Of the immense variety of tools and mechanical contrivances employed in modern times, by far the greatest number are designed to impart to certain materials some definite shape. The brickmaker’s mould, the joiner’s plane, the stonemason’s chisel, the potter’s wheel, are examples of simple tools. More elaborate are the coining press, the machine for planing iron, the drilling machine, the turning lathe, the rolling mill, the Jacquard loom. But all such tools and machines have one principle in common—a principle which casual observers may easily overlook, but one which is of the highest importance, as its application constitutes the very essence of the modern process of manufacture as distinguished from the slow and laborious mode of making things by hand. The principle will be easily understood by a single example. Let it be required to draw straight lines across a sheet of paper. Few persons can take a pen or pencil, and do this with even an approach to accuracy, and at best they can do it but slowly and imperfectly. But with the aid of a ruler any number of straight lines may be drawn rapidly and surely. The former case is an instance of making by hand, the latter represents manufacturing, the ruler being the tool or machine. Let it be observed that the ruler has in itself the kind of form required—that is to say, straightness—and that in using it we copy or transfer this straightness to the mark made on the paper. This is a simple example of the copying principle, which is so widely applied in machines for manufacturing; for, in all of these, materials are shaped or moulded by various contrivances, so as to reproduce certain definite forms, which are in some way contained within the machine itself. This will be distinctly seen in the tools which are about to be described.

Probably no one mechanical contrivance is so much and so variously applied as the Screw. The common screw-nail, which is so often used by carpenters for fastening pieces of metal on wood, or one piece of wood to another, is a specimen of the screw with which everybody is familiar. The projection which winds spirally round the nail is termed the thread of the screw, and the distance that the thread advances parallel to the axis in one turn is called the pitch. It is obvious that for each turn the screw makes it is advanced into the wood a depth equal to the pitch, and that there is formed in the wood a hollow screw with corresponding grooves and projections. Screws are formed on the ends of the bolts, by which various parts are fastened together, and the hollow screws which turn on the ends of the bolts are termed nuts. The screws on bolts and nuts, and other parts of machines, were formerly made with so many different pitches that, when a machine constructed by one maker had to be repaired by another, great inconvenience was found, on account of the want of uniformity in the shape and pitch of the threads. A uniform system was many years ago proposed by Sir Joseph Whitworth, and adopted by the majority of mechanical engineers, who agreed to use only a certain defined series of pitches. The same engineer also contrived a hand tool for cutting screws with greater accuracy than had formerly been attained in that process. A mechanic often finds it necessary to form a screw-thread on a bolt, and also to produce in metal a hollow screw. The reader may have observed gas-fitters and other workmen performing the first operation by an instrument having the same general appearance as Fig. 28. This contains hard steel dies, which are made to press on the bolt or pipe, so that when the guide-stock is turned by the handles, the required grooves are cut out. The arrangement of these dies in Sir Joseph Whitworth’s instrument is shown in Fig. 28, which represents the central part of the guide-stock; A, B, C are the steel dies retained in their places, when the instrument is in use, by a plate which can be removed when it is necessary to replace one set of dies by another, according to the pitch of thread required. The figure also shows the set of dies, A, B, C, removed from the guide-stock. D is the work, pressed up against the fixed die, A, by B and C, the pressure being applied to these last as required by turning the nut, thus drawing up the key, E, so that the inclined planes, f, g, press against similar surfaces forming the ends of the dies. For producing the hollow screws, taps are provided, which are merely well-formed screws, made of hard steel and having the threads cut into detached pieces by several longitudinal grooves, as represented in the lower part of Fig. 28.

The method of forming screws by dies and taps is, however, applicable only to those of small dimensions, and even for these it is not employed where great accuracy is required. Perfect screws can only be cut with a lathe, such as that represented in Fig. 29. In this we must first call the reader’s attention to the portion of the apparatus marked A, which receives the name of the slide-rest. The invention of this contrivance by Maudsley had the effect of almost revolutionizing mechanical art, for by its aid it became possible to produce true surfaces in the lathe. Before the slide-rest was introduced, the instrument which cut the wood or metal was held in the workman’s hand, and whatever might be his skill and strength, the steadiness and precision thus obtainable were far inferior to those which could be reached by the grip of an iron hand, guided by unswerving bars. The slide-rest was contrived by Maudsley in the first instance for cutting screws, but its principle has been applied for other purposes. This principle consists in attaching the cutting tool to a slide which is incapable of any motion, except in the one direction required. Thus the slide, A, represented in Fig. 29, moves along the bed of the lathe, B, carrying the cutter with perfect steadiness in a straight line parallel to the axis of the lathe. There are also two other slides for adjusting the position of the cutter; the handle, a, turns a screw, which imparts a transverse motion to the piece, b, and the tool receives another longitudinal movement from the handle, c. The pieces are so arranged that these movements take place in straight lines in precisely the required direction, and without permitting the tool to be unsteady, or capable of any rocking motion. In Whitworth’s lathe, between the two sides of the bed, and therefore not visible in the figure, is a shaft placed perfectly parallel to the axis of the lathe. One end of this shaft is seen carrying the wheel, C, which is connected with a train of wheels, D, and is thus made to revolve at a speed which can be made to bear any required proportion to that of the mandril, E, of the lathe, by properly arranging the numbers of the teeth in the wheels; and the machine is provided with several sets of wheels, which can be substituted for each other. The greater part of the length of this shaft is formed with great care into an exceedingly accurate screw, which works in a nut forming part of the slide-rest. The effect, therefore, of the rotation of the screw is to cause the slide-rest to travel along the bed of the lathe, advancing with each revolution of the screw through a space equal to its pitch distance. There is an arrangement for releasing the nut from the guiding-screw, by moving a lever, and then by turning the winch the slide-rest is moved along by a wheel engaging the teeth of a rack at the back of the lathe. Now, if the train of wheels, C D, be so arranged that the screw makes one revolution for each turn of the mandril, it follows that the cutting tool will move longitudinally a distance equal to the pitch of the guiding-screw while the bar placed in the lathe makes one turn. Thus the point of the cutter will form on the bar a screw having the same pitch as the guiding-screw of the lathe.

Here we have a striking illustration of the copying principle, for the lathe thus produces an exact copy of the screw which it contains. The screw-thread is traced out on the cylindrical bar, which is operated upon by the combination of the circular motion of the mandril with the longitudinal movement of the slide-rest. By modifying the relative amounts of these movements, screw-threads of any desired pitch can be made, and it is for this purpose that the change wheels are provided. If the thread of the guiding-screw makes two turns in one inch, one revolution of the wheel C will advance the cutter half an inch along the length of the bar. If the numbers of teeth in the wheels be such that the wheel D makes ten revolutions while C is making one, then in the length of half an inch the thread of the screw produced by the cutter will go round the core ten times, or, in technical language, the screw will be of 1
20 inch pitch.

Since a screw turning in a nut advances only its pitch distance at each revolution, a finely-cut screw furnishes an instrument well adapted to impart a slow motion, or to measure minute spaces. Suppose a screw is cut so as to have fifty threads in an inch, then each turn will advance it 1
50 in.; half a turn 1
100 in.; a quarter of a turn, 1
200, and so on. It is quite easy to attach a graduated circle to the head of the screw, so that, by a fixed pointer at the circumference, any required fraction of a revolution may be read off. Thus if the circle had two hundred equal parts, we could, by turning the screw so that one division passed the index, cause the screw to advance through 1
200 of 1
50 inch, or 1
10000 part of an inch. This is the method adopted for moving the cross-wires of the instruments for measuring very small spaces under the microscope. Sir Joseph Whitworth, who has done so many great things in mechanical art, was the first mechanician to perceive the importance of extreme accuracy of workmanship, and he invented many beautiful instruments and processes by which this accuracy might be attained. Fig. 30 represents one of his measuring machines, intended for practical use in the workshop, to test the dimensions of pieces of metal where great precision is required. The base of the machine is constructed of a rigid cast iron bed bearing a fixed headstock, A, and a movable one, B, the latter sliding along the bed, C, with a slow movement, when the handle, D, is turned. This slow motion is produced by a screw on the axis, a, working in the lower part of the headstock, just as the slide-rest is moved along the bed of the lathe. The movable headstock, when it has been moved into the position required, is firmly clamped by a thumbscrew. The face of the bed is graduated into inches and their subdivisions. Here it should be explained that the machine is not intended to be used for ascertaining the absolute dimensions of objects, but for showing by what fraction of an inch the size of the work measured differs from a certain standard piece. Each headstock carries a screw of 1
20 inch pitch, made with the greatest possible care and accuracy. To the head of the screw in the movable headstock is attached the wheel, b, having its circumference divided into 250 equal parts, and a fixed index, c, from which its graduations may be counted. An exactly similar arrangement is presented in connection with the screw turning in the fixed headstock, but the wheel is much larger, and its circumference is divided in 500 equal parts. It follows, therefore, that if the large wheel be turned so that one division passes the index, the bar moves in a straight line 1
500 of the 1
20 of an inch, that is, 1
10000 an inch. The ends of the bars, d and e, are formed with perfectly plane and parallel surfaces, and an ingenious method is adopted of securing equality of pressure when comparisons are made. A plate of steel, with perfectly parallel faces, called a gravity-piece, or feeler, is placed between the flat end of the bar and the standard-piece, and the pressure when the screw-reading is taken must be just sufficient to prevent this piece of steel from slipping down, and that is the case when the steel remains suspended and can nevertheless be easily made to slide about by a touch of the finger. Thus any piece which, with the same screw-readings, sustains the gravity-piece in the same manner as the standard, will be of exactly the same length; or the number of divisions through which the large wheel must be turned to enable it to do so tells the difference of the dimensions in ten-thousandth parts of an inch. By this instrument, therefore, gauges, patterns, &c., can be verified with the greatest precision, and pieces can be reproduced perfectly agreeing in their dimensions with a standard piece. Thus, for example, the diameters of shafting can be brought with the greatest precision to the exact size required to best fit their bearings.

In another measuring machine on the same principle the delicacy of the measurement has been carried still farther, by substituting for the large divided wheel one having 200 teeth, which engage an endless screw or worm. This will easily be understood by reference to Fig. 31, where a similar arrangement is applied to another purpose. Imagine that a wheel like P, Fig. 31, but with 200 teeth, has taken the place of E in Fig. 30, and that the wheel, T, on the axis of the endless screw is shaped like E, Fig. 30. One turn of the axis carrying the endless screw, therefore, turns the wheel through 1
200 of a revolution, and as this axis bears a graduated head, having 250 divisions, the screw having 20 threads to the inch, is, when one division passes the index, advanced through a space equal to 1
250 × 1
200 × 1
20, or 1
1000000 an inch; that is, the one-millionth part of an inch. This is an interval so small that ten times its length would hardly be appreciated with the highest powers of the microscope, and the machine is far too delicate for any practical requirements of the present day. It will indicate the expansion caused by heat in an iron bar which has merely been touched with the finger for an instant, and even the difference of length produced by the heat radiated from the person using it. A movement of 1
1000000 of an inch is shown by the gravity-piece remaining suspended instead of falling, and the piece falls again when the tangent-screw is turned back through 1
250 of a revolution, a difference of reading representing a possible movement of the measuring surface through only 2
1000000 an inch. This proves the marvellous perfection of the workmanship, for it shows that the amount of play in the bearings of the screws does not exceed one-millionth of an inch.

A good example of a machine-tool is the Drilling Machine, which is used for drilling holes in metal. Such a machine is represented in Fig. 31, where A is the strong framing, which is cast in a single piece, in order to render it as rigid as possible. The power is applied by means of a strap round the speed pulley, B, by which a regulated speed is communicated to the bevel wheel, C, which drives D, and thus causes the rotation of the hollow shaft, E. In the lower part of the latter is the spindle which carries the drilling tool, F, and upon this spindle is a longitudinal groove, into which fits a projection on the inside of E. The spindle is thus forced to rotate, and is at the same time capable of moving up and down. The top of the spindle is attached to the lower end of the rack, G, by a joint which allows the spindle to rotate freely without being followed in its rotation by the rack, although the latter communicates all its vertical movements to the spindle, as if the two formed one piece. The teeth of the rack are engaged by a pinion, which carries on its axis the wheel H, turned by an endless screw on the shaft, I, which derives its motion by means of another wheel and endless screw from the shaft, K. The latter is driven by a strap passing over the speed pulleys, L and M, and thus the speed of the shaft K can be modified as required by passing the strap from one pair of pulleys to another. The result is that the rack is depressed by a slow movement, which advances the drill in the work, or, as it is technically termed, gives the feed to the drill. By a simple piece of mechanism at N the connection of the shafts K and I can be broken, and the handle O made to communicate a more rapid movement to I, so as to raise up the drill in a position to begin its work again, or to bring it quickly down to the work, and then the arrangement for the self-acting feed is again brought into play. By turning the wheel, P, the table, Q, on which the work is fastened, is capable of being raised or lowered, by means of a rack within the piece R, acted on by a pinion carried on the axle, P. The table also admits of a horizontal motion by the slide S, and may besides be swung round when required.

The visitor to an engineer’s workshop cannot fail to be struck with the operation of the powerful Lathes and Planing Machines, by which long thick flakes or shavings of iron are removed from pieces of metal with the same apparent ease as if the machine were paring cheese. The figure on the opposite page represents one of the larger forms of the planing machine, as constructed by Sir J. Whitworth. The piece of work to be planed is firmly bolted down to the table, A, which moves upon the ?-shaped surfaces, running its whole length, and accurately fitting into corresponding grooves in a massive cast iron bed. The bevel wheel, of which a portion is seen at B, is keyed on a screw, which extends longitudinally from end to end of the bed. This screw works in nuts forming part of the table, and as it turns in sockets at the ends of the bed, it does not itself move forward, but imparts a progressive movement to the table, and therefore to the piece of metal to be planed. As this table must move backwards and forwards, there must be some contrivance for reversing the direction of the screw’s rotation, and this is accomplished in a beautifully simple manner by an arrangement which a little consideration will enable any one to understand. It will be observed that there are three drum-pulleys at C. Let the reader confine, for the present, his attention to the nearest one, and picture to himself that the shaft to which it is attached is placed in the same horizontal plane as the axis of the screw and at right angles to it, passing in front of bevel wheel B. A small bevel wheel turning with this shaft, and engaging the teeth of the wheel B, may, it is plain, communicate motion to the screw. Now let the reader consider what will be the effect on the direction of the rotation of B of applying the bevelled pinion to the nearer or to the farther part of its circumference, supposing the direction of the rotation of this pinion to be always the same. He will perceive that the direction in one case will be the reverse of that in the other. The shaft to which the nearest pulley is attached carries a pinion engaging the wheel at its farther edge, and therefore the rotation of this pulley in the same direction as the hands of a watch causes the wheel B to rotate so that its upper part moves towards the spectator. The farthest pulley, a, turns with a hollow shaft, through which the shaft of the nearest pulley simply passes, without any connection between them, and this hollow shaft carries a pinion, which engages the teeth of B at the nearer edge, and, in consequence, the rotation of the farther pulley, a, in the direction of the hands of a watch, would cause the upper part of B to be moving from the spectator. The middle pulley, b, runs loosely on the shaft, and the driving-strap passes through the guide, c, and it is only necessary to move this, so as to shift the strap from one drum to another, in order to reverse the direction of the screw and the motion. This shifting of the strap is done by a movement derived from the table itself, on which are two adjustable stops, D and E, acting on an arrangement at the base of the upright frame when they are brought up to it by the movement of the table, so as not only to shift the strap, but also to impart a certain amount of rotation to upright shaft, F, in each direction alternately. The piece which carries the tools, G and H, is placed horizontally, and can be moved vertically by turning the axis, I, thus causing an equal rotation of two upright screws of equal pitch, which are contained within the uprights and work in nuts, forming part of the tool-box. The pieces carrying the tools are moved horizontally by the screws which are seen to pass along the tool-box, and these screws receive a certain regulated amount of motion at each reversal of the movement of the table from the mechanism shown at K. The band-pulley, L, receives a certain amount of rotation from the same shaft, and the catgut band passing round the tops of the cylinders which carry the cutters is drawn in alternate directions at the end of each stroke, the effect being to turn the cutters half round, so as always to present their cutting edges to the work. There are also contrivances for maintaining the requisite steadiness in the tools and for adjusting the depth of the cut. The cutting edge of the tools is usually of a ?-shape, with the angle slightly rounded, and the result of the process is not the production of a plane, but a grooved surface. But by diminishing the amount of horizontal feed given to the cutters, the grooves may be made finer and finer, until at length they disappear, and the surface is practically a plane. Planing machines are sometimes of a very large size. Sir J. Whitworth has one the table of which is 50 ft. in length, and the machine is capable of making a straight cut 40 ft. long in any article not exceeding 10 ft. 6 in. high or 10 ft. wide.

The copying principle is evident in this machine; for the plane surface results from the combination of the straightness of the bed with the straightness of the transverse slide along which the tools are moved. It should, moreover, be observed that it is precisely this machine which would be employed for preparing the straight sliding surfaces required in the construction of planing and other machines, and thus one of these engines becomes the parent, as it were, of many others having the same family likeness, and so on ad infinitum. Thus, having once obtained perfectly true surfaces, we can easily reproduce similar surfaces. But the reader may wish to know how such forms have been obtained in the first instance; how, for example, could a perfectly plane surface be fashioned without any standard for comparison? This was first perfectly done by Sir J. Whitworth, forty-five years ago. Three pieces of iron have each a face wrought into comparatively plane surfaces; they are compared together, and the parts which are prominent are reduced first by filing, but afterwards, as the process approaches completion, by scraping, until the three perfectly coincide. The parts where the plates come in contact with each other are ascertained by smearing one of them with a little oil coloured with red ochre: when another is pressed against it, the surfaces of contact are shown by the transference of the red colour. Three plates are required, for it is possible for the prominences of No. 1 exactly to fit into the hollows of No. 2, but in that case both could not possibly exactly coincide with the surface of No. 3; for if one of them did (say No. 1), then No. 3 must be exactly similar to No. 2, and consequently when No. 2 was applied to No. 3, hollow would be opposed to hollow and prominence to prominence. A little reflection will show that only when the three surfaces are truly plane will they exactly and entirely coincide with each other. The planes, when thus carefully prepared, approach to the perfection of the ideal mathematical form, and they are used in the workshop for testing the correctness of surfaces, by observing the uniformity or otherwise of the impression they give to the surface when brought into contact with it, after being covered by a very thin layer of oil coloured by finely-ground red ochre.

Fig. 33 represents a small pair of Whitworth’s planes. When one of these is placed horizontally upon the other, it does not appear to actually come in contact with it, for the surfaces are so true that the air does not easily escape, but a thin film supports the upper plate, which glides upon it with remarkable readiness (A). When, however, one plate is made to slide over the other, so as to exclude the air, they may both be lifted by raising the upper one (B). This effect has, by several philosophers, been attributed to the mere pressure of the atmosphere; but recent experiments of Professor Tyndall’s show that the plates adhere even in a vacuum. The adhesion appears therefore to be due to some force acting between the substances of the plates, and perhaps identical in kind with that which binds together the particles of the iron itself.

THE BLANCHARD LATHE.

This machine affords a striking example of the application of the copying principle which is the fundamental feature of modern manufacturing processes. It would hardly be supposed possible, until the method had been explained, that articles in shape so unlike geometrical forms as gun-stocks, shoemakers’ lasts, &c., could be turned in a lathe. The mode in which this is accomplished is, however, very simple in idea, though in carrying that idea into practice much ingenious contrivance was required. The illustration, Fig. 35, represents a Blanchard’s lathe, very elegantly constructed by Messrs. Greenwood and Batley, of Leeds. The first obvious difference between an ordinary lathe and Blanchard’s invention is that in the former the work revolves rapidly and the cutting-tool is stationary, or only slowly shifts its position in order to act on fresh portions of the work, while in the latter the work is slowly rotated and the cutting-tools are made to revolve with very great velocity. Again, it will be observed that the headstock of the Blanchard lathe, instead of one, bears two mandrels, having their axes parallel to each other. One of these carries the pattern, C, which in the figure has the exact shape of a gun-stock that is to be cut in the piece of wood mounted on the nearer spindle. One essential condition in the arrangement of the apparatus is that the pattern and the work having been fixed in similar and parallel positions, shall always continue so at every point of their revolutions. This is easily accomplished by placing exactly similar toothed wheels on the two axles, and causing these to be turned by one and the same smaller toothed wheel or pinion. The two axles must thus always turn round in the same direction and with exactly the same speed, so that the work which is attached to one, and the pattern which is fixed on the other, will always be in the same phase of their revolutions. If, for example, the part of the wood which is to form the upper part of the gun-stock is at the bottom, the corresponding part of the pattern will also be at the bottom, as in the figure, and both will turn round together, so that every part of each will be at every instant in a precisely similar position. The wood to be operated upon is, it must be understood, roughly shaped before it is put into the lathe. The toothed wheels and the pinion which drives them are in the figure hid from view by the casing, h, which covers them. The pinion receives the power from a strap passing over f. The cutters are shown at e; they are placed radially, like the spokes of a wheel, and have all their cutting edges at precisely one certain distance from the axis on which they revolve, so that they all travel through the same circle. These cutting-edges, it may be observed, are very narrow, almost pointed. The shaft carrying the cutters is driven at a very high speed, by means of a strap passing over k and i. The number of revolutions made by the cutters in one second is usually more than thirty. The great peculiarity of the lathe consists in the manner in which the position of the cutters is made to vary. The axle which carries them rotates in a kind of frame, which can move backwards and forwards, so that the cutters may be readily put at any desired distance from the axis of the work. Their position is, however, always dependent on the pattern, for, fixed in a similar frame, b, which is connected with the former, is a small disc wheel, a, having precisely the same radius as that of the circle traced out by the cutters, and this disc is made by a strong spring to press against the pattern. The cutters, being fixed in the same rocking-frame which carries this guiding-wheel, must partake of all its backward and forward motions, and as the cutting-wheel and the guide-wheel are so arranged as to have always the same relative positions to the axes of the two headstocks, it follows that the edges of the cutters will trace out identically the same form as the circumference of the guiding-disc. The latter is, of course, not driven round, but simply turns slowly with the pattern by friction, for it is pressed firmly against the pattern by a spring or weight acting on the frame, in order that the cutters may be steadily maintained in their true, but ever-varying, position. The rocking-frame receives a slow longitudinal motion by means of the screw, n, so that the cutters are carried along the work, and the guide along the pattern.

The whole arrangement is self-acting, so that when once the pattern and the rough block of wood have been fixed in their positions, the machine completes the work, and produces an exact repetition of the shape of the pattern. It is plain that any kind of forms can be easily cut by this lathe, the only condition being that the surface of the pattern must not present any re-entering portions which the edge of the guide-wheel cannot follow. The machine is largely used for the purposes named above, and also for the manufacture of the spokes of carriage-wheels. The limits of this article will not permit of a description of the beautiful adjustments given to the mechanism in the example before us, particularly in the arrangement for driving the cutters in a framework combining lateral and longitudinal motions; but the intelligent reader may gather some hints of these by a careful inspection of the figure. The machine is sometimes made with the frame carrying the guide-wheel and cutters, not rocking but sliding in a direction transverse to the axes of the headstocks. It is extremely interesting to see the Blanchard lathe at work, and observe how perfectly and rapidly the curves and form of the patterns seem to grow, as it were, out of the rudely-shaped piece of wood, which, of course, contains a large excess of material, or, in the picturesque and expressive phrase of the workmen, always gives the machine something to eat.

SAWING MACHINES.

With the exception of the last, all the machines hitherto described in the present article are distinguished by this—they are tools which are used to produce other machines of every kind. Without such implements it would be impossible to fashion the machines which are made to serve so many different ends. Another peculiarity of these tools has also been referred to, namely, that they are especially serviceable, and indeed essential, for the reproduction of others of the same class. Thus, the accurate leading-screw of the lathe is the means used to cut other accurate screws, which shall in their turn become the leading-screws of other lathes, and a lathe which forms a truly circular figure is a necessary implement for the construction of another lathe which shall also produce truly circular figures. In these tools, therefore, we find the copying principle, to which allusion has been already made, as the great feature of all machines; but in order to bring this principle still more clearly before the reader, we have described in the Blanchard Lathe a machine of a somewhat different class, because it embodied a very striking illustration of the principle in question. We are far from having described all the implements of the mechanical engineer, or even all the more interesting ones; for example, we have given no account of the powerful lathes in which great masses of iron are turned, or of the analogous machines, which, with so much accuracy, shape the internal surfaces of the cylinders of steam engines, of cannons, &c. The history of the steam engine tells us of the difficulties which Watt had to contend with in the construction of his cylinders, for no machine at that time existed capable of boring them with an approach to the precision which is now obtained.

The kind of general interest which attaches to the tools we have already described is not wanting in yet another class of machine-tools, namely, those employed in converting timber into the forms required to adapt it for the uses to which it is so extensively applied. And for popular illustration, this class of tools presents the special advantage of being readily understood as regards their purpose and mode of action, while their simplicity in these respects does not prevent them from showing the advantages of machine over hand labour. Everybody is familiar with the up-and-down movement of a common saw, and in the machine for sawing balks of timber into planks, represented in Fig. 36, this reciprocating motion is retained, but there are a number of saws fixed parallel to each other in a strong frame, at a distance corresponding to the thickness of the planks. The saws are not placed with their cutting edges quite upright, but these are a little more forward at the top, so that as they descend they cut into the wood, but move upwards without cutting, for the teeth then recede from the line of the previous cut, while in the meantime the balk is pushed forward ready for the next descent of the saw-frame. This pushing forward, or feeding, of the timber is accomplished by means of ratchet-wheels, which are made to revolve through a certain space after each descent of the saw-frame, and, by turning certain pinions, move forward the carriage on which the piece of timber is firmly fixed, so that when the blades of the saws are beginning the next descent they are already in contact with the edge of the former cut. To prevent the blades from moving with injurious friction in the saw-cuts, these last are made of somewhat greater width than the thickness of the blades, by the simple plan of bending the teeth a little on one side and on the other alternately. The rapidity with which the machine works, depends of course on the kind of wood operated upon, but it is not unusual for such a machine to make more than a hundred cuts in the minute. The figure shows the machine as deriving its motion by means of a strap passing over a drum, from shafting driven by a steam engine. This is the usual plan, but sometimes the steam power is applied directly, by fixing the piston-rod of a steam cylinder to the top of the saw-frame, and equalizing the motion by a fly-wheel on a shaft, turned by a crank and connecting-rod.

A very effective machine for cutting pieces of wood of moderate dimensions is the Circular Saw, represented in Fig. 37. Here there is a steel disc, having its rim formed into teeth; and the disc is made to revolve with very great speed, in some cases making as many as five hundred turns in a minute, or more than eight in a second. On the bench is an adjustable straight guide, or fence, and when this has been fixed, the workman has only to press the piece of wood against it, and push the wood at the same time towards the saw, which cuts it at a very rapid rate. Sometimes the circular saw is provided with apparatus by which the machine itself pushes the wood forwards, and the only attention required from the workman is the fixing of the wood upon the bench, and the setting of the machine in gear with the driving-shaft. Similar saws are used for squaring the ends of the iron rails for railways, two circular saws being fixed upon one axle at a distance apart equal to the length of the rails. The axle is driven at the rate of about 900 turns per minute, and the iron rail is brought up parallel to the axle, being mounted on a carriage, and still red hot, when the two ends are cut at the same time by the circular saws, the lower parts of which dip into troughs of water to keep them cool.