With an advance in a people's public economy, we find an increased rapidity of circulation connected, both as cause and effect. Every improvement, every thing which shortens the process of production, must facilitate and accelerate the circulation of commodities. And so, the perfecting of the means of transport of commodities, of the media of exchange and of credit, an increase in the number of middlemen who make it their business to purchase in order to sell again. On the other hand, the more rapid the circulation of wealth, the more can it promote production. The more rapidly, for instance, the manufacturer of cloth exchanges his wares for money, the more rapidly may he employ the money in the purchase of new tools and the hiring of new labor; and the sooner may he appear in the market with new cloth. It is here precisely as it is in agriculture, which is more productive where the seed returns several times in a year (several crops576) to the hand of [pg 293] the peasant than it is where this happens only once. The nearer the members of the commercial organism are to one another, the more rapid is circulation wont to be. Hence, it is more rapid in industry than in agriculture; in retail trade than in wholesale; in large cities than in the country; among a dense population than among a sparse population.

The regularity of circulation increases with economic culture. Its concentration at large terminal points, its interruption by bad seasons of the year, belong to the lower stages of the political economy of a people; although bad harvests, floods, wars, revolutions etc. may, at any time, lead to a sluggishness or to an arrest of circulation.

But it is especially the freedom of circulation that increases with an advance in civilization, and this advance, like the two preceding, first affects the home or inland circulation. Freedom of competition, the freedom of commerce and industry, technical expressions used to designate freedom in general in the domain of a nation's economy, is the natural conclusion drawn from the principles of individual independence and of private property. Hence its development is as slow as the development of these, and attains its full growth only in highly cultivated nations, their colonies and dependencies. In very low stages of economic development, the circulation of goods is hampered by the absence of legal security; later, by privileges accorded to a great number of families, corporate bodies, municipalities, classes, etc., and later yet by the mighty guardianship which the state exercises by its power of legislation and even of education.577 Each one of these epochs constitutes [pg 294] the end of the preceding one, and is milder than it was. Finally comes the period of complete freedom, when every man is permitted to manage his own affairs even with injury to himself, provided the injury is confined to himself.

The later times of the Roman Empire are the best illustration of how, with the decline of the conditions which must precede freedom of competition, that freedom itself decays.578

Freedom of competition unchains all economic forces, good and bad. Hence, when the former preponderate, it hastens the time of a people's grandeur, as it does their decline where the latter gain the upper hand.579 We may say of economic freedom what may be said of all other freedom, that the removal of external constraint can be justified and produces the greater good of the greater number only where a stern empire over self takes its place. Without this it would not prevent or avoid idleness, usury or over-population. Freedom must not be simply negative. It must be positive. If on account of the immaturity or over-maturity of a people, there be no sturdy middle class among them, unlimited competition may become what Bazard calls a general sauve-qui-peut (let the devil take the hindmost); what Fourier designates as a morcellement industriel, and a fraude commerciale; what M. Chevalier denominated “a battle-field on which the little are devoured by the [pg 295] big;” and in such case, as Bodz-Reymond says, the word competition, meaning simply that each one is permitted to run in whatever direction he may see a door open to him, is but another and a new expression for vagabondizing. But here the evil does not lie in too great competition, but in this, that on one side there is too little competition.580 The opposing principle of competition is always monopoly, that is, as John Stuart Mill says, the taxation of industry in the interest of indolence and even rapacity; and protection against competition is synonymous with a dispensation from the necessity to be as industrious and clever as other people.

A protection of this nature, sufficiently effective to attain its end, would not fail to arrest the efforts of those who had accomplished something, and even to turn them backward. That freedom of competition is a species of declaration of war,581 among men considered as producers, is certain; but, at the same time, it makes all men considered as consumers members of one society, in which all the members are equally interested, a fact too much overlooked by socialists.582 It is the means especially by which the greatest and ever increasing portion of the forces of nature are raised to the character of the free and common property of the human race.583 “Man is not the favorite of nature in the sense that nature has done everything for him, but in the sense that it has endowed him with the ability to do everything for himself. The right of freedom of competition may, therefore, be considered both [pg 296] the protection and the image of this provision of nature.” (ZachariÄ.)584

The person, therefore, who claims or asserts an exception from the rule of free competition, has to prove his position in every individual case, since the burthen of proof is on him. But the duty of interference on the part of the state is positively pointed out where any interest common to the whole people is not in a condition to assert itself; and negatively, when the custom which hitherto had prevented an undoubted abuse has grown too weak to continue to perform that service. In both regards I would call attention to the protection of factory children against the concurrent selfishness of their parents and masters.585586 Supra, § 39.