1. State of the Religious World at Messiah's Birth.—At the time of the birth of the Son of God, the enfeebled world was tottering on its foundations. The national religions which had satisfied the parents, no longer proved sufficient for the children. The new generations could not repose contented within the ancient forms. The gods of every nation, when transported to Rome—then the dominant political power in the world—there lost their oracles, as the nations themselves had there lost their liberty. Brought face to face in the capital they had destroyed each other, and their divinity had vanished. A great void was thus occasioned in the religion of the world.

2. A kind of deism, destitute alike of spirit and of life, floated for a time above the abyss in which the vigorous superstitions of antiquity had been engulfed. But like all negative creeds it had no power to reconstruct. All nations were plunged in the grossest superstition. Most of them, indeed all except the Jews, supposed that each country and province was subjected to a set of very powerful beings whom they called gods, and whom the people, in order to live happily, must propitiate with various rites and ceremonies. These deities were supposed to differ materially from each other in sex, power, nature and offices. Some nations went beyond others in impiety of worship, but all stood chargeable with absurdity, if not gross stupidity in matters of religion. (See note 1, end of section.) 3. Thus every nation had a class of deities peculiar to itself, among which one was supposed to be pre-eminent over the rest, and was their king, though subject himself to the laws of fate, or to an eternal destiny. The oriental nations had not the same gods as the Gauls, the Germans, and the other northern nations; and the Grecian deities were essentially different from those of the Egyptians, who worshipped brute animals, plants, and various productions of nature and art. Each nation, likewise, had its own method of worshiping its gods; differing widely from the rites of other nations. But, from their ignorance or from other causes the Greeks and Romans maintained that their gods were universally worshipped; and they therefore gave the names of their own gods to the foreign deities which has caused great confusion and errors in the history of ancient religions even in the works of the learned.

4. Heathen Toleration—Its Cause.—The variety of gods and religions in the pagan nations produced no wars or feuds among them. Each nation without concern allowed its neighbors to enjoy their own views of religion, and to worship their own gods in their own way. Nor need this tolerance greatly surprise us. For they who regard the world as divided like a great country into numerous provinces each subject to a distinct order of deities, cannot despise the gods of other nations nor think of compelling all others to pay worship to their national gods. The Romans in particular, though they would not allow the public religions to be changed or multiplied, yet gave the citizens full liberty to observe foreign religions in private, and to hold meetings and feasts and to erect temples and groves to these foreign deities, in whose worship there was nothing inconsistent with the public safety and existing laws. (See note 2, end of section.)

5. Character of Heathen Gods.—The greater part of the gods of all nations were ancient heroes, famous for their achievements and their worthy deeds; such as kings, generals and the founders of cities; and likewise females who were highly distinguished for their deeds and discoveries, whom a grateful posterity had deified. To these some added the more splendid and useful objects in the natural world, among which the sun, moon, and stars being pre-eminent, received worship from nearly all, and some were not ashamed to pay divine honors to mountains, rivers, trees, the earth, the ocean, the winds, and even to diseases, to virtues and vices, and to almost every conceivable object, or, at least, to the deities supposed to preside over these objects.

6. The worship of these deities consisted in numerous ceremonies with sacrifices, offerings, and prayers. The ceremonies, for the most part, were absurd and ridiculous; and what was worse yet, debasing, obscene and cruel. The whole pagan system had not the least efficacy to excite and cherish virtuous emotions in the soul. For in the first place, the gods and goddesses to whom the public homage was paid, instead of being patterns of virtue, were patterns rather of enormous vices and crimes. They were considered as superior to mortals in power and as exempt from death, but in all things else as on a level with man. In the next place, the ministers of this religion, neither by precept nor by example, exhorted the people to lead honest and virtuous lives, but gave them to understand that all the homage required of them by the gods was comprised in the observance of the traditional rites and ceremonies. And lastly, the doctrines inculcated respecting the rewards of the righteous and the punishments of the wicked in the future world were some of them dubious and uncertain, and others more adapted to promote vice than virtue. Hence the wiser pagans themselves, about the time of the Savior's birth, contemned and ridiculed the whole system.

7. Mysteries of Paganism.—It is contended by those who would dignify paganism, that back of its common worship, among the orientals and Greeks at least, certain recondite and concealed rites called mysteries—containing in them the essence of true religion—existed: and that back of its idolatry stood and was recognized the true God, of which the images worshiped were but the material representatives. To these mysteries, however, very few were admitted. Candidates for initiation had first to give satisfactory proof of their good faith and patience, by various most troublesome ceremonies. When initiated they could not divulge anything they had seen without exposing their lives to imminent danger. Hence the interior of these hidden rites is at this day but little known, and therefore but an imperfect judgment may be formed as to their virtue. But what glimpses are obtained of the rites of these mysteries do not prepossess one in their favor; for in many of them many things were done which are repugnant to modesty and decency, and in all of them that are known the discerning may see that the deities there worshipped were more distinguished for their vices than for their virtues. (See note 3, end of section.)

8. Paul's Arraignment of the Pagan World.—Paul, the great apostle of the Gentiles, brings a terrible indictment against the pagan world of his day, and also against the more ancient pagans, and avers that there was no excuse for their idolatry or wickedness:

For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men, who hold the truth in unrighteousness; because that which may be known of God is manifest in them; for God hath showed it unto them. For the invisible things of him from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even his eternal power and Godhead; so that they are without excuse: because that, when they knew God, they glorified him not as God, neither were thankful; but became vain in their imaginations, and their foolish heart was darkened. Professing themselves to be wise, they became fools, and changed the glory of the incorruptible God into an image like to corruptible man, and to birds, and four-footed beasts and creeping things. Wherefore God also gave them up to uncleanness through the lusts of their own hearts, to dishonor their own bodies between themselves; who changed the truth of God into a lie and worshiped and served the creature more than the Creator. * * * For this cause God gave them up unto vile affections; * * * and even as they did not like to retain God in their knowledge, God gave them over to a reprobate mind, to do those things which are not convenient; being filled with all unrighteousness, fornication, wickedness, covetousness, maliciousness; full of envy, murder, debate, deceit, malignity; whisperers, backbiters, haters of God, despiteful, proud, boasters, inventors of evil things, disobedient to parents, without understanding, covenant-breakers, without natural affection, implacable, unmerciful: who knowing the judgment of God, that they which commit such things are worthy of death, not only do the same, but have pleasure in them that do them.^[12] (See note 4, end of section.)

9. Political State of the World at Messiah's Birth.—At the birth of Jesus Christ the greater part of the civilized world on the eastern hemisphere was subject to the Romans. Their remoter provinces they either ruled by means of temporary governors and presidents sent from Rome, or suffered them to live under their own kings and laws, subject to the control of the Roman emperors.

10. The senate and people of Rome, though they had not lost all the appearance of liberty, were really under the authority of one man, Augustus; who was clothed with the titles of emperor, sovereign pontiff, censor, tribune of the people, pro-consul; in a word, with every office which conferred general power and pre-eminence in the commonwealth.

11. The Roman government, if we regard only its form and laws, was sufficiently mild and equitable. But the injustice and avarice of the nobles and provincial governors, the Roman lust of conquest and dominion, and the rapacity of the publicans who farmed the revenues of the state, brought many and grievous evils upon the people. The magistrates and publicans fleeced them of their property on the one hand, while, on the other, the Roman lust of dominion required armies to be raised in the provinces—a thing which was very oppressive to them, and the occasion of almost perpetual insurrection. This, however, is true more especially of the days which preceded the reign of Augustus [Au-gus-tus]. The principal conquests of the Romans were achieved under the republic. It was left for Augustus to adopt that policy which aimed merely to preserve those dominions which had been acquired by the policy of the senate, the active emulation of the consuls and the martial enthusiasm of the people. Under his reign the Roman people themselves seem to have relinquished the ambitious design of subduing the whole earth. (See note 5, end of section.)

12. This widely extended dominion of one people, or rather, of one man, was attended with several advantages: (1), it brought into union a multitude of nations differing in customs and languages; (2,) it gave freer access to the remotest nations; (3,) it gradually civilized the barbarous nations, by introducing among them the Roman laws and customs; (4), it spread literature, the arts and philosophy in countries where they were not before cultivated, and guaranteed the protection of its laws to the people even in the remotest provinces. (See note 6, end of section.)

13. Moreover, at the birth of Messiah, the Roman empire was freer from commotion that it had been for many years. Though it cannot be said that the whole world was in profound peace, yet there can be no doubt that the period when the Savior was born, if compared with the preceding times, was peculiarly peaceful—a condition quite essential to the introduction of the gospel and the extensive preaching of it. Nor is it too much to say that the Lord raised up the great Roman empire that under its beneficent yet powerful sway, the glad tidings of great joy, the gospel of Jesus Christ, might be widely preached among men. 14. Of the state of those nations which lay beyond the boundaries of the Roman empire we may not learn so much as of Rome. It is sufficient to know, however, that the Oriental nations were pressed down by a stern despotism, which their effeminacy of mind and body, and even their religion, led them to bear with patience; while the northern nations enjoyed much greater liberty, which was protected by the rigor of their climate and the consequent energy of their constitutions, aided by their mode of life.

15. Political and Religious State of the Jews.—The condition of the Jewish people among whom the Savior was born was scarcely any better than that of other nations. Herod, called the Great, then governed, or rather, oppressed the Jewish nation, though only a tributary king under the Romans. He drew upon himself universal hatred by his cruelties, jealousies and wars; and he exhausted the wealth of the unhappy nation by his mad luxury, his excessive magnificence, and his immoderate largesses. Under his administration Roman luxury and licentiousness spread over Palestine. In religion he was professedly a Jew, but he copied the manners of those who despise all religion.

16. The Romans did not wholly prohibit the Jews from retaining their national laws, and the religion established by Moses.

They had their high priests, council or senate (Sanhedrim)^[13], and inflicted lesser punishments. They could apprehend men and bring them before the council; and if a guard of soldiers was needful, could be assisted by them upon asking the governor for them; they could bind men and keep them in custody; the council could summon witnesses, take examinations, and when they had any capital offenders, carry them before the governor. This governor usually paid a regard to what they offered, and if they brought evidence of the fact, pronounced sentence according to their laws. He was the proper judge in all capital causes.^[14]

17. The measure of liberty and comfort allowed to the Jews by the Romans was well nigh wholly dissipated, first by the cruelty and avarice of the governors, and by the frauds and rapacity of the publicans; and second, by the profligacy and crimes of those who pretended to be patriots and guardians of the nation. Their principal men, their high priests, were abandoned wretches, who had purchased their places by bribes or by deeds of iniquity, and who maintained their ill-acquired authority by every species of dishonest acts. The other priests and all who held any considerable office, were not much better. The multitude, excited by such examples, ran headlong into every sort of iniquity, and by their unceasing robberies and seditions they excited against themselves both the justice of God and the vengeance of man.

18. Religious Divisions.—Two religions may be said to have flourished in Palestine at the times of which we write; viz., the Jewish and the Samaritan; between the followers of which there was a deadly hatred. The nature of the former is set forth in the Old Testament. But in the age of the Savior it had been corrupted by the traditions of the people, who were divided into sects filled with bitterness against each other. Chief among these sects were the Pharisees [Fa-ri-sees,] and Sadducees [Sad-du-seez.]

19. Pharisees and Sadducees.—While these two sects agreed as to a number of fundamental principles of the Jewish religion, they differed on questions of the highest importance, and such as related to the salvation of the soul. First, they disagreed respecting the law which God had given them. The Pharisees superadded to the written law an oral or unwritten law, handed down by tradition, which the Sadducees rejected, adhering alone to the written law. They differed, too, as to the import of the law. The Pharisees held to a double sense of the scripture, the one literal, the other figurative; while the Sadducees held only to the literal sense of the Bible. To these contests concerning the laws were added others on subjects of the highest moment; particularly in respect to the rewards and punishments announced in the sacred writings. The Pharisees supposed them to affect both body and spirit—in whose pre-existence and eternal existence they believed—and that punishments and rewards extended beyond the present life. The Sadducees believed in no future retributions. They were sceptical of the miraculous; and denied the existence of spiritual beings, the immortality of the soul, the resurrection of the body. They were deists, in fact; viewing the Supreme Being as a quiescent Providence calmly surveying and ruling the regular working of natural laws. They gave themselves up to ease, luxury, self-indulgence, and were not indisposed to view with indifferent liberality the laxity of heathen morals and the profanity of idol worship. They included in their numbers the leading men of the nation, were the aristocracy in fact, while the Pharisees, on the other hand, were the common people; proud of their unblemished descent from Abraham, exclusive, formal, self-righteous, strict observers of external rites and ceremonies, even beyond the requirements of the law.

20. Such were the chief sects among the Jews. There were others but they were of minor importance. Both Sadducees and Pharisees looked for a deliverer; not, however, such a one as God had promised; but a powerful warrior and a vindicator of their national liberties, a king, a ruler. All placed the sum of religion in an observance of the Mosaic ritual, and in certain duties toward their countrymen. All excluded the rest of mankind from the hope of salvation, and, of course whenever they dared, treated them with hatred and inhumanity. To these fruitful sources of vice, must be added the various absurd and superstitious opinions concerning the Divine Nature, genii, magic, etc., which they had imbibed from surrounding nations.

21. Samaritans.—The Samaritans [Sa-mar-i-tans] were colonists sent by the king of Assyria [As-syr-rya], Shalmaneser [Shal-ma-ne-zer,] to people the land after he had carried captive the Israelites, in the latter part of the eighth century, B. C. They were a mixed people from various eastern nations, conquered by this same king—and they brought with them their various forms of national idolatry. A plague breaking out among them, however, led them to petition for a priest of the god of the country, to teach them the old form of worship. He was stationed at Bethel [Beth-el,] and the Samaritans endeavored to combine a formal reverence of God with the practice of their own idolatrous rites. After the captivity of Judah, they sought an alliance with the returned Jews (536 B. C.,) with whom they intermarried. On Ezra enforcing the Mosaic law against mixed marriages—three-quarters of a century later—Manasses [Ma-nas-ses,] a Jewish priest, who had married the daughter of Sanballat [San-bal-lat,] chief of the Samaritans, headed a secession at Shechem [Shek-em.] The Samaritans taught the Mosaic ritual and erected a rival temple to that at Jerusalem, on Mount Gerizim [Ger-i-zim]. This mixed community before the time of the Savior began to claim descent from the patriarchs and a share in the promises. Their religion was less pure than that of the Jews, as they adulterated the doctrines of the Old Testament with the profane rites of the pagan religion.

22. Such was the state of the world—such the condition of the Jews at the time of Messiah's birth; and surely that condition justified the pity and also the stern reproofs—nay, the severe rebukes administered, as we shall see, by the Son of God in the course of his ministry.

NOTES.

1. State of the World at Messiah's Birth.—The world had grown old, and the dotage of its paganism was marked by hideous excesses. Atheism in belief was followed, as among all nations it has always been, by degradation of morals, iniquity seemed to have run its course to the very farthest goal. Philosophy had abrogated its boasted functions except for the favored few. Crime was universal, and there was no known remedy for the horror and ruin which it was causing in a thousand hearts. Remorse itself seemed to be exhausted, so that men were past feeling. There was a callosity of heart, a petrifying of the moral sense, which even those who suffered from it felt to be abnormal and portentous. Even the heathen world felt that "the fullness of the time" had come.—Canon Farrar.

2. Policy of Rome in Respect to Religion.—The policy of the emperors and the senate, so far as it concerned religion, was happily seconded by the reflections of the enlightened, and by the habits of the superstitious part of their subjects. The various modes of worship, which prevailed in the Roman world, were all considered by the people as equally true; by the philosopher as equally false; and by the magistrate as equally useful. And this toleration produced not only mutual indulgence, but even religious concord. * * * Avarice and taste very frequently despoiled the vanquished nations of the elegant statues of their gods and the rich ornaments of their temples; but in the exercise of the religion which they derived from their ancestors, they uniformly experienced the indulgence, and even protection of the Roman conquerors. The province of Gaul seems, and indeed only seems, an exception to this universal toleration. Under the specious pretext of abolishing human sacrifices, the emperors Tiberius and Claudius suppressed the dangerous power of the Druids; but the priests themselves, their gods and their altars, subsisted in peaceful obscurity till the final fall of paganism. * * * Rome gradually became the common temple of her subjects; and the freedom of the city was bestowed on all the gods of mankind.—Gibbon.

3. Mysteries of the Pagan Religion.—It has been maintained that the design of at least some of these mysteries was to inculcate the grand principles of natural religion, such as the unity of God, the immortality of the soul, the importance of virtue, etc., and to explain the vulgar polytheism as symbolical of these great truths. But this certainly needs better proof. It is more probable that the later pagan philosophers, who lived after the light of Christianity had exposed the abominations of polytheism, were the principal authors of this moral interpretation of the vulgar religion, which they falsely pretended was taught in the mysteries, while in reality, those mysteries were probably mere supplements to the vulgar mythology and worship, and of the same general character and spirit.—Murdock. 4. State of Religion in Rome.—A modern writer describing the religious state of Rome at the time of Julius Caesar—it could not have been much changed at the birth of Messiah, sixty years later—says: "Religion, once the foundation of the laws and rule of personal conduct, had subsided into opinion. The educated in their hearts disbelieved it. Temples were still built with increasing splendor; the established forms were scrupulously observed. Public men spoke conventionally of Providence, that they might throw on their opponents the odium of impiety; but of genuine belief that life had any serious meaning, there was none remaining beyond the circle of the silent, patient, ignorant multitude. The whole spiritual atmosphere was saturated with cant—cant moral, cant political, cant religious; an affectation of high principle which had ceased to touch the conduct, and flowed on in an increasing volume of insincere and unreal speech. The truest thinkers were those who, like Lucretius, spoke frankly out their real convictions, declared Providence was a dream, and that man and the world he lived in were material phenomena, generated by natural forces out of cosmic atoms, and into atoms to be again resolved."—Froude.

5. Policy of Augustus as to Conquests.—Inclined to peace by his temper and situation, it was easy for him to discover that Rome, in her present exalted situation, had much less to hope than to fear from the chance of arms; and that, in the prosecution of remote wars, the undertaking every day became more difficult, the event more doubtful and the possession more precarious and less beneficial. The experience of Augustus added weight to these salutary reflections, and eventually convinced him that by prudent vigor of his counsels, it would be easy to secure every concession which the safety or the dignity of Rome might require from the most formidable barbarians * * * On the death of the emperor, his testament was publicly read in the senate. He bequeathed, as a valuable legacy to his successors, the advice of confining the empire within those limits which nature seemed to have placed as its permanent bulwarks and foundations; on the west the Atlantic ocean; the Rhine and Danube on the north; the Euphrates on the east; and towards the south the sandy deserts of Arabia and Africa.—Gibbon, "Decline and Fall", vol. i, chap. 1.

6. Mission and Character of the Roman Empire.—As the soil must be prepared before the wheat can be sown, so before the kingdom of heaven could throw up its shoots there was needed a kingdom of this world, where the nations were neither torn to pieces by violence nor were rushing after false ideals [as to governments] and spurious ambitions. Such a kingdom was the empire of the Caesars—a kingdom where peaceful men could work, think and speak as they pleased, and travel freely among provinces ruled for the most part by Gallios who protected life and property, and forbade fanatics to tear each other to pieces for their religious opinions. "It is not lawful for us to put a man to death," was the complaint of the Jewish priests to the Roman governor. Had Europe and Asia been covered with independent nations, each with a local religion represented in its ruling powers, Christianity must have been stifled in its cradle. If St. Paul had escaped the Sanhedrim of Jerusalem, he would have been torn to pieces by the silversmiths at Ephesus. The appeal to Caesar's judgment seat was the shield of his mission, and alone made possible his success.—Froude.

7. The Sanhedrin of the Jews.—"The council" of the Jewish church and people was a theocratic oligarchy, which after the return from the captivity (536 B. C.,) ruled the new settlement, being in all causes and over all persons, ecclesiastical and civil, supreme. It is supposed to be suggested by the old institution of seventy-two Elders (six from each tribe,) appointed by Moses, at Jethro's [Jeth-ro] suggestion, to relieve him in the administration of justice (Ex. xviii:14; Num. xi:16.) Having died out in the age succeeding Joshua, and being superceded under the monarchy, it was revived either by Ezra, or after the Macedonian ascendancy. It consisted of an equal number of priests, scribes and elders all of whom must be married, above thirty years of age, well instructed in the law, and of good report among the people. This constituted the Supreme Court of judicature and administrative council, taking cognizance of false doctrine and teaching, as well as breaches of the Mosaic Law, and regulating both civil and religious observances peculiar to the Jewish nation. The power of life and death had been taken from it by the Roman government which otherwise covenanted to respect its decrees. The council usually met in the hall Gazith, within the Temple precincts, though special meetings were sometimes held in the house of the high priest, who was generally (though not necessarily) the president. There were also two vice-presidents, and two scribes—clerks—or "heralds," one registering the votes of acquittal (or nos), and the other those of convictions (or ayes), and a body of lictors or attendants. The assembly set in the form of a semi-circle, the president occupying the center of the arc, the prisoner that of the center of the chord, while the two "heralds" sat a little in advance of the president, on his right and his left.—"Oxford Teacher's Bible"—Addenda.

REVIEW.

1. State the religious condition of the world at Messiah's birth.

2. What was the cause of heathen religious toleration?

3. What was the policy of Rome in respect to religion? (Note 2.) 4. What was the nature of the heathen gods?

5. Describe the character of heathen worship.

6. What can you say of pagan mysteries? (Note 3.)

7. Give the substance of Paul's arraignment of the pagan world.

8. What was the political state of the world at Messiah's birth?

9. Describe the general character of the Roman government.

10. Enumerate the advantages the Roman government gave to the world.

11. How did these advantages affect the work of the Christ?

12. What was the state of the nations outside of the Roman empire?

13. Who was the king of the Jews at Messiah's birth?

14. What was the political state of the Jews at that time?

15. What can you say of religion among the Jews at this period?

16. What were the religious divisions in Palestine?

17. State the doctrines of the Pharisees. The Sadducees.

18. What was the character of the Deliverer expected by both Pharisees and Sadducees?

19. Did Jesus Christ answer their expectations?

20. Tell what you can of the Samaritans.

21. Describe the Sanhedrim of the Jews. (Note 7.)