[106] Reference, Emerton, MediÆval Europe, pp. 201–209.

[107] The word cardinal (Latin, cardinalis, principal) was applied to the priests of the various parishes in Rome, to the several deacons connected with the Lateran,—which was the cathedral church of the Roman bishopric,—and, lastly, to six or seven suburban bishops who officiated in turn in the Lateran. The title became a very distinguished one and was sought by ambitious prelates and ecclesiastical statesmen, like Wolsey, Richelieu, and Mazarin. If their official titles were examined, it would be found that each was nominally a cardinal bishop, priest, or deacon of some Roman church. The number of cardinals varied until fixed, in 1586, at six bishops, fifty priests, and fourteen deacons.

[108] The decree of 1059 is to be found in Henderson, Historical Documents, p. 361.

[109] For text of the Dictatus, see Readings, Chapter XIII. The most complete statement of Gregory's view of the responsibility of the papacy for the civil government is to be found in his famous letter to the Bishop of Metz (1081), Readings, Chapter XIII.

[110] For this letter, see Colby, Sources, p. 37.

[111] Reissues of this decree in 1078 and 1080 are given in the Readings, Chapter XIII.

[112] To be found in the Readings, Chapter XIII.

[113] Henry's letter and one from the German bishops to the pope are both in Henderson, Historical Documents, pp. 372–376.

[114] Gregory's deposition and excommunication of Henry may be found in the Readings, Chapter XIII.

[115] For Gregory's own account of the affair at Canossa, see Readings, Chapter XIII.

[116] For a fuller account of the troubles between Gregory and Henry, see Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages, pp. 183–210; Emerton, MediÆval Europe, pp. 240–259.

[117] See Readings, Chapter XIII.

[118] For the emperors Lothaire (1125–1137) and Conrad III (1138–1152), the first of the Hohenstaufens, see Emerton, MediÆval Europe, pp. 271–282.

[119] Something will be said of the mediÆval towns in Chapter XVIII.

[120] Reference, Emerton, MediÆval Europe, pp. 271–291.

[121] Reference, Emerton, MediÆval Europe, pp. 293–297.

[122] The origin of the name Ghibelline, applied to the adherents of the emperor in Italy, is not known; it may be derived from Waibling, a castle of the Hohenstaufens.

[123] The attention of the adventurous Normans had been called to southern Italy early in the eleventh century by some of their people who, in their wanderings, had been stranded there and had found plenty of opportunities to fight under agreeable conditions for one or another of the local rival princes. From marauding mercenaries, they soon became the ruling race. They extended their conquests from the mainland to Sicily, and by 1140 they had united all southern Italy into a single kingdom. The popes had naturally taken a lively interest in the new and strong power upon the confines of their realms. They skillfully arranged to secure a certain hold upon the growing kingdom by inducing Robert Guiscard, the most famous of the Norman leaders, to recognize the pope as his feudal lord; in 1059 he became the vassal of Nicholas II.

[124] For John's cession of England and oath of vassalage, see Henderson, Historical Documents, pp. 430–432. For the interdict, see Colby, Sources, pp. 72–73.

[125] For the career and policy of Innocent III, see Emerton, MediÆval Europe, pp. 314–343.

[126] An excellent account of Frederick's life is given by Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages, pp. 349–397.

[127] For the speech of Urban, see Readings, Chapter XV.

[128] The privileges of the crusaders may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. I, No. 2.

[129] For Peter the Hermit, see Translations and Reprints, Vol. I, No. 2.

[130] For the routes taken by the different crusading armies, see the accompanying map.

[131] For an account of the prowess of Richard the Lion-Hearted, see Colby, Sources, pp. 68–70.

[132] Heraldry may be definitely ascribed to the Crusades, for it grew up from the necessity of distinguishing the various groups of knights. Some of its terms, for example, gules (red) and azur, are of Arabic origin.

[133] References. For the highly developed civilization which the crusaders found in Constantinople, Munro, MediÆval History, Chapter X. For the culture of the Saracens, see the same work, Chapter IX.

[134] The law of the Church was known as the canon law. It was taught in most of the universities and practiced by a great number of lawyers. It was based upon the acts of the various church councils, from that of NicÆa down, and, above all, upon the decrees and decisions of the popes. See Emerton, MediÆval Europe, pp. 582–592.

One may get some idea of the business of the ecclesiastical courts from the fact that the Church claimed the right to try all cases in which a clergyman was involved, or any one connected with the Church or under its special protection, such as monks, students, crusaders, widows, orphans, and the helpless. Then all cases where the rites of the Church, or its prohibitions, were involved came ordinarily before the church courts, as, for example, those concerning marriage, wills, sworn contracts, usury, blasphemy, sorcery, heresy, and so forth.

[135] Many of the edicts, decisions, and orders of the popes were called bulls from the seal (Latin, bulla) attached to them.

[136] For an illustration of provinces and bishoprics, see accompanying map of France showing the ecclesiastical divisions. The seats of the archbishops are indicated by ; those of the bishops by .

[137] See below, § 81.

[138] Except those monasteries and orders whose members were especially exempted by the pope from the jurisdiction of the bishops.

[139] Those clergymen who enjoyed the revenue from the endowed offices connected with a cathedral church were called canons. The office of canon was an honorable one and much sought after, partly because the duties were light and could often be avoided altogether. A scholar like Petrarch might look to such an office as a means of support without dreaming of performing any of the religious services which the position implied. For an account of the relations between the chapter and the bishop, see Emerton, MediÆval Europe, pp. 549–550.

[140] It should be remembered that only a part of the priests were intrusted with the care of souls in a parish. There were many priests among the wandering monks, of whom something will be said presently. See below, § 91. There were also many chantry priests whose main function was saying masses for the dead in chapels and churches endowed with revenue or lands by those who in this way provided for the repose of their souls or those of their descendants. See below, p. 213.

[141] For several centuries the Sentences were used as the text-book in all the divinity schools. Theologians established their reputations by writing commentaries upon them. One of Luther's first acts of revolt was to protest against giving the study of the Sentences preference over that of the Bible in the universities.

[142] All the sacraments,—e.g. orders and matrimony,—are not necessary to every one. Moreover, the sincere wish suffices if one is so situated that he cannot possibly actually receive the sacraments.

[143] Confession was a very early practice in the Church. Innocent III and the fourth Lateran Council made it obligatory by requiring the faithful to confess at least once a year, at Easter time. For sacraments, see Readings, Chapter XVI.

[144] See above, p. 183, and Translations and Reprints, Vol. IV, No. 4, for examples of the interdict and excommunication.

[145] The privilege of being tried by churchmen, which all connected with the Church claimed, was called benefit of clergy. See Readings, Chapter XVI.

[146] The bishops still constitute an important element in the upper houses of parliament in several European countries.

[147] For a satire of the thirteenth century on the papal court, see Emerton, MediÆval Europe, p. 475.

[148] It must not be forgotten that the monks were regarded as belonging to the clergy. For the various new orders of monks and the conditions in the monasteries, see Munro, MediÆval History, Chapter XII, and Jessopp, Coming of the Friars, Chapter III, "Daily Life in a MediÆval Monastery."

[149] See Readings, Chapter XVII.

[150] See Readings, Chapter XVII, for the beliefs of the Albigenses.

[151] Examples of these decrees are given in Translations and Reprints, Vol. III, No. 6.

[152] His son married an English lady, became a leader of the English barons, and was the first to summon the commons to Parliament. See above, pp. 146–147.

[153] For the form of relaxation and other documents relating to the Inquisition, see Translations and Reprints, Vol. III, No. 6.

[154] The whole rule is translated by Henderson, Historical Documents, p. 344.

[155] In Italy and southern France town life was doubtless more general.

[156] The peasants were the tillers of the soil. They were often called villains, a word derived from vill.

[157] The manner in which serfs disappeared in England will be described later.

[158] Reference, Munro, MediÆval History, Chapter XIV, where the subject of this chapter is treated in a somewhat different way.

[159] In Germany the books published annually in the German language did not exceed those in Latin until after 1680.

[160] Even the monks and others who wrote Latin in the Middle Ages were unable to follow strictly the rules of the language. Moreover, they introduced many new words to meet the new conditions and the needs of the time, such as imprisonare, imprison; utlagare, to outlaw; baptizare, to baptize; foresta, forest; feudum, fief, etc.

[161] See above, pp. 94–95.

[162]

"Bytuene Mershe and Avoril
When spray beginneth to springe,
The little foul (bird) hath hire wyl
On hyre lud (voice) to synge."

[163] Of course there was no sharp line of demarcation between the people who used the one language and the other, nor was ProvenÇal confined to southern France. The language of Catalonia, beyond the Pyrenees, was essentially the same as that of Provence. French was called langue d'oÏl, and the southern language langue d'oc, each after the word used for "yes."

[164] The Song of Roland is translated into spirited English verse by O'Hagan, London, 1880.

[165] The reader will find a beautiful example of a French romance of the twelfth century in an English translation of Aucassin and Nicolette (Mosher, Portland, Me.). Mr. Steele gives charming stories of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in Huon of Bordeaux, Renaud of Montauban, and The Story of Alexander (Allen, London). Malory's Mort d'Arthur, a collection of the stories of the Round Table made in the fifteenth century for English readers, is the best place to turn for these famous stories.

[166] An excellent idea of the spirit and character of the troubadours and of their songs may be got from Justin H. Smith, Troubadours at Home (G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York). See Readings, Chapter XIX.

[167] Reference, Henderson, Short History of Germany, Vol. I, pp. 111–121.

[168] See Steele's MediÆval Lore for examples of the science of the Middle Ages. For the curious notions of the world and its inhabitants, see the Travels, attributed to Sir John Mandeville. The best edition is published by The Macmillan Company, 1900. See Readings, Chapter XIX.

[169] The word miniature, which is often applied to them, is derived from minium, i.e., vermilion, which was one of the favorite colors. Later the word came to be applied to anything small. See the frontispiece for an example of an illuminated page from a book of hours.

[170] So called because it was derived from the old Roman basilicas, or buildings in which the courts were held.

[171] In France as early as the twelfth century.

[172] Notice flying buttresses shown in the picture of Canterbury cathedral, p. 208.

[173] See Readings, Chapter XIX.

[174] The origin of the bachelor's degree, which comes at the end of our college course nowadays, may be explained as follows: The bachelor in the thirteenth century was a student who had passed part of his examinations in the course in "arts," as the college course was then called, and was permitted to teach certain elementary subjects before he became a full-fledged master. So the A.B. was inferior to the A.M. then as now. After finishing his college course and obtaining his A.M., the young teacher often became a student in one of the professional schools of law, theology, or medicine, and in time became a master in one of these sciences. The words master, doctor, and professor meant pretty much the same thing in the thirteenth century.

[175] An example of the scholastic method of reasoning of Thomas Aquinas may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. III, No. 6.

[176] Reference, Green, Short History of the English People, pp. 161–169.

[177] See above, p. 147.

[178] See above, pp. 127–128 and 130.

[179] See above, pp. 131–132.

[180] Formerly it was supposed that gunpowder helped to decide the battle in favor of the English, but if siege guns, which were already beginning to be used, were employed at all they were too crude and the charges too light to do much damage. For some generations to come the bow and arrow held its own; it was not until the sixteenth century that gunpowder came to be commonly and effectively used in battles.

[181] For the account of CrÉcy by Froissart, the celebrated historian of the fourteenth century, see Readings, Chapter XX.

[182] See above, pp. 131–132.

[183] Reference, Adams, Growth of the French Nation, pp. 116–123.

[184] For an example of the Statutes of Laborers, see Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 5, and Lee, Source-book of English History, pp. 206–208.

[185] For extracts, see Readings, Chapter XX.

[186] For description of manor, see above, pp. 234–235.

[187] For this younger line of the descendants of Edward I, see genealogical table below, p. 297.

[188] See above, p. 287.

[189] The title of Dauphin, originally belonging to the ruler of Dauphiny, was enjoyed by the eldest son of the French king after Dauphiny became a part of France in 1349, in the same way that the eldest son of the English king was called Prince of Wales.

[190] Reference, Green, Short History, pp. 274–281. For official account of the trial of Joan, see Colby, Sources, pp. 113–117.

[191] Descent of the Rival Houses of Lancaster and York

[192] References, Green, Short History, pp. 281–293, 299–303.

[193] See Readings, Chapter XX.

[194] Reference, Adams, Growth of the French Nation, pp. 121–123, 134–135.

[195] See above, p. 128.

[196] See geneological table above, p. 282.

[197] See below, Chapter XXIII.

[198] Reference, Adams, French Nation, pp. 136–142.

[199] See Readings, Chapter XXI.

[200] The name recalled of course the long exile of the Jews from their land.

[201] See Readings, Chapter XXI.

[202] For statutes, see Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 5, and Lee, Source-book, pp. 198–202.

[203] See above, p. 183.

[204] Reference, Green, Short History, pp. 235–244. For extracts, see Readings, Chapter XXI; Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 5; Lee, Source-book, for the treatment of the Lollards, as the followers of Wycliffe were called, pp. 209–223.

[205] The eighth and last of these eastern councils, which were regarded by the Roman Church as having represented all Christendom, occurred in Constantinople in 869. In 1123 the first Council of the Lateran assembled, and since that five or six Christian congresses had been convoked in the West. But these, unlike the earlier ones, were regarded as merely ratifying the wishes of the pope, who completely dominated the assembly and published its decrees in his own name.

[206] See above, pp. 202–203.

[207]

[208] See above, pp. 222–223.

[209] For examples of the general criticism of the abuses in the Church, see Translations and Reprints, Vol. III, No. 6.

[210] This decree, Frequens, may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. III, No. 6.

[211] On account of an outbreak of sickness the council was transferred to Florence.

[212] See above, p. 186.

[213] This word, although originally French, has come into such common use that it is quite permissible to pronounce it as if it were English,—r?-na'sens.

[214] See above, p. 27.

[215] See above, pp. 198–199 and 243.

[216] See above, pp. 174 sqq.

[218] A single example will suffice. Through intrigue and misrepresentation on the part of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, the Marquis of Ferrara became so wildly jealous of his nephew that he beheaded the young man and his mother, then burned his own wife and hung a fourth member of the family.

[219] See above, pp. 31–32.

[220] The translation of The Banquet in Morley's "Universal Library" is very poor, but that of Miss Hillard (London, 1889) is good and is supplied with helpful notes.

[221] See the close of the fourth canto of the Inferno.

[222] See above, pp. 271–272.

[223] Copies of the Æneid, of Horace's Satires, of certain of Cicero's Orations, of Ovid, Seneca, and a few other authors, were apparently by no means uncommon during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. It seemed, however, to Petrarch, who had learned through the references of Cicero, St. Augustine, and others, something of the original extent of Latin literature, that treasures of inestimable value had been lost by the shameful indifference of the Middle Ages. "Each famous author of antiquity whom I recall," he indignantly exclaims, "places a new offense and another cause of dishonor to the charge of later generations, who, not satisfied with their own disgraceful barrenness, permitted the fruit of other minds and the writings that their ancestors had produced by toil and application, to perish through shameful neglect. Although they had nothing of their own to hand down to those who were to come after, they robbed posterity of its ancestral heritage."

[224] Petrarch's own remarkable account of his life and studies, which he gives in his famous "Letter to Posterity," may be found in Robinson and Rolfe, Petrarch, pp. 59–76.

[225] See above, pp. 45–46.

[226] Historians formerly supposed that it was only after Constantinople was captured by the Turks in 1453 that Greek scholars fled west and took with them the knowledge of their language and literature. The facts given above serve as a sufficient refutation of this oft-repeated error.

[227] In Whitcomb, Source Book of the Italian Renaissance, pp. 70 sqq., interesting accounts of these libraries may be found, written by Vespasiano, the most important book dealer of the time.

[228] Manuscript, manu scriptum, means simply written by hand.

[229] The closing lines (i.e., the so-called colophon) of the second edition of the Psalter which are here reproduced, are substantially the same as those of the first edition. They may be translated as follows: "The present volume of the Psalms, which is adorned with handsome capitals and is clearly divided by means of rubrics, was produced not by writing with a pen but by an ingenious invention of printed characters; and was completed to the glory of God and the honor of St. James by John Fust, a citizen of Mayence, and Peter Schoifher of Gernsheim, in the year of our Lord 1459, on the 29th of August."

[230] Note the similarity in form of the letters in the accompanying illustration and those in the illuminated page which serves as the frontispiece of this volume. It is not easy at first sight to tell some early printed books from the best manuscripts. It may be observed that the Germans still adhere to a type something like that used by the first printers.

[231] See above, pp. 261–262.

[232] See above, p. 263.

[233] With the appearance of the mendicant orders, preaching again became an important part of the church service, and pulpits were erected in the body of the church, where the people could gather around them. These pulpits offered a fine opportunity to the sculptor and were often very elaborate and beautiful.

[234] The frescoes in Pompeii and other slight remnants of ancient painting were not discovered till much later.

[235] In the church of Santa Croce in Florence and in that of St. Francis at Assisi.

[236] Fra is an abbreviation of frate, brother.

[237] See below, pp. 361, 363, 364.

[238] One of the most celebrated among the other Florentine painters of the period was Botticelli. He differs from most of his contemporaries in being at his best in easel pictures. His poetic conceptions, the graceful lines of his draperies, and the pensive charm of his faces have especially inspired a famous school of English painters in our own day—the Preraphaelites.

[239] See below, pp. 364, 365.

[240] Leonardo was an engineer and inventor as well.

[241] Compare his Holy Family with the reproduction of one of Giotto's paintings, in order to realize the great change in art between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries.

[242] See his portrait of Erasmus below, p. 382.

[243] For an example of the magnificent bronze work produced in Germany in the early sixteenth century, see the statues of Philip the Good and Charles the Bold, pp. 300, 301, above.

[244] See his portrait of Charles I below, p. 480.

[245] Marco Polo's travels can easily be had in English; for example, in The Story of Marco Polo, by Noah Brooks, Century Company, 1898. A certain Franciscan monk, William of Rubruk, visited the far East somewhat earlier than the Polo brothers. The account of his journey, as well as the experiences of other mediÆval travelers, may be found in The Travels of Sir John Mandeville, published by The Macmillan Company, 1900.

[246] See map above, pp. 242–243.

[247] Reference, Cambridge Modern History, Chapter I.

[248] Reference, Cambridge Modern History, Chapter II. Kingsley has described these mariners in his Westward Ho. He derives his notions of them from the collection of voyages made by an English geographer, Hakluyt (died 1616). Some of these are published by Payne, Voyages of Elizabethan Seamen (Clarendon Press, 2 vols., $1.25 each).

[249] See above, pp. 85, 151 sq., and Chapters XIII–XIV.

[250] Rudolf, like many of his successors, was strictly speaking only king of the Romans, since he was never crowned emperor at Rome. See above, pp. 152 n., 185.

[251] From 1438 to 1806 only two emperors belonged to another family than the Hapsburgs.

[252] See above, p. 301.

[253] See above, p. 71.

[254] See map above, following p. 152.

[255] No one can gaze upon the great castle and palace of the Alhambra, which was built for the Moorish kings, without realizing what a high degree of culture the Moors had attained. Its beautiful and impressive arcades, its magnificent courts, and the delicate tracery of its arches represent the highest achievement of Arabic architecture.

[256] See above, pp. 224–225.

[257]

[258] It will be remembered that the popes, in their long struggle with Frederick II and the Hohenstaufens, finally called in Charles of Anjou, the brother of St. Louis, and gave to him both Naples and Sicily. See above, p. 185. Sicily revolted in 1282 and was united with the kingdom of Aragon, which still held it when Charles V came to the Spanish throne. The older branch of the house of Anjou died out in 1435 and Naples was conquered by the king of Aragon, and was still in his family when Charles VIII undertook his Italian expedition. The younger branch of the house of Anjou had never reigned in Naples, but its members were careful to retain their asserted title to it, and, upon the death of their last representative, this title was transferred to Louis XI. He, however, prudently refused to attempt to oust the Aragonese usurpers, as he had quite enough to do at home.

[259] See above, p. 327.

[260] More important for France than the arrangements mentioned above was the so-called Concordat, or agreement, between Francis and the pope in regard to the selection of the French prelates. Francis was given the privilege of appointing the archbishops, bishops, and abbots, and in this way it came about that he and his successors had many rich offices to grant to their courtiers and favorites. He agreed in return that the pope should receive a part of the first year's revenue from the more important offices in the Church of France. The pope was, moreover, thereafter to be regarded as superior to a council, a doctrine which had been denied by the French monarchs since the Council of Basel. The arrangements of the Concordat of 1516 were maintained down to the French Revolution.

[261] See below, p. 428–429.

[262] The Catholic Church, on the other hand, held that certain important teachings, institutions, and ceremonies, although not expressly mentioned in the Bible, were nevertheless sanctioned by "tradition." That is, they had been handed down orally from Christ and his apostles as a sacred heritage to the Church, and like the Bible were to be received as from God. See Readings, Chapter XXIV.

[263] For the origin of these and of the other ecclesiastical states of Germany, see above, p. 156.

[264] The manner in which the numerous and often important ecclesiastical states all disappeared in Napoleon's time will become clear later. See below, § 244.

[265] See above, pp. 117 sqq. For the German law permitting feuds, see Henderson, Historical Documents, p. 246. In 1467, the German diet ventured to forbid neighborhood war for five years. It was not, however, permanently prohibited until a generation later.

[266] For example, in one of the books of instruction for the priest we find that he is warned, when he quotes the Bible, to say to the people that he is not translating it word for word from the Latin, for otherwise they are likely to go home and find a different wording from his in their particular version and then declare that the priest had made a mistake.

[267] Some seventeen universities had been established by German rulers and towns in a little over one hundred years. The oldest of them was founded in 1348 at Prague. Several of these institutions, for example, Leipsic, Vienna, and Heidelberg, are still ranked among the leading universities of the world.

[268] See above, § 104.

[269]

For examples of these Letters of Obscure Men, see Whitcomb, Source Book of the German Renaissance, pp. 67 sq., and Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 6. The peculiar name of the satire is due to the fact that Reuchlin's sympathizers wrote him many letters of encouragement, which he published under the title, Letters of Celebrated Men to John Reuchlin. The humanists then pitched upon the modest title, Letters of Obscure Men, for the supposed correspondence of the admirers of the monks. The following is an example of the "obscure men's" poetry. One of them goes to Hagenau and meets a certain humanist, Wolfgang Angst, who, the writer complains, struck him in the eye with his staff.

Et ivi hinc ad Hagenau
Da wurden mir die Augen blau
Per te, Wolfgang Angst,
Gott gib das du hangst,
Quia me cum baculo
Percusseras in oculo.

[270] See below, pp. 426–7.

[271] This may be had in English, published by Scribner's Sons ($1.25) or Brentano ($1.25).

[272] See above, pp. 317–318.

[273] See above, p. 203.

[274] The Augustinian order, to which Luther belonged, was organized in the thirteenth century, a little later than the Dominican and the Franciscan.

[275] He writes exultingly to a friend: "Our kind of theology reigns supreme in the university; only one who lectures on the Bible, Augustine, or some real Church father, can reckon on any listeners; and Aristotle sinks lower and lower every day." In this way he sought to discredit Peter Lombard, Aquinas, and all the writers who were then most popular in the theological schools. Walker, The Reformation, pp. 77–91.

[276] See above, p. 211–212.

[277] It is a common mistake of Protestants to suppose that the indulgence was forgiveness granted beforehand for sins to be committed in the future. There is absolutely no foundation for this idea. A person proposing to sin could not possibly be contrite in the eyes of the Church, and even if he secured an indulgence it would, according to the theologians, have been quite worthless.

[278] See above, p. 344.

[279] The complete text of the theses may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 6.

[280] See above, p. 209, for the Church's doctrine of the "indelible character" which the priest received at ordination.

[281] See above, §§ 81–82. The two great works of Luther, here mentioned, as well as his Freedom of the Christian, in which he explains his own doctrine very simply, may be found translated in Wace and Buchheim, Luther's Primary Works.

[282] It must be remembered that it was the emperor's business to execute the law, not to discuss its propriety with the accused. In the same way nowadays, should a man convicted, for example, of bigamy urge that he believed it Scriptural to have two wives, the court would refuse to listen to his arguments and would sentence him to the penalty imposed by law, in spite of the fact that the prisoner believed that he had committed no wrong.

[283] The text of the Edict of Worms is published in English in the Historical Leaflets issued by the Crozer Theological Seminary, Chester, Pa.

[284] See Readings, Chapter XXVI.

[285] See below, § 167.

[286] The "Twelve Articles" may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 6.

[287] The Protest of Speyer is to be had in English in the Historical Leaflets published by the Crozer Theological Seminary, Chester, Pa.

[288] For the successive wars between Charles and Francis and the terrible sack of Rome in 1527, see Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, pp. 172–175 and 181–195.

[289] It is still accepted as the creed of the Lutheran Church. Copies of it in English may be procured from the Lutheran Publication Society, Philadelphia, for ten cents each.

[290] Reference, Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, Chapter V; Walker, The Reformation, pp. 188–216.

[291] See above, p. 300.

[292] This condition has not changed; all Swiss laws are still proclaimed in three languages.

[293] Switzerland had made a business, ever since the time when Charles VIII of France invaded Italy, of supplying troops of mercenaries to fight for others, especially for France and the pope. It was the Swiss who gained the battle of Marignano for Francis I, and Swiss guards may still be seen in the pope's palace.

[294] So eloquent was the new preacher that one of his auditors reports that after a sermon he felt as if "he had been taken by the hair and turned inside out."

[295] See above, pp. 212–213.

[296] For Zwingli's life and work see the scholarly biography by Samuel Macauley Jackson, Huldreich Zwingli (G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1901).

[297] See below, p. 452.

[298] Calvin intrusted the management of church affairs to the ministers and the elders, or presbyters, hence the name Presbyterian. For Calvin's work, see Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, pp. 272–276.

[299] See above, p. 382.

[300] An English translation of the Utopia is published by the Macmillan Company at 50 cents.

[301] See above, § 139.

[302] The clergy only recognized the king as "Head of the Church and Clergy so far as the law of Christ will allow." They did not abjure the headship of the pope over the whole Church.

[303] These were the sufficiency of the bread without the wine for the laity in partaking of the communion;[A] the celibacy of the clergy; the perpetual obligation of vows to remain unmarried; the propriety of private masses; and, lastly, of confession. The act was popularly known as "the whip with six strings."

[A] The custom of the Church had long been that the priest alone should partake of the wine at communion. The Hussites, and later the Protestants, demanded that the laity should receive both the bread and the wine.

[304]

It was arranged that the son was to succeed to the throne. In case he died without heirs, Mary and then Elizabeth were to follow.

[305] These may be found in any Book of Common Prayer of the English Church or of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States.

[306] For an extract from the Bishop of Worcester's diary, recording these changes, see Readings, Chapter XXVII.

[307] The Catholics in their turn, it should be noted, suffered serious persecution under Elizabeth and James I, the Protestant successors of Mary. Death was the penalty fixed in many cases for those who obstinately refused to recognize the monarch as the rightful head of the English Church, and heavy fines were imposed for the failure to attend Protestant worship. Two hundred Catholic priests are said to have been executed under Elizabeth; others were tortured or perished miserably in prison. See below, p. 462, and Green, Short History, pp. 407–410.

[308] There is an admirable account of the spirit of the conservative reformers in the Cambridge Modern History, Vol. I, Chapter XVIII.

[309] Protestant writers commonly call the reformation of the mediÆval Catholic Church the "counter-reformation" or "Catholic reaction," as if Protestantism were entirely responsible for it. It is clear, however, that the conservative reform began some time before the Protestants revolted. Their secession from the Church only stimulated a movement already well under way. See Maurenbrecher, Geschichte der Katholischen Reformation.

[310] They may be had in English, Decrees and Canons of the Council of Trent, translated by Rev. J. Waterworth, London and New York. See extracts from the acts of the council in Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 6.

[311] See Readings, Chapter XXVIII.

[312] Reference, Parkman's, Jesuits in North America, Vol. I, Chapters II and X.

[313] Division of the Hapsburg Possessions between the Spanish and the German Branches

The map of Europe in the sixteenth century (see above, p. 372) indicates the vast extent of the combined possessions of the Spanish and German Hapsburgs.

[314] Reference, Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, Chapter VIII.

[315] It is impossible in so brief an account to relate the heroic deeds of the Dutch, such, for example, as the famous defence of Leyden. The American historian Motley gives a vivid description of this in his well-known Rise of the Dutch Republic, Part IV, Chapter II. The most recent and authoritative account of the manner in which the Dutch won their independence is to be found in the third volume of A History of the People of the Netherlands, by the Dutch scholar Blok, translated by Ruth Putnam (G.P. Putnam's Sons, 3 vols., $7.50). Miss Putnam's own charming William the Silent (G.P. Putnam's Sons, 2 vols., with many fine illustrations, $3.75) gives an impressive picture of the tremendous odds which he faced and of his marvellous patience and perseverance.

[316] Reference, Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, pp. 386–389.

[317] See Readings, Chapter XXVIII.

[319] The origin of this name is uncertain.

[320] Reference for Henry IV, Wakeman, Europe from 1598–1715, Chapter I.

[321] Reference, Schwill, History of Modern Europe, Chapter VI, or a somewhat fuller account in Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, Chapter IX.

[322] Reference, Green, Short History, pp. 370–376, 392–405.

[323] For English mariners and their voyages and conflicts with Spain, see Froude's English Seamen in the Fifteenth Century. The account of Drake's voyage is on pp. 75–103. See also "The Famous Voyage of Sir Francis Drake," by one of Drake's gentlemen at arms, in E.J. Payne's Voyages of Elizabethan Seamen to America, Vol. I, pp. 196–229, Oxford, 1893.

[324] See above, p. 62.

[325] Reference for life and death of Mary Stuart, Green, Short History, pp. 379–392, 416–417.

[326] References, Green, Short History of the English People, pp. 418–420; Froude, English Seamen, pp. 176–228.

[327] Reference, Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, Chapter VII, §§ 1 and 3.

[328] See above, pp. 419–420.

[329] Reference, Wakeman, Europe from 1598-1715, Chapter III.

[330] Wallenstein (b. 1583) had been educated in the Catholic faith, although he came of a family with Hussite sympathies.

[331] Reference, Wakeman, Europe from 1598-1715, Chapter IV.

[332] Reference, Wakeman, Europe from 1598-1715, Chapter V.

[333] See above, p. 452.

[334] Reference, Wakeman, Europe from 1598-1715, Chapter VI. For a brief and excellent review of the whole war, see Schwill, Modern Europe, pp. 141–160.

[335] See above, p. 467.

[336] See above, p. 273.

[337] See the translators' dedication to James I in the authorized version of the Bible. Only recently has it been deemed necessary to revise the remarkable work of the translators of the early seventeenth century. Modern scholars discovered very few serious mistakes in this authorized version, but found it expedient for the sake of clearness to modernize a number of words and expressions.

[338] See Lee, Source-book of English History, pp. 348–352.

[339] See Lee, Source-book of English History, pp. 352–355, for the first writ of ship money.

[340] See above, p. 426, n. 1.

[341] The name Puritan, it should be noted, was applied loosely to the English Protestants, whether Low Churchmen, Presbyterians, or Independents, who aroused the antagonism of their neighbors by advocating a godly life and opposing popular pastimes, especially on Sunday.

[342] Reference, Green, Short History, pp. 595–614. For a contemporary account of Puritans, see Readings, Chapter XXX.

[343] Reference, Lee, Source-book of English History, pp. 355–357.

[344] Reference for Cromwell's early career and his generalship, Green, Short History, pp. 554–559.

[345] For charge against the king, etc., see Lee, Source-book of English History, pp. 364–372.

[346] Reference, Green, Short History, pp. 580–588, 594–600.

[347] See below, p. 502.

[348] Reference, Wakeman, Europe from 1598-1715, Chapter VII.

[349] Louis does not appear to have himself used the famous expression, "I am the state," usually attributed to him, but it exactly corresponds to his idea of the relation of the king and the state.

[350] Reference, Perkins, France under the Regency, pp. 129–141.

[351] Reference, Perkins, France under the Regency, Chapter IV.

[352] Reference, Perkins, France under the Regency, pp. 141–147.

[353] See above, pp. 488 and 492, 493.

[354] See below, pp. 517–518.

[355] Reference, Perkins, France under the Regency, Chapter VI.

[356] The title Tsar, or Czar, was formerly supposed to be connected with CÆsar (German, Kaiser), i.e., emperor, but this appears to have been a mistake.

[357] References, Schwill, Modern Europe, pp. 215–230; Wakeman, European History from 1598-1715, pp. 300–308.

[358] See above, p. 196.

[359] The title King of Prussia appeared preferable to the more natural King of Brandenburg, because Prussia lay wholly without the empire, and consequently its king was not in any sense subject to the emperor but was wholly independent. Since western Prussia still belonged to Poland in 1701 the new king satisfied himself at first with the title, King in Prussia.

[360] Reference, Schwill, Modern Europe, pp. 230–238.

[361] Reference, Schwill, Modern Europe, pp. 238–247.

[362] Reference, Hassall, The Balance of Power, pp. 18, 19, 303–317. See map below, p. 584.

[363] The last instance in which an English ruler vetoed a measure passed by Parliament was in 1707.

[364] See above, pp. 278–280.

[365] Originally there had been but seven electors (see above, p. 372), but the duke of Bavaria had been made an elector during the Thirty Years' War, and in 1692 the father of George I had been permitted to assume the title of Elector of Hanover.

[366] Wolsey, it will be remembered, had advanced the same reason in Henry VIII's time for England's intervention in continental wars. See above, p. 428.

[367] Except in 1718–1720, when she joined an alliance against Spain, and her admiral, Byng, destroyed the Spanish fleet.

[368] Derived from Jacobus, the Latin for James. The name was applied to the adherents of James II and of his son and grandson, the elder and younger pretenders to the throne.

[369] It will be remembered that the children of James II by his second and Catholic wife, Mary of Modena, were excluded from the throne at the accession of William and Mary. See genealogical table on preceding page.

[370] The Dutch occupation of a portion of the coast of North America was brought to an end, as has been mentioned, by the English. See above, p. 492.

[371] For the settlement of the English and French in North America, see Morris, The History of Colonization, Vol. I, Chapter X, and Vol. II, Chapter XVII; also Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, Vol. I, pp. 20–35.

[372] See above, p. 348.

[373] Baber claimed to be descended from an earlier invader, the famous Timur (or Tamerlane), who died in 1405. The so-called Mongol (or Mogul) emperors were really Turkish rather than Mongolian in origin. A very interesting account of them and their enlightenment may be found in Holden, The Mogul Emperors of Hindustan (Charles Scribner's Sons, $2.00).

[374] Reference, Perkins, France under Louis XV, Vol. I, Chapter XI.

[375] Reference, Green, Short History of the English People, pp. 776–786.

[376] See below, p. 568.

[377] The interior customs lines roughly coincided with the boundaries of the region of the great salt tax. See accompanying map.

[378] The figures indicate the various prices of a given amount of salt.

[379] See above, p. 366.

[380] Reference, Lowell, Eve of the French Revolution, Chapter III.

[381] See above, Chapter XVIII.

[382] Only a very small portion of the nobility were descendants of the ancient and illustrious families of France. The king could grant nobility to whom he would; moreover, many of the government offices, especially those of the higher judges, carried the privileges of nobility with them.

[383] Reference, Lowell, Eve of the French Revolution, Chapter XIII.

[384] See above, § 192.

[385] See Lowell, Eve of the French Revolution, pp. 116–118.

[386] See the account of Voltaire's defense of Calas in Perkins, Louis XV, Vol. II, pp. 198 sqq.

[387] See above, p. 500.

[388] Turgot, the leading economist of the time, argues that it would be quite sufficient if "the government should always protect the natural liberty of the buyer to buy, and of the seller to sell. For the buyer being always the master to buy or not to buy, it is certain that he will select among the sellers the man who will give him at the best bargain the goods that suit him best. It is not less certain that every seller, it being his chief interest to merit preference over his competitors, will sell in general the best goods and at the lowest price at which he can make a profit in order to attract customers. The merchant or manufacturer who cheats will be quickly discredited and lose his custom without the interference of government."

[389] Reference, Lowell, Eve of the French Revolution, Chapter II.

[390] Turgot succeeded in inducing the king to abolish the guilds and the forced labor on the roads, but the decrees were revoked after Turgot's dismissal. For an admirable short account of Turgot's life, ideas, and reforms, see Say, Turgot (McClurg, 75 cents).

[391] See Readings, Chapter XXIV.

[392] Reference, Lowell, Eve of the French Revolution, pp. 238–242.

[393] See above, pp. 131–132.

[394] Reference, H. Morse Stephens, The French Revolution, Vol. I, pp. 13–15, 20–24.

[395] Pronounced ka-ya'.

[396] Examples of the cahiers may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. IV, No. 5.

[397] Reference, Lowell, Eve of the French Revolution, Chapter XXI.

[398] Reference, Stephens, The French Revolution, Vol. I, pp. 128–145.

[399] Reference, Stephens, The French Revolution, Vol. I, Chapter VI.

[400] This decree may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. I, No. 5.

[401] Reference, Stephens, French Revolution, Vol. I, Chapter VII.

[402] See above, p. 568.

[403] The text of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. I, No. 5.

[404] Reference, Mathews, The French Revolution, Chapter XII.

[405] The formerly despotic king is represented as safely caged by the National Assembly. When asked by Marie Antoinette's brother what he is about, Louis XVI replies, "I am signing my name,"—that is, he had nothing to do except meekly to ratify the measures which the Assembly chose to pass.

[406] By June, 1791, there were four hundred and six of these affiliated clubs.

[407] A committee of the Convention was appointed to draw up a new republican calendar. The year was divided into twelve months of thirty days each. The five days preceding September 22, at the end of the year, were holidays. Each month was divided into three decades, and each "tenth day" (dÉcadi) was a holiday. The days were no longer dedicated to saints, but to agricultural implements, vegetables, domestic animals, etc.

[408] In former times it had been customary to inflict capital punishment by decapitating the victim with the sword. At the opening of the Revolution a certain Dr. Guillotin recommended a new device, which consisted of a heavy knife sliding downward between two uprights. This instrument, called after him, the guillotine, which is still used in France, was more speedy and certain in its action than the sword in the hands of the executioner.

[409] Reference, for the conduct of the terrorists and the executions at Paris, Nantes, and Lyons: Mathews, The French Revolution, Chapter XVII.

It should not be forgotten that very few of the people at Paris stood in any fear of the guillotine. The city during the Reign of Terror was not the gloomy place that we might imagine. Never did the inhabitants appear happier, never were the theaters and restaurants more crowded. The guillotine was making away with the enemies of liberty, so the women wore tiny guillotines as ornaments, and the children were given toy guillotines and amused themselves decapitating the figures of "aristocrats." See Stephens, French Revolution, Vol. II, pp. 343–361.

[410] The date of Robespierre's fall is generally known as the 9th Thermidor, the day and month of the republican calendar.

[411] There were about forty billions of francs in assignats in circulation at the opening of 1796. At that time it required nearly three hundred francs in paper money to procure one in specie.

[412] See above, pp. 326–327.

[413] Reference, Rose, Life of Napoleon, Vol. I, Chapter VIII.

[414] Reference, Rose, Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era, pp. 95, 96, 104–108, 114, 115.

[415] Reference, Rose, Life of Napoleon, Vol. I, pp. 144–148.

[416] Reference, Ibid., Chapter X.

[417] See above, § 134.

[418] Reference, Rose, Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era, pp. 132–133.

[419] The roads were dilapidated and the harbors filled with sand; taxes were unpaid, robbery prevailed, and there was a general decay in industry. A manufacturer in Paris who had employed sixty to eighty workmen now had but ten. The lace, paper, and linen industries were as good as destroyed.

[420] See above, pp. 572–573, 579–580.

[421] Reference, Rose, Life of Napoleon, Vol. I, Chapter XII.

[422] Reference, Rose, Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era, pp. 148–163.

[423] See Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 2.

[424] See above, p. 604.

[425] See above, p. 581.

[426] That is, a blockade too extensive to be really carried out by the ships at the disposal of the power proclaiming it.

[427] Reference, Rose, Life of Napoleon, Vol. II, pp. 197–207. For documents relating to the blockade and "the Continental system," see Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 2.

[428] See Readings, Chapter XXXVIII.

[429] Napoleon was never content with his achievements or his glory. On the day of his coronation, December, 1806, he complained to his minister DecrÈs that he had been born too late, that there was nothing great to be done any more. On his minister's remonstrating he added: "I admit that my career has been brilliant and that I have made a good record. But what a difference is there if we compare ours with ancient times. Take Alexander the Great, for example. After announcing himself the son of Jupiter, the whole East, except his mother, Aristotle, and a few Athenian pedants, believed this to be true. But now, should I nowadays declare myself the son of the Eternal Father, there isn't a fishwife who would not hiss me. No, the nations are too sophisticated, there is nothing great any longer possible."

[430] "It depends upon you alone," he said to the Spanish in his proclamation of December 7, "whether this moderate constitution that I offer you shall henceforth be your law. Should all my efforts prove vain, and should you refuse to justify my confidence, then nothing remains for me but to treat you as a conquered province and find a new throne for my brother. In that case I shall myself assume the crown of Spain and teach the ill-disposed to respect that crown, for God has given me power and will to overcome all obstacles."

[431] Reference, Rose, Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era, pp. 193–201. Louis Bonaparte, the father of Napoleon III, and the most conscientious of the Bonaparte family, had been so harassed by his imperial brother that he had abdicated as king of Holland.

[432] Reference, Rose, Life of Napoleon, Vol. II, Chapter XXXII.

[433] See above, p. 544.

[434] This decree may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 2.

[435] Reference, Rose, Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era, pp. 335–361.

[436] The son of Louis XVI had been imprisoned and maltreated by the terrorists. He died while still a boy in 1795, but nevertheless takes his place in the line of French kings as Louis XVII.

[437] Compare the accompanying map with that below, pp. 666–667.

[438] This document may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. I, No. 3.

[440] Observe the boundary of the German Confederation as indicated on the map, pp. 626–627, above. Important portions of the German constitution of 1815 are given in Translations and Reprints, Vol. I, No. 3.

[441] For the Carlsbad Resolutions, see Translations and Reprints, Vol. I, No. 3.

[442] Reference, Andrews, Modern Europe, Vol. I, pp. 229–257.

[443] The island of Sardinia had, in 1720, been given to the duke of Savoy, who was also ruler of Piedmont. The duke thereupon assumed the title of king of Sardinia, but Piedmont, with Turin as its capital, remained, nevertheless, the most important part of the kingdom of Sardinia.

[444] Reference, Andrews, Modern Europe, Vol. I, pp. 205–212.

[445] Reference, Fyffe, History of Modern Europe (Popular Edition, 1896), Chapter XV.

[446] See above, p. 449.

[447] See above, p. 600.

[448] See map, p. 649, below.

[449] The Slavic inhabitants of Bohemia.

[450] Reference, Andrews, Modern Europe, Vol. II, Chapter III.

[451] He ruled until 1861 as regent for his brother, Frederick William IV, who was incapacitated by disease.

[452] Reference, Fyffe, Modern Europe, pp. 954–957.

[453] Andrews, Modern Europe, Vol. 2, pp. 173–180.

[454] In 1869 Spain was without a king, and the crown was tendered to Leopold of Hohenzollern, a very distant relative of William I of Prussia. This greatly excited the people of Paris, for it seemed to them only an indirect way of bringing Spain under the influence of Prussia. The French minister of foreign affairs declared that the candidacy was an attempt to "reËstablish the empire of Charles V." In view of this opposition, Leopold withdrew his acceptance of the Spanish crown early in July, 1870, and Europe believed the incident to be at an end. The French ministry, however, was not satisfied with this, and demanded that the king of Prussia should pledge himself that the candidacy should never be renewed. This William refused to do. The account of the demand and refusal was given in such a way in the German newspapers that it appeared as if the French ambassador had insulted King William. The Parisians, on the other hand, thought that their ambassador had received an affront, and demanded an immediate declaration of war.

[455] Reference, Fyffe, Modern Europe, pp. 988–1002.

[456] Alsace had, with certain reservations,—especially as regarded Strasburg and the other free towns,—been ceded to the French king by the treaty of Westphalia (see above, p. 473). Louis XIV disregarded the reservations and seized Strasburg and the other towns (1681) and so annexed the whole region to France. The duchy of Lorraine had upon the death of its last duke fallen to France in 1766. It had previously been regarded as a part of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1871 less than a third of the original duchy of Lorraine, together with the fortified city of Metz, was ceded back to Germany.

[457] The monarchical party naturally fell into two groups. One, the so-called legitimists, believed that the elder Bourbon line, to which Louis XVI and Charles X had belonged, should be restored in the person of the count of Chambord, a grandson of Charles X. The Orleanists, on the other hand, wished the grandson of Louis Philippe, the count of Paris, to be king. In 1873 the Orleanists agreed to help the count of Chambord to the throne as Henry V, but that prince frustrated the plan by refusing to accept the national colors,—red, white, and blue,—which had become so endeared to the nation that it appeared dangerous to exchange them for the white of the Bourbons.

[458] See above, p. 75.

[459] See above, pp. 514, 517–518, 535.

[460] See above, p. 640.

[461] Herzegovina is a small province lying between Bosnia and the Adriatic. Both Bosnia and Herzegovina appear on the map as a part of Austria, to which they now belong, to all intents and purposes. See map, p. 649, above.

[462] In 1885 South Bulgaria (formerly known as Eastern Roumelia) proclaimed itself annexed to Bulgaria. The Sultan, under the influence of the western powers, permitted the prince of Bulgaria to extend his power over South Bulgaria.

[463] See above, pp. 351–352.

[464] See The Progress of the Century, Harper Bros., pp. 181–188, 232–242.

[465] Reference, for the development of the inventions, Cheyney, Industrial History of England, pp. 199–216.

[466] See above, p. 488.

[467] See above, p. 500.

[468] See above, p. 553.

[469] Reference, Cheyney, Industrial History of England, pp. 224–239.

[470] For factory legislation in England, see Cheyney, Industrial History, pp. 244–262.

[471] Reference, Cheyney, Industrial History, pp. 277–293.

[472] England, like the continental countries, has gradually, during the nineteenth century, conceded the right to vote to almost all adult males. Before 1832 a great part of the members of the House of Commons were chosen, not by the voters at large but by a few individuals, who controlled the so-called "rotten boroughs." These boroughs had once been important enough to be asked by the king to send representatives to Parliament, but had sunk into insignificance, or even disappeared altogether. Meanwhile great manufacturing cities like Birmingham, Manchester, and Sheffield had grown up, and as there had been no redistribution of representatives after the time of Charles II, these large cities were unrepresented in Parliament. This evil was partially remedied by the famous Reform Act of 1832. At the same time the amount of property which one must hold in order to be permitted to vote was reduced. In 1867 almost all of the workingmen of the cities were granted the franchise by permitting those to vote who rented a lodging costing at least fifty dollars a year. This doubled the number of voters. In 1885 the same privilege was granted to the country people.

[473] See above, p. 492.

[474] See Sir Charles Dilke on "War," in The Progress of the Century, 333 sqq.

[475] The works here enumerated are those referred to in the notes throughout the volume. They would form a valuable and inexpensive collection for use in a high school. The prices given are in most instances subject to a discount, often as high as twenty-five per cent.