Simmering. There is an erroneous impression that articles cook faster when the water is boiling violently, but this is not the case; the ebullition is caused by the escaping steam, which is lost heat, and the water at this time is at 212° (except in high elevations), however fast or slow it may be boiling. If, however, a little sugar or salt is added to the water it increases its density, and the heat rises to 224° before the steam escapes. The heat can be raised also by covering the pot and confining as much of the steam as possible. Where violently boiling water is recommended, as for rice and green peas, the object is not greater heat, but to keep the grains and peas separated by the turbulence of the water. There is waste of fuel in unnecessarily fast boiling, and economy can be easily practised here, especially where gas is used, as the boiling point, once reached, can be maintained with but little heat. Where the juices and color are to be retained, the articles are put into already boiling salted water. The albumen on the surface is then at once coagulated and the juices shut in. Where the object is to extract the juices, as for soups, they must be cut into pieces so as to expose more surface, and put into cold water, and the heat of the water gradually raised to the simmering point only. The slow, long cooking obtained in simmering water best destroys the fiber of meat, and tough pieces cooked in this way are made tender. To render tough pieces tender, the meat is first put into boiling water in order to fix the albumen on the surface, the heat then reduced, and the cooking done at the simmering point, which is 185°. Hence, water at different stages of heat is used, according to the object in view, and the result is as definite as that of the different degrees of heat in an oven, so this point should not be considered as of little importance.

The flavor of meats and vegetables is volatile, and much of it can be carried off by escaping steam, as is demonstrated by the odors which sometimes pervade the house. To prevent the latter, and also to make the article tender and retain all its flavor, the pot should be covered and the water kept at the simmering point only.

Vegetables. An exception to this rule is made in the cases of cabbage and cauliflower. These strong-flavored vegetables will be much less objectionable when cooked in rapidly boiling water in open vessels (see page 212). Green vegetables should be boiled in open vessels, as high heat destroys their color. Meat. All meats should be well tied and skewered, to keep them in good shape while boiling, and, when possible, be placed with the bone side up, so if any scum settles it will not spoil the appearance of the dish. Fish. For fish a little vinegar should be put into the water, as it hardens the meat and helps to prevent its falling apart (see page 113).

Salt water is used where the object is to keep the flavors in, fresh water where it is to draw them out as in soup, where the salt is not added until the cooking is completed. The rule of not piercing meat, thus letting out its juices, applies to boiling as well as to other methods of cooking. Fifteen minutes to the pound is the rule for mutton or tender meat, a much longer or indefinite time for tough meat.

Ham is done when the skin peels off easily.

The scum should be taken off the pot when boiling meat.

Milk boils at 196° and easily burns, therefore it is safer to use a double boiler for anything containing milk. When using a double boiler, the liquid in the inner pan is scalded when the water in the outside vessel boils.

BAKING

Asbestos paper. The baking of many articles is a more important matter than the mixing. There are no definite tests for ovens, therefore one has to learn by experience and careful watching the capabilities or faults of the ovens used. A common trouble is from not having them thoroughly cleaned of the ashes which settle under the ovens and prevent the heat reaching the bottom part. It is usual to have them hotter on the fire side. In this case it is necessary to turn frequently the articles being baked, or, where this cannot be done, to interpose a screen to protect them from burning. Asbestos paper, which is now sold at very low cost at house-furnishing stores, is a convenient thing to place against the side of the oven, or on the shelf of the oven if the excessive heat is on top. A tin, or a piece of brown paper, will, however, ordinarily serve the purpose. Directions for baking bread and cake are given at the heads of those chapters.

To lower the heat of an oven, if closing the damper is not sufficient, open the lid of the range over the oven a little way. Sometimes a pan of cold water put on the shelf of the oven will effect the purpose. When baking meats, the oven should be very hot at first, and after the meat is seared the heat should be lowered, so the cooking will be done slowly.

ROASTING

Roasting is done before the fire, and should not be confused with baking, which is done in the oven. Roasted meats have a distinctly better flavor than baked ones. The latter are likely to taste of smoke unless the oven is frequently opened for basting, as few of them are sufficiently ventilated to free them of smoke and steam. Baking is the method generally employed in small households, but where the grate of the range is sufficiently large, and the front can be exposed, it will be found no more trouble to roast than to bake the meats, and the improvement will well repay the trouble of changing a habit. Tin ovens (Dutch ovens) are made for this use, with a clockwork to turn the spit, so the only care is to baste, which has to be done in either case, and to keep the fire bright, which is done by adding a few coals at a time if necessary.

The meat should at first be placed near the coals to sear the outside, and then be drawn back where it will cook at lower heat.

BROILING

Meat cooked by broiling is exposed to a greater heat than in any other manner of cooking, and to prevent its burning, requires constant watching. Meats for broiling are cut thin, and much surface is exposed, therefore they must be at once exposed to intense heat to sear the surface and retain the juices. Frequent turning not only prevents burning, but gives slower cooking and also prevents the grease dripping into the fire, making a smoke which destroys the flavor of the meat. The rule for broiling is to have bright coals without flame, drafts open to carry off smoke, and meat turned as often as one counts ten (see broiling beefsteak, page 156). In this way the result will be satisfactory, the meat will be puffed and elastic from the confined steam of the juices, will have a seared crust, and the rest evenly cooked through and of the same color. When the puffed appearance of broiled meats begins to disappear it means the moisture is evaporating through the crust, which will leave it hard and dry.

Chops wrapped tight in oiled paper before being broiled are especially good (see page 166). The paper will not burn if turned as directed above.

Although broiling with a double wire-broiler over or under bright coals is the approved way, it can be accomplished in a hot pan when coals are not accessible. In this instance a frying-pan is heated very hot, then rubbed with suet to prevent the meat from sticking, and the meat is turned frequently as in the other method. This manner of broiling is recommended only as an expedient, as hot iron does not give the same result as hot coals.

BRAISING

Meat cooked by braising is shut in a closely-covered pot with a few slices of salt pork (laid under the meat to prevent its sticking to the pot), a mixture of vegetables, cut into dice, a little soup stock or water, and a bouquet of herbs, and cooked slowly in the confined steam. This method of cooking tough or dry meats makes them tender and of good flavor. Braised dishes are much esteemed.

FRICASSEEING

Meat cooked in this way is first sautÉd to keep in its juices, then stewed until tender and served in a white or brown gravy, made from the liquor in the pot in which the meat is stewed. Toasted bread and sometimes dumplings are served with it. In the latter case it is called a pot-pie.

SAUTÉING

A little fat is put in a shallow pan; when this is hot, the articles to be cooked are laid in and browned on both sides. This manner of cooking is by many miscalled frying, and is largely responsible for the disrepute of frying, as sautÉd articles are likely to be greasy and indigestible.

FRYING

Frying is cooking by immersion in very hot fat. The success of frying depends upon the fat being sufficiently hot, and enough fat being used to completely cover the articles cooked in it. A kettle for frying should be kept for that purpose alone, and started with enough fat to fill it two thirds full. Olive-oil, lard, cottolene, drippings, or any mixture of them, serve the purpose. When properly used but little fat is consumed, and the pot can be easily replenished with the right quantity for its next use. Each time, after using the fat, a slice of raw potato should be dropped in to clarify it; it should then be strained through a cloth and returned to the pot, be covered when cold, and set away until again wanted. This fat can be used for potatoes, and anything which is coated with egg and crumbs. If fish without this coating are fried in it, it will then be unsuitable for other purposes. A pot of fat will with care last for months, but should be clarified as often as necessary (see below). Heating the fat. When the fat is to be used, the frying-kettle should be placed on the range an hour before the time it is needed. It will then become gradually hot, and at the right moment can be quickly raised to the smoking heat needed for frying. It takes some time for fat to reach this temperature; and if this preparatory measure is not taken, a cook, when hurried, is likely to use it before the right heat is attained, or to place it on the open fire, which is attended with great danger. Many persons are seriously burned from this imprudence. To extinguish fire from grease. When fat boils over and takes fire, the best extinguisher is ashes. If the cook’s clothes take fire, the best thing to do is to wrap the skirts together and roll on the floor until assistance comes. With ordinary care there need be no accidents. Dropping grease on the range or clothes can be avoided by holding a tin plate under the frying-basket when removing it from the kettle. When the articles to be fried are prepared, the wire basket should be dipped into the fat to grease it, the articles laid in, a few at a time, without touching one another, the basket hung on an iron or wooden spoon, and slowly lowered into the fat. Too many articles must not be put in at the same time, or the heat of the fat will be too much reduced. Spattering. Spattering is caused by water contained in the articles being turned to steam and throwing out the fat; hence, one reason for making them very dry and of lowering them gradually into the fat. When fat is sufficiently hot it at once sears the outside of everything placed in it, and forms a crust through which the grease cannot penetrate and be absorbed by the food. Egg and crumbs are used for the purpose of thus encrusting the outside of made dishes, like croquettes. Color of fried articles. The mistake should not be made of leaving articles too long in the fat; a lemon color, which is the one desired, is quickly attained. When lifted from the fat, the basket should be held for a few minutes, or until through dripping, over the kettle, which is the hottest place to be found, the articles then placed on a brown paper without touching one another, and set in the open oven, or on the hot shelf, until perfectly dry. If so treated the grease will evaporate, and the articles become so free from it as not to leave a mark on the napkin on which they are served. Articles properly prepared and fried in this manner can be no more unwholesome than meat which is basted with drippings. The fat should be given time to again rise to the smoking heat before a second basketful of articles is immersed. When frying articles which take a little time to cook, the pot should be drawn to a cooler part of the range, after the first few minutes. The coating will then be formed, and the cooking can proceed more slowly, and the articles will not brown too much before they are cooked. Croquettes, being made of cooked meat, need to remain in the fat only long enough to color and become heated.

TO CLARIFY FAT

Bubbling fat. When fat becomes discolored and unfit for use, stir into it when melted one half teaspoonful of baking soda and a quart of water. Let it boil for a little time, take off the scum that rises, and set the pot aside until cold. Remove the cake of grease, scrape off all the impurities, put it again on the fire, where it will melt but will not be agitated, and let it remain undisturbed until all the water has evaporated and the remaining impurities have settled to the bottom; then pour off the clear grease. When fat bubbles it means there is water in it, not that it is hot.

TO TRY OUT SUET AND OTHER FATS

Cut the fat into pieces, place it in a shallow pan over moderate heat until the fat is melted, then strain it through a cloth. There will be no odor from the fat if not placed where it becomes too hot. All kinds of fats are good for frying except mutton fat, turkey fat, and fat from smoked meats; these can be used for making soap, as directed on page 259.

TO PREPARE ARTICLES FOR FRYING BY COVERING THEM WITH EGG AND CRUMBS

The Crumbs. All scraps of bread should be saved for crumbs, as directed on page 51, the crusts being separated from the white part, then dried, rolled, and sifted. The brown crumbs are good for the first coating, the white ones for the outside, as they give better color. Where a very delicate color is wanted, bread grated from a stale loaf or rubbed through a coarse sieve gives better results; the fresh crumbs need not be very fine. Cracker crumbs give a smooth surface and are better for oysters than bread crumbs, but for most things bread crumbs are preferable. For meats a little salt and pepper, and for sweet articles a little sugar, should be mixed with the crumbs. Crumbs left on the board should be dried, sifted, and kept to be used again.

The Egg. The whole egg is generally used. The white alone will serve, but not the yolk alone, as it is the albumen which is needed. The albumen quickly coagulates when put into the hot fat, and forms a coating through which the grease will not penetrate. To one egg is added one tablespoonful of water, so as to make it thin enough to run and remove the stringiness of the egg; these are beaten lightly together, but should not be foamy, as bubbles break and leave holes for the grease to enter. Where delicate color is wanted, it is better to use the white of the egg only and fresh crumbs. Turn the crumbs on to a board; roll the articles first in the crumbs to dry them well, then place them in the beaten egg one at a time, and with a spoon pour the egg over and moisten them thoroughly; return them to the board, and completely cover them with crumbs. Molding. Soft, creamy mixtures like croquettes require delicate handling, and are easier to manage if first made into a ball,—molding them into shape being left until the second crumbing, at which time they can be rolled into cylindrical form and the ends flattened by dropping them lightly on the board. They will keep their shape better if, after being prepared, they are allowed to stand an hour or more before being fried. (See croquettes, page 293.)

LARDING

Cutting lardoons. Larding is simply drawing small pieces of salt pork through the surface of meat. It is easily done, and so much improves lean, dry pieces of meat as to well repay the trouble. The pork for larding is best cut lengthwise with the rind, and that nearest the rind is the firmest. Cut it into slices, one quarter inch thick, and then into strips one quarter inch wide and two inches long. The lardoons can be made firmer by placing them on ice, but ordinarily this is not necessary. The larding needle holding a lardoon is pressed through the surface of the meat, taking a stitch about a quarter inch deep and an inch long, then drawn through, leaving the lardoon projecting on both sides. The stitches should be taken at regular intervals, so as to appear ornamental, and when all the lardoons are in they should be cut even. For birds or small pieces, the lardoons would of course be cut of a size to suit the needle used.

DAUBING

Daubing is cutting through the entire thickness of the meat in several places and inserting lardoons of salt pork. The cut is made with a thin, sharp knife.

BONING

Cutting the meat free from the bones, leaving the meat whole, is called boning. This is easily done with a sharp-pointed knife, and requires but little practice to accomplish successfully. Fowls. Directions for boning fowls are given on page 181. Boned fowls are usually made into galantine, but they are also good when stuffed and pressed into natural shape, or to imitate a duck or a rabbit and served hot. Meats. The butcher will remove the bones from joints of meat when requested. Boned meats make an agreeable change, and in the case of shoulder pieces make them suitable to serve as roasts (see pages 163 and 168). Chops with the bones removed, the tail ends wrapped around the meat and secured with wooden toothpicks or with small skewers until cooked, resemble in form filets mignons.

MEASURING

Measuring-cup. Exact measurements are an important factor in the success of cooking, therefore a definite understanding of what a cupful or a spoonful means is requisite. A cupful means one half pint. A tin cup holding this amount is as necessary as a quart measure in every kitchen. They can be bought for ten cents apiece in any house-furnishing store. A spoonful of butter, lard, sugar, or flour means a rounding spoonful, as much rising above the spoon as is held in the bowl. A spoonful of salt or spices means only as much as the bowl holds, the top being smoothed off with a knife.77-* One half spoonful means the half of the contents of the bowl divided lengthwise. A heaping spoonful means as much as the spoon can be made to hold. A table giving comparative weights and measures is given on page 387.

STIRRING AND BEATING

These two methods should not be confused. The object of stirring is to mix the materials. The spoon is held on the bottom of the dish, and the materials rubbed and pressed together as much as possible. It is not essential to always stir one way. The object of beating is to get air into the mixture to make it lighter, which is done by continuously lifting it up in the same way; therefore a beaten mixture must not be stirred, or the imprisoned bubbles of air will be broken and the result of the beating lost.

HOW TO STONE OLIVES

With a sharp-pointed knife cut through the olive to the stone on the blossom end and pare off the meat, turning the olive around three times, keeping the knife at not too sharp an angle close to the stone. The meat will then be in one curled piece, which can be pressed into its original shape again.

HOW TO CUT BACON

Place the bacon on a board with the rind down. With a very sharp knife slice the bacon very thin down to the rind, but do not try to cut through it. When enough slices are cut, run the knife under, keeping it close to the rind, and the slices will be free.

HOW TO EXTRACT ONION JUICE

Cut an onion across and press it against a coarse grater, moving it a very little; the juice will then run off the point of the grater.

CARAMEL

Caramel is used to color soup, gravies, etc., and serves also as a flavoring for desserts. It must be used with care for coloring, as it also sweetens. The flavor of caramel depends upon the degree to which the sugar is cooked before the water is added. It grows stronger as it becomes browner.

Put one half cupful of granulated sugar and two tablespoonfuls of water into a granite-ware saucepan, stir until the sugar has melted, then let it cook without stirring until it has turned dark brown, but not black, then add one half cupful of hot water, and let it simmer until the sugar is dissolved and cooked to a thin syrup.

TO MAKE ROUX

Put one tablespoonful of butter into a saucepan. When it bubbles add one tablespoonful of flour and let them cook together for a few minutes, stirring all the time. If it is to be used as thickening for a white sauce or soup, do not let it color. If for brown soup or sauce, let it become brown. This amount is sufficient to thicken one cupful of milk or of stock, to make a sauce, or to thicken one pint or more of soup.

Roux can be prepared and kept in jars ready for use. The proportion of equal quantities of butter and flour is usually taken, and is the rule, but in some cases double the flour is used. The flour cooked in this way gives a better result than when rubbed with the butter and stirred into the liquid. Cooking flour in hot fat seems to more surely burst the starch-grains, which removes the raw taste it is likely to have if cooked only in the boiling liquid.

TO MARINATE

Make a mixture in the proportion of three tablespoonfuls of vinegar to two of oil, one teaspoonful of salt, one quarter teaspoonful of pepper, one bay-leaf, one teaspoonful onion juice, and a sprig of parsley. Put it on a flat dish and lay any cooked or raw meat in the marinade for an hour or more before using, turning the pieces often. Enough flavor is absorbed to much improve meats or fish to be used for salads, fish to be fried or boiled, and other cases given in receipts. The onion juice may be omitted if desired.

SALPICON

A salpicon is a mixture of cooked meats, which are cut into dice and combined with a sauce, mushrooms, and truffles. Chicken, sweetbreads, and tongue mixed with mushrooms and truffles and moistened with a BÉchamel sauce, is a combination often used. Salpicon is used in timbales, patties, and vol-au-vent. A mixture of fruits seasoned with sugar and wine is also called a salpicon.

SEASONING AND FLAVORING.

Condiments. The savoriness of a dish can often be much enhanced by adding a few drops of Worcestershire sauce, of mushroom or tomato catsup, of kitchen bouquet, by a few celery seeds, a bay-leaf, or a sprig of some dried herb. A little tarragon vinegar or a few capers will often much improve a salad.

Almonds.A half dozen chopped almonds will greatly improve a bread pudding or any other simple dessert.
Orange peel.A few shreds of candied orange peel will give a delicious flavor to puddings, sauces, and cake.

A flavor of almonds, orange- or rose-water, sherry, or maraschino, will be an agreeable change from vanilla, and much more wholesome.

Some cooks feel they are called upon to do fancy cooking if expected to use a bay-leaf or an almond; others feel a receipt is extravagant or impracticable if it calls for anything in the line of flavors beyond salt and pepper, lemon juice, vanilla, or raisins; but there is no more extravagance in using different condiments than in using always the same, or those which from habit have established themselves in the favor of every housekeeper. None of the condiments are expensive, and so little is used at a time that one bottleful lasts a long time. All the flavoring extracts are the same price, and the expense of a few almonds is only nominal, therefore it is a pity not to have a variety of such articles in the dresser, and give variety to dishes by at least the very simple means of changing flavors. A cottage pudding with a little shredded orange peel, nuts, or cocoanut in it, or with a chocolate, wine, or mÉringue sauce, will be an agreeable change from the plain pudding with hard sauce. The same may be said of a corn-starch or a rice pudding, of a custard, and of many other things.

CROÛTONS AND CROUSTADES

CroÛtons or crusts are used in pea, bean, and all cream soups, for garnishing all kinds of stewed dishes, and for any dish with which toast would be acceptable. When cut large and filled they are called croustades.

To make croÛtons or croustades, cut bread into the desired shape and sautÉ the pieces in hot butter, or dip them in melted butter and toast them carefully in the oven, turning frequently, so they will be evenly colored; or they may be fried in smoking-hot fat. They should be crisp and dry and the color of amber.

They are made of various sizes and shapes to suit the uses they are to serve. For soups the bread is cut into cubes one quarter inch square or into fancy shapes; for garnishing meat dishes they are cut into diamonds, squares, triangles, and circles; for sippets to eat with boiled eggs, into strips one half inch wide and four inches long; for poached eggs, into circles four inches in diameter.

For Soups. To make croÛtons for soup, cut bread into slices one quarter of an inch thick, take off the crust, then cut it into strips one quarter of an inch wide and then across into even squares; or with vegetable cutters cut the sliced bread into fancy shapes.

Triangles. For triangles, cut a slice of bread one half inch thick, then into strips one and a quarter inches wide, then into pieces two or three inches long, then diagonally across.

Pyramidal Pieces. For pyramidal pieces, cut the bread into one inch squares and cut diagonally across the cube. When used for garnishing they may be moistened a little on one side with white of egg, and will then stick to the dish sufficiently to hold in place. A circle of pyramidal pieces makes a good border to inclose minced meat, creamed fish, etc.

Circles. Circles for poached eggs are cut with a biscuit cutter three inches in diameter, and may be toasted in the ordinary way if preferred.

Boxes. For boxes cut bread from which the crust has been removed into pieces two and a half inches thick, two and a half inches wide and three and a half inches long, then with a pointed knife cut a line around the inside one half of an inch from the edge and carefully remove the crumb, leaving a box with sides and bottom one half inch in thickness. The boxes may be cut round if preferred, using two sizes of biscuit cutters. They are browned the same as other croÛtons, and are used for creamed spinach, creamed chicken, creamed fish, etc.

A five cent square loaf of bread cuts to good advantage.

CHARTREUSE

Chartreuse is a liqueur made by the monks of the French monastery of Grande Chartreuse; but a class of dishes has also been given this name, where two or more foods are used one of which conceals the others. The story goes that on fast days the monks were thus able to indulge in forbidden food, and savory viands were hidden under cabbage or other severely plain articles. Chartreuses are made by lining a mold with rice, a vegetable, or a forcemeat, and filling the center with a different food. Two vegetables are sometimes so combined, but more often game or meats are inclosed in rice and served with a good sauce. (See illustration facing page 190.)

En Bellevue. Fruits are made into chartreuses by inclosing them in blanc-mange or puddings. When meats are molded in aspic jelly they are called “En Bellevue” as in this case they are not concealed.