken priest, “short of stature, large of limb,” who was sent to Iceland, found the people poring over their books, and sailed backed to Norway to say to Olaf “little hope is there of these Iceland men.” Theagenes (the-aj´e-nez) and Chariclea (kar-i-kle´Ä).—The chief characters in a Greek love story, by Heliodorus, bishop of Trikka, fourth century. A charming fiction, largely borrowed from by subsequent novelists, and especially by Mdlle. de ScudÉri, Tasso, Guarini, and D’UrfÉ. Thekla.—The daughter of Wallenstein in Schiller’s drama of this name. She is an invention of the poet. Theodorus.—The name of a physician, in Rabelais’ romance of Gargantua. At the request of Ponocrates, Gargantua’s tutor, he undertook to cure the latter of his vicious manner of living, and accordingly “purged him canonically with Anticyrian hellebore,” by which medicine he cleared out all the perverse habits of his brain, so that he became a man of honor, sense, courage, and piety. Theresa, or Teresa (te-re´sÄ, or ta-ra´sÄ).—Daughter of the count palatine of Padolia, beloved by Mazeppa, in Byron’s Mazeppa. Thersites (ther-si´tez).—A scurrilous Grecian chief, loquacious, loud and coarse, in the Iliad. His chief delight was to inveigh against the kings of Greece. He squinted, halted, and on his tapering head grew a few white patches of starveling down. Thopas, Sir.—In the Canterbury Tales, a capital sportsman, archer, wrestler, and runner, who resolved to marry no one but an “elf queen,” and accordingly started for FaËryland. Story left unfinished. Thorberg Skafting.—Tales of a Wayside Inn, Henry W. Longfellow. The master-builder ordered by King Olaf to build a ship twice as long and twice as large as the Dragon, built by Raud the Strong, which was stranded. Three Musketeers [Trois Mousquetaires (trwÄ mÖs-ke-tar´), Les].—A novel by Alexander Dumas pÈre, published in 1844. The scene is laid in the time of Richelieu. The three musketeers are Athos, Porthos, and Aramis, but D’Artagnan is the principal character. He is a young Gascon of an adventurous yet practical nature, with a genius for intrigue, who goes up to Paris to seek his fortune with an old horse, a box of miraculous salve given to him by his mother, and his father’s counsels. His career is one of hairbreadth escapes (with death, in the end, on the field of battle) in the society of the three musketeers. Thyestean Banquet.—Referred to in Milton’s Paradise Lost. A cannibal feast. Thyestes was given his own two sons to eat at a banquet served up to him by his brother Atreus. Thyrsis (ther´sis).—A herdsman introduced in the Idylls of Theocritos, and in Vergil’s Eclogues. Timias.—King Arthur’s squire in Spenser’s FaËrie Queene. He went after the “wicked foster,” from whom Florimel fled, and the “foster” with his two brothers, falling on him, were all slain. Tobey, Uncle.—A character in Sterne’s Tristram Shandy. A captain who was wounded at the siege of Namur, and was obliged to retire from the service. He is the impersonation of kindness, benevolence, and simple-heartedness; his courage is undoubted, and his gallantry delightful for its innocence and modesty. Tommy Atkins.—Barrack-Room Ballads, Kipling. The name is here used in its general meaning, a British soldier. The name came from the little pocket ledgers served out, at one time, to all British soldiers. In these manuals were to be entered the name, the age, the date of enlistment, etc. The war office sent with each little book a form for filling it in, and the hypothetical name selected was Tommy Atkins. The books were instantly so called, and it did not require many days to transfer the name from the book to the soldier. Tom Sawyer, Adventures of.—By Mark Twain. An “elastic” youth whose performances delight both old and young readers. Queer enterprises, influenced by the old superstitions among slaves and children in the Western states give reliable pictures of boy-life in the middle of the nineteenth century. Topsy.—Uncle Tom’s Cabin, Mrs. Stowe. A young slave-girl, who never knew whether she had either father or mother, and being asked by Miss Ophelia St. Clare how she supposed she came into the world, replied, “I ’spects I growed.” Touchstone (tuch´ston).—A clown in Shakespeare’s As You Like It. His seven degrees of the lie are: (1) The retort courteous, (2) the quip modest, (3) the reply churlish, (4) the reproof valiant, (5) the countercheck quarrelsome, (6) the lie circumstantial, (7) the lie direct. Townley Mysteries.—Certain religious dramas; so called because the MS. containing them belonged to P. Townley. These dramas are supposed to have been acted at Widkirk abbey, in Yorkshire. Tranio (tra´ni-o).—In Shakespeare’s Taming of the Shrew, one of the servants of Lucentio, the gentleman who marries Bianca, sister of Katharina “the Paduan shrew.” Triads.—Three subjects, more or less connected, formed into one continuous poem or subject; thus the “Creation, Redemption, and Resurrection” would form a triad. Trim, Corporal.—Uncle Toby’s attendant, in Sterne’s novel, The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gent., distinguished for his fidelity and affection, his respectfulness, and his volubility. Tristram (tris´tram), Sir.—One of the most celebrated heroes of mediÆval romance. His adventures form an episode in the history of Arthur’s court, and are related by Thomas the Rhymer, as well as by many romancists. Tubal (tu´bal).—A wealthy Jew, the friend of Shylock, in Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice. Tuck, Friar.—Ivanhoe, Scott. The father-confessor of Robin Hood and connected with Fountain’s Abbey. He is represented as a clerical Falstaff, very fat and self-indulgent, very humorous, and somewhat coarse. His dress was a russet habit of the Franciscan order. He was sometimes girt with a rope of rushes. Friar Tuck also appears in the “morris dance” on Mayday. Turveydrop.—Bleak House, Dickens. A conceited dancing-master, who imposes on the world by his majestic appearance and elaborate toilette. He is represented as living upon the earnings of his son, who has a most slavish reverence for him as a perfect “master of deportment.” Tutivillus (tu-ti-vil´us).—In Langland’s Visions of Piers Plowman, the demon who collects all the fragments of words omitted, mutilated, or mispronounced by priests in the performance of religious services, and stores them up in that “bottomless” pit which is “paved with good intentions.” Tweedledum and Tweedledee.—The prince of Wales was the leader of the Handel party, supported by Pope and Dr. Arbuthnot; and the duke of Marlborough led the Bononcinists, and was supported by most of the nobility. Twelfth Night.—A drama by Shakespeare. The story is said to have come from a novelette written early in the sixteenth century. A brother and sister, twins, are shipwrecked. Viola, dressed like her brother, becomes page to the duke Orsino. The duke was in love with Olivia, and, as the lady looked coldly on his suit, he sent Viola to advance it; but the willful Olivia, instead of melting toward the duke, fell in love with his beautiful page. Sebastian, the twin-brother of Viola, was attacked in a street brawl before Olivia, and, thinking him to be the page, she invited him in. The result was the marriage of Sebastian to Olivia, and of the duke to Viola. Twice-Told Tales.—A collection of tales by Nathaniel Hawthorne, some of which had been already published in the Token, and other periodicals. They are mystical and, though in prose form, are the work of a poet. The tales are nearly all American in subject, but are treated from the spiritual rather than the practical side. Two Gentlemen of Verona (va-ro´nÄ).—A drama by Shakespeare, the story of which is taken from the Diana of Montemayor (sixteenth century). The plot resembles that of Twelfth Night, as Julia, disguised as a page, is a prominent figure. U Uarda (Ö-Är´dÄ).—A novel by Ebers, published in 1877. The scene is laid chiefly in Egypt at the time of the reign of Rameses II. Ubaldo.—Jerusalem Delivered, Tasso. One of the older crusaders, who had visited many regions. He and Charles the Dane went to bring back Rinaldo from the enchanted castle. Ubeda.—Don Quixote, Cervantes. A noted artist who one day painted a picture, but was obliged to write under it, “This is a cock,” in order that the spectator might know what was intended to be represented. Thule (thu´le).—“Ultima Thule.” The extremity of the world; the most northern point known to the ancient Romans. Pliny and others say it is Iceland. Una (u´nÄ).—FaËrie Queene, Spenser. The personification of truth. She goes, leading a lamb and riding on a white ass, to the court of Gloriana, to crave that one of her knights might undertake to slay the dragon which kept her father and mother prisoners. The adventure is accorded to the Red Cross Knight. Being driven by a storm into Wandering Wood, a vision is sent to the knight which causes him to leave Una, and she goes in search of him. In her wanderings a lion becomes her attendant. After many adventures, she finds St. George, “the Red Cross Knight,” but he is severely wounded. Una takes him to the House of Holiness, where he is carefully nursed, and then leads him to Eden. Uncle Tom’s Cabin.—A work of fiction by Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe. It had an enormous sale, and at once made the author famous. As a picture of slave life as it once obtained in the Southern states of America it is certainly unsurpassed. The scenes described in it are so terrible that Mrs. Stowe deemed it advisable to publish in 1853 a Key to the work, showing the large extent to which it is founded upon fact. The hero is, of course, Uncle Tom. Uncle Tom was an old negro slave of unaffected piety, and most faithful in the discharge of all his duties. His master, a humane man, becomes embarrassed Urganda (Ör-gÄn´dÄ).—In the romance of Amadis de Gaul, a powerful fairy sometimes appearing in all the terrors of an evil enchantress. Uriel (u´ri-el), or Israfil.—In the Koran, the angel who is to sound the resurrection trumpet. Longfellow, in The Golden Legend, calls him “the minister of Mars,” and says that he inspires man with “fortitude to bear the brunt and suffering of life.” Uther (u´ther).—Son of Constans, one of the fabulous or legendary kings of Britain, and the father of Arthur. Utopia (u-tÖ´pi-Ä).—The name of an imaginary island described in the celebrated work of Sir Thomas More, in which was found the utmost perfection in laws, politics, and social arrangements. More’s romance obtained a wide popularity, and the epithet Utopian has since been applied to schemes for the improvement of society which are deemed not practicable. Uzziel.—In Paradise Lost, the next in command to Gabriel. The word means “God’s strength.” V Valentine (val´en-tin).—(1) One of the heroes in the old romance of Valentine and Orson. (2) One of the Two Gentlemen of Verona, by Shakespeare. (3) A gentleman attending on the duke in Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night. (4) One of the characters in Goethe’s Faust. He is a brother of Margaret. Valerian (va-le´ri-an).—Canterbury Tales, Chaucer. The husband of St. Cecilia. Cecilia told him she was beloved by an angel, who constantly visited her; and Valerian requested to see this visitant. Cecilia replied that he could do so if he went to Pope Urban to be baptized. This he did, and on returning home the angel gave him a crown of lilies, and to Cecilia a crown of roses, both from the garden of paradise. Valley of Humiliation.—Pilgrim’s Progress, Bunyan. The place where Christian encountered Apollyon, just before he came to the “Valley of the Shadow of Death.” Vanity Fair.—A novel without a hero, by Thackeray. “There are scenes of all sorts,” says the author in his preface to the work, “some dreadful combats, some grand and lofty horse-riding, some scenes of high life and some of very middling indeed, some love making for the sentimental, and some light comic business; the whole accompanied by appropriate scenery, and brilliantly illuminated by the author’s own candle.” Vathek (vath´ek).—By Beckford. Originally written in French. “It was composed,” says the author, “at twenty-two years of age. It took me three days and two nights of hard labor. I never took off my clothes the whole time.” The description of the Hall of Eblis, which is often quoted, was taken, it appears, from the old hall at Fonthill, Beckford’s residence, probably the largest in any private house in England. “It was from that hall I worked, magnifying and coloring it with Eastern character. All the female characters were portraits drawn from the domestic establishment of old Fonthill, their good or evil qualities ideally exaggerated to suit my purpose.” Vathek was translated into English, it is not known by whom, immediately on its appearance. “It was one of the tales,” says Byron, “I had a very early admiration of. For correctness of costume, beauty of description, and power of imagination, it far surpasses all European imitations, and bears such marks of originality that those who have visited the East will find some difficulty in believing it to be more than a translation.” Veck, Toby.—The Chimes, Dickens. A ticket-porter who went on errands and bore the nickname Trotty. One New Year’s eve he had a nightmare and fancied he had mounted to the steeple of a neighboring church, and that goblins issued out of the bells. He was roused from his sleep by the sound of the bells ringing in the new year. Veiled Prophet.—Lalla Rookh, Moore. He assumed to be a god, and maintained that he had been Adam, Noah, and other representative men. Having lost an eye, and being otherwise disfigured in battle, he wore a veil to conceal his face, but his followers said it was done to screen his dazzling brightness. Vernon, Di, or Diana.—Rob Roy, Scott. The heroine of the story, a high-born girl of great beauty and talents. She is an enthusiastic adherent to a persecuted religion and an exiled king. Vicar of Wakefield.—A novel by Goldsmith. The hero is Dr. Primrose, a simple-minded, pious clergyman, with six children. He begins life with a good fortune, a handsome house, and wealthy friends, but is reduced to poverty without any fault of his own, and, being reduced like Job, like Job he is restored. Vincentio (vin-sen´shio).—The duke of Vienna in Shakespeare’s Measure for Measure. He commits his scepter to Angelo, under the pretext of being called to take an urgent and distant journey, and by exchanging the royal purple for a monk’s hood, observes incognito the condition of his people. Vincy (vin´si), Rosamond.—One of the principal female characters in George Eliot’s novel Middlemarch. Viola. (vi´o-lÄ)—Twelfth Night, Shakespeare. A sister of Sebastian. They were twins, and so much alike that they could be distinguished only by their dress. When they were shipwrecked Viola was brought to shore by the captain, but her brother was left to shift for himself. Being in a strange land, Viola dressed as a page, and, under the name of Cesario, entered the service of Orsino, duke of Illyria. The duke greatly liked his beautiful page, and, when he discovered her true sex, married her. Violenta.—All’s Well That Ends Well, Shakespeare. A character in the play who enters upon the scene only once, and then she neither speaks nor is spoken to. The name has been used to designate any young lady nonentity; one who contributes nothing to the amusement or conversation of a party. Virgilia (ver-jil´i-Ä).—In Shakespeare’s Coriolanus, was the wife of Coriolanus, and Volumnia his mother; but historically Volumnia was his wife and Veturia his mother. Virginia (ver-jin´i-Ä).—A young Roman plebeian of great beauty, decoyed by Appius Claudius, one of the decemvirs, and claimed as his slave. Her father, Virginius, being told of it, hastened to the forum, and arrived at the moment when Virginia was about to be delivered up to Appius. He seized a butcher’s knife, stabbed his daughter to the heart, rushed from the forum, and raised a revolt. This has been the subject of a host of tragedies. It is one of Lord Macauley’s lays (1842), supposed to be sung in the forum on the day when Sextus and Licinius were elected tribunes for the fifth time. Vivian (viv´i-an), or Viviane, or Vivien.—In the Arthurian cycle of romance, an enchantress, the mistress of Merlin. She brought up Lancelot in her palace, which was situated in the midst of a magical lake; hence her name “the Lady of the Lake.” Volpone (vol-po´ne), or the Fox.—A comedy by Ben Jonson, written in 1605. Hazlitt calls it his best play; prolix and improbable, but intense and powerful. It seems formed on the model of Plautus in unity of plot and interest. The principal character is represented as a wealthy sensualist, who tests the character of his friends and kinsmen by a variety of strategems, obtains from them a large addition to his riches by the success of his impostures, and finally falls under the vengeance of the law. “Volpone,” says Campbell, “is not, like the common misers of comedy, a mere money-loving dotard, a hard, shriveled old mummy, with no other spice than his avarice to preserve him—he is a happy villain, a jolly misanthrope, a little god in his own selfishness; and Mosca is his priest and prophet. Vigorous and healthy, though past the prime of life, he hugs himself in his harsh humor, his successful knavery and imposture, his sensuality and his wealth, with an unhallowed relish of selfish existence.” W Wallenstein (vÄl´len-stin).—A trilogy by Schiller, comprising Wallenstein’s Lager, Die Piccolomini, and Wallenstein’s Tod. Schiller conceives his hero in these dramas as the type of the practical realist, serious, solitary, and reserved. Wandering Jew, The—(F. Le Juif Errant).—A novel by Eugene Sue. The chief character is an imaginary person in a legend connected with the history of Christ’s passion. As the Savior was on the way to the place of execution, overcome with the weight of the cross, he wished to rest on a stone before the house of a Jew, who drove him away with curses. Driven by fear and remorse, he has since wandered, according to the command of the Lord, from place to place, and has never yet been able to find a grave. War and Peace.—An historical novel by Tolstoi, published 1865-1868. The scene is laid in the time of the Czar Alexander I., and the novel is a picture of Russian society during the Russo-French wars. Waverley (wa´ver-li) Novels.—General name given to Scott’s historical novels. Wayside Inn, Tales of a.—Poems in various meters by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. The first series includes a Prelude (The Wayside Inn), the Landlord’s Weller (wel´er), Sam.—In Dickens’ celebrated Pickwick Papers. A servant to Mr. Pickwick, to whom he becomes devotedly attached. Rather than leave his master when he is sent to the Fleet, Sam Weller gets his father to arrest him for debt. He is an inimitable compound of wit, simplicity, quaint humor, and fidelity. Tony Weller, father of Sam; a coachman of the old school, who drives between London and Dorking. On the coachbox he is a king, elsewhere a mere London “cabby.” He marries a widow, and his constant advice to his son is, “Sam, beware of the vidders.” Westward Ho!—A novel by Charles Kingsley, the scene of which is laid in “the spacious times of great Elizabeth,” when the safety of England was threatened by the Spanish armada. Several historical personages figure in the story, such as Sir Walter Raleigh, Sir Richard Grenville, Admiral Hawkins, and Sir Francis Drake; and the narrative carries the reader from Bideford to London, and from thence to Ireland, to the Spanish main, and the South American continent, back again to Bideford and Plymouth, whence the hero, Amyas Leigh, sails to take part in the famous sea-fight. Wild (wild), Jonathan.—A cool, calculating, heartless villain, with the voice of a Stentor, hero of Defoe’s romance of the same name. Wilford.—(1) In Knowles’ The Hunchback, supposed to be earl of Rochdale. (2) In Knowles’ The Beggar of Bethnal Green, the truant son of Lord Woodville, who fell in love with Bess, the daughter of the “blind beggar of Bethnal Green.” Wilhelm Meister (vil´helm mis´ter).—Title of a philosophic novel by Goethe. The object is to show that man, despite his errors and shortcomings, is led by a guiding hand, and reaches some higher aim at last. This is considered to be the first true German novel. Wimble (wim´bl), Will.—A member of the fictitious Spectator Club, said to be intended as a portrait of a Mr. Thomas Morecroft, a gentleman of simple habits and good nature. Winter’s Tale, The.—A play by Shakespeare. LeontÊs, King of Sicily, invites his friend PolixenÊs to visit him, becomes jealous, and commands Camillo to poison him. Camillo warns PolixenÊs, and flees with him to Bohemia. LeontÊs casts his queen, HermionÊ, into prison, where she gives birth to a daughter. HermoinÊ is reported dead and the child is brought up by a shepherd, who calls it Perdita. Florizel sees Perdita and falls in love with her; but PolixenÊs, his father, tells her that she and the shepherd shall be put to death if she encourages the suit. Florizel and Perdita flee to Sicily, and being introduced to LeontÊs, it is soon discovered that Perdita is his lost daughter. PolixenÊs tracks his son to Sicily, and consents to the union. The party are invited to inspect a statue of HermoinÊ, and the statue turns out to be the living queen. Worldly-Wiseman, Mr.—One of the characters in Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, who converses with Christian by the way, and endeavors to deter him from proceeding on his journey. Wrayburn (ra´bern) Eugene.—Our Mutual Friend, Dickens. Barrister-at-law; an indolent, moody, whimsical young man, who loves Lizzie Hexam. After he is nearly killed by Bradley Headstone, he reforms and marries Lizzie, who saved his life. Y Yahoo (y?-hÖ´).—A name given by Swift, in his satirical romance of Gulliver’s Travels, to one of a race of brutes having the form and all the vices of man. The Yahoos are represented as being subject to the Houyhnhnms, or horses endowed with reason. Yorick (yor´ik).—(1) The King of Denmark’s jester, mentioned in Shakespeare’s Hamlet. Hamlet picks up his skull in the churchyard and apostrophizes it. (2) A humorous and careless parson in Sterne’s Tristram Shandy. Z Zadig.—The title of a novel by Voltaire. Zadig is a wealthy young Babylonian, and the object of the novel is to show that the events of life are beyond human control. Zanoni (za-no´ni).—Hero of a novel, so-called, by Lord Lytton. Zanoni is supposed to possess the power of communicating with spirits, prolonging life, and producing gold, silver, and precious stones. Zara (zÄ´rÄ; French, zaire), a tragedy by Voltaire. Zara is the daughter of Lusignan d’Outremer, king of Jerusalem and brother of Nerestan. For twenty years Lusignan and his two children were captives at the court of the sultan Osman. The latter loves Zara, and was jealous of Nerestan, of whose relationship he was ignorant, and stabbed her to the heart. Nerestan being brought before the sultan, told him he had slain his sister. Osman then stabbed himself out of remorse. Zenobia (ze-no´bi-Ä).—Blithedale Romance, Hawthorne. A strong-minded woman, beautiful and intelligent, who was interested in playing out the pastoral of the life at Brook Farm. She is represented as disappointed in love, and at last she drowned herself. Zephon.—A “strong and subtle spirit” in Milton’s Paradise Lost, whom Gabriel dispatched with Ithuriel to find Satan. Zillah.—One of Southey’s characters, beloved by Hamuel, a brutish sot. Zillah rejected his suit, and Hamuel vowed vengeance. Accordingly, he gave out that Zillah had intercourse with the devil, and she was condemned to be burnt alive. God averted the flames, which consumed Hamuel; but Zillah stood unharmed, and the stake to which she was bound threw forth white roses, “the first ever seen on earth since paradise was lost.” Zimri (zim´ri).—In Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel, is intended for George Villiers, duke of Buckingham, who had satirized Dryden in The Rehearsal as Bayes. Zophiel (zo´fi-el).—In Milton’s Paradise Lost, an angelic scout. Zuleika (zu-le´kÄ).—The heroine in Byron’s poem of The Bride of Abydos, in love with Selim: “Fair, as the first that fell of womankind... Soft, as the memory of buried love; Pure, as the prayer which childhood wafts above: Such was Zuleika—such around her shone The nameless charms unmark’d by her alone: The light of love, the purity of grace, The mind, the music breathing from her face, The heart whose softness harmonized the whole— And, oh! that eye was in itself a soul!” This beautiful Roman temple, said to have been erected by Agrippa in 27 B. C, was dedicated to all the gods of Greece and Rome. It is lighted by a single aperture in the center of its magnificent dome. (See illustration on next page.) GODS, HEROES AND MYTHICAL WONDER TALESA myth is a story told about gods or heroes. Mythology is a term applied to the collected myths of a nation or people, sometimes to the scientific study of myths. The first to busy itself in a large sense with mythology was the Greeks, whose myths had the most luxuriant and fanciful development. When the Romans received the arts and sciences from the Greeks, they adopted also their gods and their entire religious system. Thus it was that the Greek and Roman mythologies were to a great extent the same. 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| PSYCHE’S PARENTS CONSULT THE ORACLE | A ZEPHYR BORE PSYCHE FROM THE EARTH |
| BURNING OIL FELL ON CUPID’S SHOULDER | A FISHERMAN SHELTERS PSYCHE | SHE OPENED THE BOX |
PSYCHE’S SISTERS ASKED WHAT SORT OF A PERSON HER HUSBAND WAS
| VENUS AND PSYCHE BECOME RECONCILED | “DRINK THIS, PSYCHE, AND BE IMMORTAL” |
THE MARRIAGE OF CUPID AND PSYCHE
This symbolical picture represents the conscious union of the Soul of Man, figured as a young girl (Psyche), with the divine Spirit of Love (Cupid). Their starry or celestial environment signifies the emergence of the soul from matter into a permanent, uninterrupted or eternal life. The beautiful Greek story as a whole is simply an allegory describing the fall of the soul of man into earthly conditions; the labors and pains there undergone in order that, refined and redeemed, it may once more be raised into the heavenly world.
Semele (sem´el-e).—Daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia, and mother, by Jupiter, of Bacchus. Juno, actuated by jealousy, persuaded her to ask Jupiter to appear before her in his terrible majesty as king of heaven. Having promised to grant whatever she desired, Jupiter did so; but warned her of the danger she would incur. The result was that she was consumed by the lightning; but Jupiter saved her child Bacchus.
Serapis (se-ra´pis).—An Egyptian divinity (male), whose worship was introduced into Rome, together with that of Isis, toward the end of the republic.
Seven Sages.—Same as Seven Wise Men of Greece (q.v.).
Seven Wise Men of Greece.—The title applied to seven Greeks of the sixth century B.C., who were distinguished for their practical wisdom and their terse maxims or principles of life. Their names are as follows: Bias, Chilo, Cleobulus, Periander (in place of whom some give Epimenides), Pittacus, Solon and Thales. They were the authors of the following famous mottoes, inscribed in later times in the temple of Apollo at Delphi: “Most men are bad,” Bias; “Consider the end,” Chilo; “Avoid excess,” Cleobulus; “Nothing is impossible to industry,” Periander; “Know thy opportunity,” Pittacus; “Know thyself,” Solon; “Suretyship is the precursor of ruin,” Thales.
Seven Wonders of the World.—A name applied to seven very remarkable objects of the ancient world. They are usually given as follows:
(i) The Pyramids of Egypt.
(ii) The Pharos (fa´ros) of Alexandria, which was a lofty lighthouse built by Ptolemy II. on the island of the same name, just opposite to Alexandria and united to it by a mole.
(iii) The walls and hanging gardens of Babylon. The walls are described under “Ninus.” The hanging gardens of Nebuchadnezzar were laid out upon terraces, which were raised one above another on arches.
(iv) The Temple of Diana at Ephesus.
(v) The colossal statue of the Olympian Jupiter by Phidias. It was made of ivory and gold, and the god was represented as seated on a throne of cedar wood, adorned with gold, ivory, ebony and precious stones.
(vi) The mausoleum of Artemisia.
(vii) The Colossus of Rhodes.
SibyllÆ (si-bil´le), or Sibyls.—Prophetesses, supposed to be ten in number. The most famous of them is the CumÆan, who was consulted by Æneas before he descended into the lower world and gave him the sop to throw to Cerberus, which, when he had devoured it, threw him into a deep sleep and so enabled Æneas to slip by.
SichÆus (si-ke´us).—Dido’s uncle and husband; often called Acerbas. He was murdered by Pygmalion, Dido’s brother.
Silenus (si-le´nus).—A name specially applied to a satyr (q.v.) who brought up and instructed Bacchus and was his constant companion. He is described as a bald-headed, jovial old man, generally intoxicated, and hence unable to trust his own legs to carry him safely. He generally rode on an ass. He possessed prophetic powers, which he could be made to exercise by surrounding him with chains of flowers while he was drunk and asleep.
Silvanus (sil-va´nus).—A Latin deity presiding over woods and forests.
Sinon (sin´on).—Son of Æsimus, who allowed the Trojans to take him prisoner, and then persuaded them to take the famous wooden horse into their city. See “Troy.”
Sirenes (si-re´nez), or Sirens (si´renz).—Sea nymphs, three in number, who had the power of enticing mariners to their destruction on dangerous rocks by their sweet music. In order to get his ship away in safety from them, Ulysses stuffed the ears of his companions with wax and then tied himself to the mast of the vessel, and did not release himself till he could no longer hear their charming voices. They dwelt on an island near the southwest coast of Italy.
Sisyphus (sis´i-fus).—Son of Æolus and king of Corinth; notorious for his avarice and deceit. His punishment in the lower world was to roll to the top of a hill a huge marble block, which no sooner reached the top than it rolled down again: hence a never-ending punishment.
Siva.—The third of the Hindu triad of divinities, who, among a thousand names, bears also that of Mahadeva. The greatest confusion exists as to his attributes; now he is said to be the destroyer, and now the creative principle.
Somnus (som´nus).—The god of sleep; was a son of Night and a brother of Death.
Soracte (so-rak´te).—A high mountain, near the Tiber, in Etruria, on the summit of which was a temple of Apollo.
Specter of the Brocken.—Among German myths, a singular colossal apparition seen in the clouds, at certain times of the day, by those who ascend the Brocken, or Blocksberg, the highest peak of the Hartz mountains.
Sphinx (sfingks).—A she-monster, who proposed a riddle to the Thebans, and murdered all who failed to guess it (see “Œdipus”). In works of art she is represented with a woman’s bust on the body of a lioness. The word Sphinx (Gr.) means the Throttler, from her manner of killing her victims.
Stentor (sten´tor).—A Grecian herald in the Trojan war. His voice was as loud as that of fifty ordinary men together: hence our word stentorian.
Stheno.—See “Gorgons.”
Stymphalus (stim-fa´lus).—A town in Arcadia; the haunt of the terrible birds slain by Hercules. See “Hercules (vi).”
Styx (stiks)—i. e., “the hateful, horrible” (Gr.).—The principal river of the lower world, around which it flows seven times. Charon (q.v.) ferried the souls of the departed across it. By the Styx the gods swore their most sacred oaths.
Surya.—The sun-god, according to the Hindu Veda, whose car is drawn by seven green horses, the charioteer being Dawn.
Sybaris (sib´ar-is).—A Greek town in Lucania, notorious for the luxury of its inhabitants: hence our word Sybarite.
Syphax (sif´ax).—King of one of the tribes of the Numidians. See “Sophonisba.”
Syrinx (si´rinks).—A nymph, who, being pursued by Pan, was metamorphosed into a reed, of which Pan then made his shepherd’s pipe, usually called Pan’s pipe.
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Tantalus (tan´ta-lus).—Son of Jupiter and the nymph Pluto; father of Pelops and Niobe. Having divulged some of his father’s secrets, he received a terrible punishment in the lower world. He was made to stand up to his chin in water, being at the same time afflicted with a raging thirst, and over his head hung branches of tempting fruit, yet when he attempted to drink the waters receded from him, and when he would pluck the fruit the branches immediately sprang out of his reach. Moreover, a huge rock was suspended above his head, threatening every moment to crush him. (Hence our word tantalize, meaning to torment by holding out hopes or prospects which cannot be realized.)
Tarpeia (tar-pe´ya).—Daughter of the governor of the Roman citadel: was tempted by the gold bracelets of the Sabines, who, in the time of Romulus, were besieging the fortress, to treacherously open one of the gates. As they rushed in they threw their shields upon her and crushed her to death. The Tarpeian Rock (tar-pe´yan), from which criminals were hurled headlong, was named after her.
Tartarus (tar´ta-rus).—The place of punishment of the wicked in the lower world, as opposed to the Elysian Fields, the abode of the blessed. Sometimes it means the lower world generally.
Taygete (ta-ij´et-e).—Daughter of Atlas and Pleione, one of the Pleiones.
Tecmessa (tek-mes´sa).—Daughter of Teleutas, king of Phrygia, and mistress of Ajax the Great.
Telamon (tel´a-mon).—Son of Æacus and brother of Peleus. He was king of Salamis and father of Ajax the Great (or Telamonius) and of Teucer, the celebrated archer. He was one of the Argonauts, and took part in the Calydonian boar hunt.
Telegonus (te-leg´on-us).—Son of Ulysses and Circe. He killed his father without knowing it. See “Ulysses.”
Telemachus (te-lem´ak-us).—Son of Ulysses (q.v.) and Penelope.
Telephus (te´le-fus).—Son of Hercules and king of Mysia. He married Laodice, daughter of Priam, king of Troy. He was wounded by the spear of Achilles, but was afterward cured by its rust.
Tenedos (ten´e-dos).—A small island in the Ægean Sea, off the coast of Troas. Hither the Greeks brought their fleet when they pretended to sail away from Troy (q.v.).
Tereus (te´rus).—Son of Mars, king of Thrace and husband of Procne, by whom he became the father of Itys. He hid Procne and married Philomela (q.v.). Procne killed her son Itys and served him up in a dish to Tereus. She then fled with her sister Philomela. Procne was afterwards changed into a swallow, Philomela into a nightingale, and Tereus into a hawk.
Terpsichore.—See “MusÆ.”
Tethys (te´this).—Wife of Oceanus and mother of the sea-nymphs and sea-gods.
Teucer (tu´ser).—(i) Brother of Ajax the Great, and the most skillful archer among the Greeks before Troy. (ii) The first king of Troy: whence the Trojans are sometimes called Teucri.
Thalia.—See “MusÆ.”
Themis (them´is).—The goddess of justice and of prophecy. She is generally represented holding a cornucopia and a pair of scales.
Thersites (ther-si´tez).—A Greek before Troy, notorious for his ugliness and scurrility. He was killed by Achilles.
Theseus (the´sus).—The great legendary hero of Attica; was the son of Ægeus, king of Athens, and of Æthra. He went of his own accord as part of the yearly tribute of Athens to the Minotaur (q.v.). Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, however, fell in love with the hero, and gave him a sword wherewith he slew the monster, and a clue of threads by means of which he found his way out of the labyrinth. Theseus then sailed away in company with Ariadne, but he abandoned her (see “Ariadne”) in the island of Naxos. When approaching Attica, he forgot to hoist the white sail, as a token of success, and so caused the death of his father (see “Ægeus”). Theseus thus became king of Athens. His life was full of adventure. He was an Argonaut, and took part in the Calydonian boar hunt. His friendship with Pirithous is proverbial. He even accompanied Pirithous into the lower world with the object of carrying off Proserpine (see “Pirithous”). On his return from the lower world he found himself unable to re-establish himself as king of Athens, and retired to the island of Scyros, where he was killed by Lycomedes, the king, who treacherously thrust him down a rock.
Thetis (thet´is).—A sea-nymph; daughter of Nereus and Doris, wife of Peleus and mother of Achilles. At her wedding with Peleus occurred the celebrated incident of the Golden Apple (see “Paris”).
Thisbe (this´be).—A beautiful maiden of Babylon, beloved by Pyramus (pi´ra-mus).—Their parents being averse to their union, they used to converse secretly through a hole in the wall, as they lived in adjoining houses. Once they agreed to meet at the tomb of Ninus. Thisbe arrived first, but perceiving a lioness devouring an ox, she took flight. While running she lost her garment, which the lioness seized and soiled with blood. Meanwhile Pyramus came on the scene, and finding her garment soiled with blood, he imagined that she had been slain, and killed himself. Thisbe returned later, and finding the dead body of her lover killed herself also.
Thor.—In Scandinavian mythology the eldest son of Odin and Frigga; strongest and bravest of the gods. He launched the thunder, presided over the air and
Thyone (thi-o´ne).—The name given to Semele when she was brought from the lower world by her son Bacchus and placed among the immortals.
Tiresias (ti-res´i-as).—A celebrated blind soothsayer of Thebes. He was blind from his seventh year; but lived to a great age. He was one of the most famous soothsayers in all antiquity.
Tiryns (ti´rins).—A town in Argolis; one of the most ancient in all Greece, where Hercules was brought up. Remains of the city are still to be seen.
Tisiphone.—See “FuriÆ.”
Titanes (ti-ta´nez).—The Titans; the six sons and six daughters of Uranus (Heaven) and Ge (Earth), who contended with Jupiter for the sovereignty of heaven, but were overcome by him and precipitated into Tartarus.
Tithonus (ti-tho´nus).—Son of Laomedon and brother of Priam. He was beloved by the goddess Aurora, who endowed him with immortality, but not with eternal youth. Consequently, with the gradual decay of nature, he became at length a decrepit old man, whose immortality with ever-weakening physical vigor became a terrible burden to him. Aurora eventually changed him into a grasshopper.
Trimurti.—The name of the Hindu triad of deities; or Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva united in one god-head, and spoken of as an inseparable unity.
Triptolemus (trip-tol´em-us).—Son of Celeus, king of Eleusis. He was the favorite of Ceres, and the inventor of the plow and agriculture: hence introduced civilization, which follows the latter. He introduced the worship of Ceres.
Triton (tri´ton).—A sea-god; son of Neptune, who blows through a shell to calm the sea. He is represented with a man’s head and body, the lower part being that of a fish.
Troas (tro´as).—The region about Troy (or Ilium), forming one of the five parts into which Mysia, a district occupying the northwest corner of Asia Minor, was divided. Troas is frequently called The Troad.
Troilus (tro´il-us).—Son of Priam and Hecuba; slain by Achilles.
Troja (tro´ja), or Troy, called by the Greeks Ilium (i´li-um).—A city of Asia Minor, situated in the Troad, famous for its ten years’ siege by the Greeks. The name Troy was derived from king Tros (tros), who gave his name originally to the district (Troas) and the people; Ilium from Ilus, son of Tros, who founded the city—which, however, was also called, after his father, Troy. The Trojan war forms the subject of Homer’s immortal poem, the Iliad. The history of this celebrated war may be briefly told as follows: The war arose from the abduction of Helen, wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta, and the most beautiful woman of her time, by Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy. The cause of her abduction is given under “Paris” and “Helen.” All the chiefs of Greece, who had been former suitors of Helen, joined Menelaus in an expedition to Troy to bring her back. They accordingly massed all their forces and sailed for the coast of Troas. Even the gods took an active part in the contest: Juno and Minerva, owing to the judgment of Paris, were hostile to the Trojans, and accordingly sided with the Greeks; while Venus, to whom Paris had awarded the golden apple, took the side of the Trojans. The innumerable incidents of the siege itself must be passed over; only the remarkable way in which, after a ten years’ siege, the city was finally taken, must be told. The city contained an ancient statue of Pallas (i. e. Minerva), called the Palladium, (q.v.) on the preservation of which the safety of the city was supposed to depend. Accordingly the Greeks make a night attack on Troy, and Ulysses and Diomedes succeeded in carrying off this Palladium. A little later the Greeks returned to their ships and sailed away, pretending that they had relinquished the siege. On the plain before the city, however, they left behind them the celebrated wooden horse, the invention of Ulysses, which was hollowed out in the interior sufficiently to admit of the presence of its wily inventor and a few other heroes within it. Meanwhile Sinon, a relation of Ulysses, had allowed himself to be taken prisoner by the Trojans, and then persuaded them to draw this wooden horse, which he pretended was an atonement for the Palladium, into the city. They foolishly believed him and dragged the horse into the city, and in the dead of night Sinon let the Greeks out of the horse, and they at once set fire to the city. Meanwhile the main body of the Greeks, who had gone no farther than the island of Tenedos, returned and rushed through the gates of the city, opened by their friends within, and in this way the city was taken. The date most generally accepted for the capture of Troy is B.C. 1184.
Trolls.—Dwarfs of Northern mythology, living in hills or mounds; they are represented as stumpy, misshapen, and humpbacked, inclined to thieving, and fond of carrying off children or substituting one of their own offspring for that of a human mother. They are called hill-people, and are especially averse to noise, from a recollection of the time when Thor used to fling his hammer after them.
Tydeus (ti´des).—Son of Œneus, king of Calydon, and father of Diomedes, who was one of the principal Greek heroes at the Trojan war. Hence Diomedes is often called by his patronymic Tydides (ti-di´dez).
Tyndareus (tin´dar-us).—King of Sparta and husband of Leda. He invited Menelaus to come to Sparta, and handed over the kingdom to him.
Typhoeus (ti-fo´us), or Typhon (ti´fon).—A giant who wished to acquire the sovereign power over gods and men, but was overcome with a thunderbolt from Jupiter and buried under Mount Ætna.
Tyr.—In Norse mythology, a warrior deity, and the protector of champions and brave men; he was also noted for his sagacity. When the gods wished to bind the wolf Fenrir, Tyr put his hand into the demon’s mouth as a pledge that the bonds should be removed again. But Fenrir found that the gods had no intention of keeping their word, and revenged himself in some degree by biting the hand off. Tyr was the son of Odin and brother of Thor.
U
Ulin.—An enchantress, who had no power over those who remained faithful to Allah and their duty; but if any fell into error or sin, she had full power to do as she liked. Thus, when Misnar (sultan of India) mistrusted the protection of Allah, she transformed him into a toad. When the Vizier Horam believed a false report, obviously untrue, she transformed him also into a toad. And when the Princess Hemjunah, to avoid a marriage projected by her father, ran away with a stranger, her indiscretion placed her in the power of the enchantress, who transformed her likewise into a toad. Ulin was ultimately killed by Misnar, sultan of Delhi, who felled her to the ground with a blow.
Ulysses (u-lis´ez), or Ulixes (u-lix´ez); called Odysseus (od-is´sus) by the Greeks.—A king of Ithaca, famed among the Grecian heroes of the Trojan war for his craft and eloquence; the son of Laertes, husband of Penelope, and father of Telemachus and Telegonus (by Circe). In order to escape from going with the other Greek heroes against Troy, he feigned madness, ploughing the sea-shore with a horse and bull yoked together and sowing salt. The imposture, however, was laid bare by Palamedes (q.v.), who placed Telemachus, the infant son of Ulysses, in the furrow, when the latter at once turned aside the plough; but the wily Ulysses had his revenge on Palamedes. Ulysses, in his turn, sought out and obtained the indispensable assistance of Achilles (q.v.). At the siege of Troy his cunning and valor were of the greatest service to the Greeks. In company with Diomedes he slew the horses of Rhesus, and also carried off the Palladium (q.v.). Perhaps the crowning effort of his ingenuity was the invention of the famous wooden horse, by means of which the city of Troy (q.v.) was ultimately taken by the Greeks. After the taking of Troy Ulysses set out for Ithaca, which, however, he did not reach for twenty years. During this time he passed through the adventures which form the subject of Homer’s glorious poem, the Odyssey, which takes its name from Odysseus, the Greek name for Ulysses. He thus visited Circe (q.v.), Polyphemus (q.v.), the Lotophagi, and other persons and places. In order to get safely past the island of the Sirens, he, with his usual sagacity, devised special means, which proved entirely successful (see “Sirens”). He lost six of his companions while sailing between Scylla (q.v.) and Charybdis. He then suffered shipwreck, he alone escaping by means of the mast and planks. In ten days he was drifted on to the island of Ogygia, inhabited by Calypso (q.v.), with whom he stayed for eight years. He then constructed a raft, and made his way to the island of Scheria (q.v.), whence he obtained a ship that carried him to Ithaca. He did not, however, make himself known at once to his wife and son. In order to see how the land lay, he disguised himself
Urania (u-ra´ni-a).—The muse of astronomy. See “MusÆ.”
Uranus (u´ra-nus), or Heaven.—Husband of GÆa (Earth), and father of Oceanus, Hyperion, Rhea, Themis, Cronos, and other children. At the instigation of GÆa he was dethroned by Cronos.
Utgard-Loki.—The chief of the giants, in Norse mythology.
V
Varuna, or Vrauna.—In Hindu mythology, the deity who presides over the waters of the ocean, corresponding with Neptune of classic mythology.
Valhalla.—In Scandinavian mythology the palace of immortality wherein are received the souls of heroes slain in battle.
Valkyrs.—The battle-maidens of Scandinavian mythology. They were mounted on swift horses and held drawn swords. They rushed into battle and selected those destined to death and conducted them to Valhalla. The number of Valkyrs differs greatly according to the various mythologists and ranges from three to sixteen, the greater part of them, however, naming only nine.
Venus (ve´nus); called by the Greeks Aphrodite (af-ro-di´te)—i. e. “sea-foam.”—The goddess of love and beauty. She was supposed to have sprung from the foam of the sea: hence her Greek name. She was the wife of Vulcan, but was very unfaithful to him. She loved the gods Mars, Bacchus, Neptune and Mercury, and the mortals Adonis and Anchises. She was considered by Paris (q.v.) the most beautiful of the goddesses and had awarded to her the celebrated Golden Apple. Anyone who wore her magic girdle immediately became beautiful and the object of love and desire. She is generally accompanied by her son Cupid. The month of April, as the commencement of spring, was considered peculiarly sacred to the goddess of love. The myrtle, rose, apple and poppy, and the sparrow, dove, swan and swallow, were all sacred to her. She was probably originally identical with Astarte, a Syrian goddess, called by the Hebrews Ashtoreth. As might have been anticipated, the representation of the Queen of Beauty on canvas and in marble has resulted in some of the finest works of the most celebrated painters and sculptors of antiquity. Among the former, Apelles’ masterpiece of Venus rising from the sea deserves special mention; and among the latter the “Cnidian Venus” (so called because it stood in her temple at Cnidus), by Praxiteles, is unquestionably the most famous. Phryne (q.v.) sat as model for both of these noble works of art. The fame of the “Cnidian Venus” was so great that travelers from all parts of the civilized world resorted to Cnidus in order to see it. In fact, Pliny and others declared it to be the finest statue in the world. The “Venus of Milo” is, however, the noblest extant representation of Venus. It was found, in 1820, in the island of Melos, the modern Milo (hence the epithet), which is one of the group of islands named the Cyclades, in the Ægean Sea. It now forms one of the treasures of the Louvre, Paris.
Vertumnus (ver-tum´nus).—The god of the changing year—that is, of the seasons and their productions. His festival was celebrated by the whole Roman people on the 23rd of August.
Vesta (ves´ta); called by the Greeks Hestia (hes´ti-a)—i. e. “the hearth.”—One of the twelve great Roman deities, the goddess and guardian of the hearth and home. She was the daughter of Saturn and Rhea. In her temple in the Forum at Rome stood no statue, the goddess being represented by the eternal fire burning on her altar as her abiding symbol. This fire was kept up and attended to by a number of virgin priestesses, called Vestals, who were chaste and pure like the goddess herself. On March 1 in every year the sacred fire was renewed, and on June 15 her temple was cleaned and purified.
Vidar.—The Scandinavian god of wisdom, noted for his thick shoes, and not infrequently called “The god with the thick shoes.”
Vishnu.—In Hindu mythology one of the great deities of the Hindu triad, ranking as the Preserver, after Brahma, the Creator, and before Siva, the Destroyer. It is believed that he has appeared on earth nine times, his tenth avatar, or incarnation, having yet to come.
Volumnia (vol-um´ni-a).—Wife of Coriolanus (q.v.).
Vulcanus (vul-ka´nus), or Vulcan; called HephÆstus (he-fes´tus) by the Greeks. The god of fire. He was the son of Jupiter and Juno, and was lame from his birth. Besides being the god of fire, he was master of the arts which need the aid of fire, especially of working in metal. He made all the palaces of the gods on Olympus, the armor of Achilles, the fatal necklace of Harmonia, the fire-breathing and brazen-hoofed bulls of ÆËtes (see “ArgonautÆ”), etc. The Cyclops were his workmen, and his workshops were situated under Mount Ætna in Sicily. Vulcan’s wife was Venus. His favorite abode on the earth was the island of Lemnos. His great festival was celebrated on the 23rd of August.
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White Lady.—In German folk-lore, the ancient Teutonic goddess Holda or Berchta, who was the receiver of the souls of maidens and children, and who still exists as the White Lady, not infrequently, in German legends, transforming herself, or those whom she decoys into her home, into a white mouse.
Wild Huntsman, The.—A spectral hunter in folk-lore, especially in German folk-lore; the subject of a ballad by BÜrger.
Woden (wo´den), or Wotan.—The Anglo-Saxon form of the Scandinavian god Odin; Wednesday is called after him.
Y
Yama.—In the Rigveda, the name of the god who rules in heaven over the blessed—the Manes, Fathers, or Pitris—and is therefore called king.
Yggdrasil.—In Scandinavian mythology the great ash tree which binds together heaven, earth, and hell. Its branches extend over the whole earth, its top reaches heaven, and its roots hell. The three nornas, or fates, sit under the tree, spinning the events of man’s life.
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Zem.—The sacred well of Mecca. According to Arab tradition, this is the very well that was shown to Hagar when with Ishmael in the desert. It is supposed to be in the heart of the city of Mecca.
Zephyrus (zef´i-rus).—The west wind, or properly, the northwest.
Zeus (zus).—See “Jupiter.”
Zohak.—The giant of Persian mythology who keeps the “mouth of hell.” He was the fifth of the Pischdadian dynasty, and was a lineal descendant of ShedÂd, king of Ad. He murdered his predecessor, and invented both flaying men alive and killing them by crucifixion. The devil kissed him on the shoulders, and immediately two serpents grew out of his back and fed constantly upon him. He was dethroned by the famous blacksmith of Ispahan, and appointed by the devil to keep hell-gate.
Zohara.—An oriental queen of love, and mother of mischief. When HarÛt and MarÛt were selected by the host of heaven to be judges on earth, they judged righteous judgment till Zohara, in the shape of a lovely woman, appeared before them with her complaint. They then both fell in love with her and tried to corrupt her, but she flew from them to heaven; and the two angel-judges were forever shut out.
Zulzul.—According to Chinese mythology the sage whose life was saved in the form of a rat by Gedy, the youngest of the four sons of Corcud. Zulzul gave him, in gratitude, two poniards, by the help of which he could climb the highest tree or most inaccessible castle.
EXPLANATORY CHART OF GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY: SHOWING THE ORIGIN, RELATIONSHIP AND DESCENT OF CHIEF MYTHS
The relationship of these mythical personages are quite unlike those of mortals and are full of inconsistencies. To reconcile all the contradictions of the poets and mythologists is impossible. Perhaps this chart is as consistent with their fabulous tales as can well be made.
| CHAOS Produced EREBUS, god of darkness, NOX, goddess of night, and TERRA, Earth. | - | TITAN Oldest of the twelve Titans. | - | - | JUNO, wife and sister of Jupiter, queen of the gods, and of Heaven and Earth. | - | By Them´is. | |||||||||||||
| AstrÆa, the goddess of justice; Nemesis, of vengeance. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| By Juno. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Mars, the god of war; by Venus, Anteros, Harmonia; the goddess of youth; once cupbearer to Jupiter. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| THE CYCLOPS Giants, at first three in number: Arges, Brontes, Steropes. | JUPITER or Zeus, the most powerful of all the gods; king of gods and men, had | Hebe, by her husband Hercules, Alexiares and Anicetus. | ||||||||||||||||||
| Typhon, by the monster Echidna, ChimÆra and Sphinx. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Vulcan, the god of fire and of blacksmiths, and husband of Venus; by his wife Venus, Cupid; by Medusa, Cacus, by Juno, CÆculus. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| By Lato´na. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Apollo, the god of poetry, music, eloquence, medicine, the fine arts, augury, and archery. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Diana, the goddess of hunting, the patroness of chastity, presided also over childbirth. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| By Ma´ia. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| TERRA or TITÆA produced CŒLUS or URANUS, Heaven. | BRIAREUS A famous giant called by men ÆgÆon, and by the gods Braireus. | Mercury, the messenger of the gods, the god of eloquence and commerce, the patron of travellers, thieves, and knaves, and the conductor of the souls of the dead to the infernal regions. By Penelope, Pan. By the Greeks he was called Hermes. | ||||||||||||||||||
| By Mnemos´y-ne. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| The Nine Muses. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| TETHYS Wife of Oceanus; for offspring, see Oceanus |
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| THEA Wife of Hyperion; the mother of rivers, and of about three thousand daughters, called Ocean´i-des. | By Euryn´o-me. | |||||||||||||||||||
| Graces. | ||||||||||||||||||||
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| CŒLUS or URANUS, i.e. Heaven, and TERRA or TITÆA, i.e. Earth. | - | had | SATURN or Cronos, god of Time, had by Rhea same as Ops, same as Cybele. | By Sem´e-le. | ||||||||||||||||
| Bacchus, god of wine; by his wife Ariadne, Thoas, Œnopion, Ceranus, Tauropolis, and others. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| By Metis. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, war, and the liberal and useful arts. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| By Dione. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Venus, said to have been borne in the foam of the sea; the goddess of love and beauty, and mistress of the graces; wife of Vulcan; for offspring, see Vulcan. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| MNEMOSYNE Mother of the nine Muses. | By Ceres. | |||||||||||||||||||
| Pros´erpine, wife of Pluto, queen of hell, presided over death. She was stolen away by Pluto while gathering flowers in Sicily, and became the mother of the Fates and Furies, which see under Dictionary. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| By Euro´pa. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Minos, Rhadamanthus, and Æ´acus, three inflexible judges of Hades. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| THEMIS Mother of AstrÆa, goddess of Justice. |
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| CYBELE OPS or RHEA, wife of Saturn; the goddess of all things; styled Magna Mater or Great Mother, Bona Mater or Good Mother; for off-spring, see Saturn. | By Segesta. | |||||||||||||||||||
| Æolus, whose offspring were the various Winds. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| By Alcmena. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Hercules, whose descendants were the HeraclidÆ. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| VESTA, the goddess of fire, and patroness of Vestal Virgins, who had the care of the sacred fire in the temple of Vesta at Rome, which was kept continually burning. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| CERES, the goddess of corn and harvest. The famous Eleusinian mysteries were celebrated in honor of Ceres, during the representation of which it was death to speak; as it was also to reveal afterwards what took place. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| LATONIA, celebrated for her beauty, and for being greatly beloved by Jupiter and persecuted by Juno. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| NEPTUNE, the god of the sea, the father of rivers and fountains, and, next to Jupiter, the most powerful deity; had by Amphitrite, TRITON, his father’s companion and herald. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| OCEANUS The god of water, to whom the ancients recommended themselves when going on a voyage, had by Tethys. | PLUTO, the god of the infernal regions, of death and funerals; the dog Cer´berus, a frightful mastiff with three heads, and a tail like a serpent, watches at his feet, and three Har´pies, winged monsters, hover about him. | |||||||||||||||||||
| - | AMPHITRITE had by | Neptune | TRITON, who had no offspring. | |||||||||||||||||
| CYLMENE had by | Japetus | ATLAS, also Menoetius, Prometheus, Epimetheus, and others. | ||||||||||||||||||
| PHORCYS had by | Ceto |
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| ACHELOUS had by | Calliope. | The Sirens were three sea nymphs, named Parthen´ope, Lige´ia, and Leuco´sia, having the form of a woman above the waist, and the rest of the body like a flying fish. | ||||||||||||||||||
| The Harpies, viz., Aello, Ocypete, and CelÆus. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| HYPERION, god of the Sun, had by Thea, AURORA, the goddess of the morning; represented riding in a rose-colored chariot drawn by white horses, usually covered with a veil, the morning star appearing overhead. She was called rosy-fingered, because she scattered roses; by Tithon´us, a mortal, she had Memnon and Æmathion. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| JAPETUS, father of mankind, had by Clymene, ATLAS, also Prometheus, Epimetheus, Menoetius, and others, called Japitonides. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| EREBUS and NOX | - | had | - | Light, or Day, Somnus, Mors, and Charon, the Ferryman | - | Nox or Night, Mors or Death, Somnus or Sleep, and Morpheus (the minister of Somnus, who brought dreams to men) were infernal divinities. Momus, god of laughter and satire, son of Somnus and Nox. | ||||||||||||||
| Ancient Roman Sun-god—Janus, the god of the year, presided over the gates of heaven, and over peace and war; represented with two faces. His temple in Rome was open in time of war and shut in time of peace. | ||||||||||||||||||||
SCREENS OF LIGHT CAST BY INVISIBLE ATOMS
IMMENSELY ENLARGED REPRESENTATIONS OF ATOMS
(1) of Ordinary Matter; (2) of Radium
Here is seen an invisible speck of radium throwing out invisible atoms that sparkle into sight on a film. This stream of atoms will pour forth for 2500 years before the radium ceases to exist, thus showing the marvelous energy stored up in the smallest particle. These flying particles fall on the screen or film like hailstones splashing on the surface of water, and the splash is visible, while the radium itself and flying atoms are not. This is the nearest men have yet come to seeing an actual atom.
Large photograph (268 kB)
