VOLUME I

PAGE

Preface xi

Chap. I—Introductory

§ 1.	Origin and Meaning of the word Freethought							1
§ 2.	Previous histories							10
§ 3.	The Psychology of Freethinking							15

Chap. II—Primitive Freethinking 22

Chap. III—Progress under Ancient Religions

§ 1.	Early Association and Competition of Cults							44
§ 2.	The Process in India							48
§ 3.	Mesopotamia							61
§ 4.	Ancient Persia							65
§ 5.	Egypt							69
§ 6.	Phoenicia							78
§ 7.	Ancient China							82
§ 8.	Mexico and Peru							88
§ 9.	The Common Forces of Degeneration							91

Chap. IV—Relative Freethought in Israel

§ 1.	The Early Hebrews							97
§ 2.	The manipulated prophetic literature							104
§ 3.	The Post-Exilic Literature							109

Chap. V—Freethought in Greece 120

§ 1.	Beginnings of Ionic Culture							123
§ 2.	Homer, Stesichoros, Pindar, and Æschylus							126
§ 3.	The Culture-Conditions							134
§ 4.	From Thales to the Eleatic School							136
§ 5.	Pythagoras and Magna Graecia							148
§ 6.	Anaxagoras, Perikles, and Aspasia							152
§ 7.	From Demokritos to Euripides							157
§ 8.	Sokrates, Plato, and Aristotle							168
§ 9.	Post-Alexandrian Greece: Ephoros, Pyrrho, Zeno, Epicurus, Theodorus, Diagoras, Stilpo, Bion, Strato, EvÊmeros, Carneades, Clitomachos; The Sciences; Advance and Decline of Astronomy; Lucian, Sextus Empiricus, Polybius, Strabo; Summary							180

Chap. VI—Freethought in ancient Rome

§ 1.	Culture Beginnings, to Ennius and the Greeks							194
§ 2.	Lucretius, Cicero, CÆsar							201
§ 3.	Decline under the Empire							207
§ 4.	The higher Pagan ethics							215

Chap. VII—Ancient Christianity and its Opponents

§ 1.	Freethought in the Gospels: contradictory forces							218
§ 2.	The Epistles: their anti-rationalism							224
§ 3.	Anti-pagan rationalism. The Gnostics							224
§ 4.	Rationalistic heresy. Arius. Pelagius. Jovinian. Aerius. Vigilantius. The religious wars							229
§ 5.	Anti-Christian thought: its decline. Celsus. Last lights of critical thought. Macrobius. Theodore. Photinus. The expulsion of science. The appropriation of pagan endowments							235
§ 6.	The intellectual and moral decadence. Boethius							243

Chap. VIII—Freethought under Islam

§ 1.	Mohammed and his contemporaries. Early “Zendekism”							248
§ 2.	The Influence of the Koran							252
§ 3.	Saracen freethought in the East. The Motazilites. The Spread of Culture. Intellectual Collapse							253
§ 4.	Al-Ma’arri and Omar KhayyÁm. SufÎism							261
§ 5.	Arab Philosophy and Moorish freethought. Avempace. Abubacer. AverroËs. Ibn Khaldun							266
§ 6.	Rationalism in later Islam. SufÎism. BÂbism in contemporary Persia. Freethinking in Mohammedan India and Africa							272

Chap. IX—Christendom in the Middle Ages 277

§ 1.	Heresy in Byzantium. Iconoclasm. Leo. Photius. Michael. The early Paulicians							277
§ 2.	Critical Heresy in the West. Vergilius. Claudius. Agobard. John Scotus. The case of Gottschalk. Berengar. Roscelin. Nominalism and Realism. Heresy in Florence and in France							282
§ 3.	Popular Anti-Clerical Heresy. The Paulicians (Cathari) in Western Europe: their anticipation of Protestantism. Abuses of the Church and papacy. Vogue of anti-clerical heresy. Peter de Brueys. Eudo. Paterini. Waldenses							291
§ 4.	Heresy in Southern France. The crusade against Albigensian heresy. Arrest of ProvenÇal civilization: Rise and character of the Inquisition							299
§ 5.	Freethought in the Schools. The problem set to Anselm. Roscelin. Nominalism and Realism. Testimony of Giraldus Cambrensis: Simon of Tournay. William of Conches. Abailard. John of Salisbury							307
§ 6.	Saracen and Jewish Influences. Maimonides. Ibn Ezra. AverroÏsts. Amalrich. David of Dinant. Thomas Aquinas. Unbelief at Paris University. Suppressive action of the Church. Judicial torture							315
§ 7.	Freethought in Italy. Anti-clericalism in Florence. Frederick II. Michael Scotus. Dante’s views. Pietro of Abano. Brunetto Latini. Cecco Stabili. Boccaccio. Petrarch. AverroÏsm							322
§ 8.	Sects and Orders. Italian developments. The Brethren of the Free Spirit. Beghards, etc. Franciscans. Humiliati. Abbot Joachim. Segarelli and Dolcino							331
§ 9.	Thought in Spain. Arab influences. Heresy under Alfonso X. The first Inquisition. Arnaldo of Villanueva. Enrique IV. Pedro do Osma. The New Inquisition. The causes of Spanish evolution							337
§ 10.	Thought in England. Roger Bacon. Chaucer. Items in Piers Ploughman. Lollardry. Wiclif							342
§ 11.	Thought in France. FranÇois de Rues. Jean de Meung. Reynard the Fox. Paris university. The sects. The Templars. William of Occam. Marsiglio. Pierre Aureol. Nominalism and Realism. “Double truth.” Unbelief in the Paris schools							351
§ 12.	Thought in the Teutonic Countries. The Minnesingers. Walter der Vogelweide. Master Eckhart. Sects. The Imitatio Christi							361

Chap. X—Freethought in the Renaissance

§ 1.	The Italian Evolution. Saracen Sources. Anti-clericalism. Discredit of the Church. Lorenzo Valla. Masuccio. Pulci. Executions for blasphemy. AverroÏsm. Nifo. Unbelief at Rome. Leonardo da Vinci. Platonism. Pico della Mirandola. Machiavelli. Guicciardini. Belief in witchcraft. Pomponazzi. Pomponio Leto. The survival of AverroÏsm. Jewish freethought							365
§ 2.	The French Evolution. Desperiers. Rabelais. Dolet. The Vaudois massacres. Unbelieving Churchmen. Marguerite of Navarre. Ronsard. Bodin. VallÉe. Estienne. Pleas for tolerance. Revival of Stoicism							379
§ 3.	The English Evolution. Reginald Pecock. Duke Humphrey. Unbelief in immortality							393
§ 4.	The Remaining European Countries. Nicolaus of Cusa. Hermann van Ryswyck. Astrology and science. Summary							398

Chap. XI—The Reformation Politically Considered

§ 1.	The German Conditions. The New Learning. Economic Causation							403
§ 2.	The Problem in Italy, Spain, and the Netherlands. Savonarola. Catholic reaction. The New Inquisition. Heresy in Italy. Its suppression. The Index Expurgatorius. Italian and northern “character”							407
§ 3.	The Hussite Failure in Bohemia. Early anti-clericalism. Militz and his school. Huss and Jerome. The Taborite wars. Helchitsky							415
§ 4.	Anti-Papalism in Hungary. Early anti-clericalism. Rapid success of the Reformation. Its decline. New heresy. Socinianism. Biandrata. Davides. Recovery of the Church							419
§ 5.	Protestantism in Poland. Early anti-clericalism. Inroad of Protestantism. Growth of Unitarianism. Goniondzki. Pauli. Catholic reaction							422
§ 6.	The Struggle in France. Attitude of King Francis. Economic issues. Pre-Lutheran Protestantism. Persecution. Berquin. Protestant violences. Fortunes of the cause in France							427
§ 7.	The Political Process in Britain. England not specially anti-papal. The causation. Henry’s divorce. Spoliation							431

Chap. XII—The Reformation and Freethought

§ 1.	Germany and Switzerland. Mutianus. Crotus. Bebel. Rise of Unitarianism. Luther and Melanchthon. Their anti-democratic politics. Their dogmatism. Zwingli. Calvin and his victims. Gruet. The Libertini. Servetus. Gripaldi. Calvin’s polity. Ochino. Anthoine. Moral failure of Protestantism							434
§ 2.	England. Henry and Wolsey. Advanced heresy. Persecution. Sir Thomas More							458
§ 3.	The Netherlands. Calvinism and Arminianism. Reaction towards Catholicism. Barneveldt. Grotius							461
§ 4.	Conclusion. The intellectual failure. Indirect gains to freedom							464

Chap. XIII.—The Rise of Modern Freethought

§ 1.	The Italian Influence. Deism. Unitarianism. Latitudinarianism. Aconzio. Nizolio. Pereira							466
§ 2.	Spain. Huarte							470
§ 3.	France. Treatises against atheism: De Mornay. New skepticism: Sanchez. Montaigne. Charron. The Satyre-MenippÉe. Garasse on the Beaux Esprits. Mersenne’s attack							473