The Literary Institutions of China, are the pillars that give stability to the government. Her military forces are utterly inadequate to hold together the numerous and extensive provinces and territories, that constitute the wide dominions of the reigning dynasty. With great difficulty the Tartar troops overrun the country; conquering province after province, and gradually extending their authority over the territories on the west of China Proper. But for a long period both the discipline and the energies of the Chinese soldiery have been on the wane: and at this moment the imperial hosts present nothing formidable but their numerical amount; the recent insurrections at Leen-chow and Formosa, have afforded the most complete evidence of this imbecility. Not only in this part of the empire, but along the whole coast up to the great wall on the north, and even beyond that in Mantchou Tartary, both the land and naval forces have become so exceedingly enervated and dissolute, that they exercise no salutary influence or control, except over a few, who are equally debased with themselves. As police-men, in the capacity of lictors, thief-takers, and executioners, they are not less detested than feared by the common people; they are in fact, for all purposes of defence, little better than dead men; were they stricken from the catalogue of the living, we can scarcely doubt that the stability of the empire would remain unimpaired.

There are many who look with astonishment at the magnitude of this empire, and believe it strong and immoveable as the everlasting hills. But an examination of its history and present organization, would show them that it has been frequently rent and broken by rebel chieftains, ambitious statesmen, and haughty kings; and that its present greatness is chiefly attributable to its peculiar literary institutions. These, though they are the glory and strength of the nation, are, except for mere purposes of government, amazingly deficient; and it is their relative rather than intrinsic value, that renders them worthy of special notice. Wealth and patronage have great influence here; they often control the acts of government, stay the course of justice, cover the guilty, and confer honours and emoluments on the undeserving. But as a general rule, learning, while it is an indispensable prerequisite for all those who aspire to places of trust and authority in the state, is sure to command respect, influence, and distinction.

Thus, without the dreadful alternative of overthrowing the powers that be, a way is opened to ambitious youth, by which he may reach the highest station in the empire; the throne only excepted. Usually the most distinguished statesmen are those who have risen to eminence by intellectual efforts: they are at once the philosophers, the teachers, and rulers of the land. These distinctions they cannot however maintain, without yielding implicit obedience to the will of the monarch, which is most absolute and uncontrolled. Let them honour and obey the power that is over them, and they stand; dependant indeed on the one hand, but on the other, in proud and envied distinction.

High rank in the state is the brightest glory to which this people aspire; with them, learning derives its chief value from the simple fact, that it brings them within the reach of that dazzling prize. Strict examinations, regulated by a fixed code of laws, have been instituted and designed solely to elicit from the body of the community the “true talent” of the people, with the ulterior intention of applying it to purposes of government. At these examinations, which are open to all except menial servants, lictors, players, and priests, it is determined who shall rise to distinction and shed glory on their ancestors and posterity—who shall live on in obscurity and die and be forgotten. The competitors of the Olympic games never entered the arena before the assembled thousands of their countrymen, with deeper emotion than that which agitates the bosoms of those who contest the palm of these literary combats. The days on which they are held, and their results published in Canton, are the proudest which its inhabitants ever witnessed. A brief notice of them may be interesting to the reader, and at the same time enable him to understand more fully the nature and object of the schools and colleges of the provincial city.

The highest literary examinations in the empire are triennial, and take place at Peking. Besides these, there are also occasional examinations granted by special favour of the emperor. Up to these contests, the most distinguished scholars go, from all the provinces. This privilege is not gained without long, patient, and successful endeavour; the examinations at which it is determined who shall enjoy it, occur also triennially and are held in the metropolis of each province. These examinations are of incomparable interest to great multitudes of the people, in every department and district of the empire. High honours, rich emoluments, and in a word, every thing that the young aspirant and his numerous kindred most esteem, are at stake; a long season of preparation has been endured, heavy expenses incurred; and now the decisive hour approaches.

Two examiners are chosen from distinguished officers at Peking, under the immediate superintendance of the emperor; within five days after they are chosen, they must leave the capital. They are allowed the use of the post-horses belonging to government. Upon those who come to Canton six hundred taels are conferred, to defray their expenses while on the road; two hundred of which are paid when they commence their journey from Peking, and the remainder by the governor of the province, when they are about to return after the examination is completed.

The above examiners are assisted by ten others, who are selected from the local officers over whom the foo-yuen presides. Besides these there are many inferior officers, who are employed as inspectors, guards, &c. All these, together with the candidates, their attendants, &c., amounting to ten thousand and upward, assemble at the Kung-yuen, a large and spacious building designed solely for these occasions. It contains numerous apartments, so that each candidate may be seated separately from his competitors. All the seats are numbered. The apartments are low and narrow, have only a single entrance, and no furniture except a chair and a narrow writing-desk.

The number of candidates who assemble in Canton is between seven and eight thousand. They are often attended by their friends, and continue here for several weeks, and sometimes for months; during which time the hum and bustle of the city are greatly increased, and every kind of mercantile business receives a new impulse. These candidates are always persons of some distinction, which they must have gained, either at previous examinations or by the payment of large sums of money. They are all called sew-tsae, a title not unlike that of master of arts; they are divided into several classes; those who have purchased their degree are often despised by the others, and are generally regarded with less respect than those who have gained it by their own merits. They meet on equal terms, and their “true nobility” is to be determined by personal efforts, which are to be made during a fixed period and under fixed circumstances. The candidates assemble on the eighth moon; but none are allowed to enter the examination except those who have been previously enrolled by the literary chancellor of the province. The age, features, place of residence, and lineage, of each candidate must be given in the chancellor’s list, and a copy of it lodged in the office of the “foo-yuen.” They must all attend at the examinations in their native province; and those who give in a false account of their family and lineage, or place of nativity, are expelled and degraded; for no candidate can be admitted at any place without proving that his family has been resident there for three generations.

The examination continues for several days, and each student must undergo a series of trials. The first is on the ninth of the moon, the second on the twenty-second, and the third on the fifteenth. The candidates are required to enter their apartments, on the day preceding the examination, and are not allowed to leave them until the day after it has closed. Thus they must pass two nights in close and solitary confinement. On the first day of their examination, three themes, which are selected from the “Four books,” are proposed to them, and they are required to give the meaning and scope of each, to which a fourth is added, on which they must compose a short poem in rhyme. On the second day, a theme is given them from each of the “Five classics;” and on the third day, five questions, which shall refer to the history or political economy of the country. The themes must be sententious, and have a meaning which is refined and profound. They must not be such as have often been discussed. Those which are given out for poetry, must be grave and important. In the themes for essays on political economy, the chief topics must be concerning things of real importance, the principles of which are clear and evidently of a correct nature. “There is no occasion to search and inquire into devious and unimportant subjects.” All questions concerning the character and learning of statesmen of the present dynasty, as well as all topics which relate to its policy, must be carefully avoided. The paper on which the themes and essays are written is prepared with great care; and must be inspected at the office of the poo-ching-sze. It is firm and thick, and the only kind that may be used. The price of it is fixed by authority. The number of characters, both in the themes and essays, is limited. The lines must be straight, and all the characters full and fair. At the close of every paper, containing elegant composition, verses, or answers to questions, it must be stated by the students how many characters have been blotted out or altered; if the number exceed one hundred, the writer is tsee-chuh, “pasted out;” which means, that his name is pasted up at the gate of the hall, as having violated the rules of the examination, and he is forthwith excluded from that year’s examination.

There are usually a hundred or more persons at every examination in Canton subject to this punishment, for breaking this, or some other of the regulations. The candidates are not allowed “to get drunk” and “behave disorderly” during the examination. All intercourse of civility between the examiners and the relations of the students must be discontinued; and there must be no interchange of letters, food, &c. On entering the outer gate of the kung-yuen, each candidate must write his name in a register, kept for that purpose; if it is afterward discovered that the name was erroneously written, then the officer superintending the register, if it be found that he is an accomplice in registering a spurious essay, shall, with the candidate for literary honours who has violated the law, be tried and punished. Moreover, the student, on entering the hall of examination, must be searched; and if it be discovered that he has with him any precomposed essay, or miniature copy of the classics, he shall be punished by wearing a wooden collar, degraded from the rank of sew-tsae, and for ever incapacitated to stand as a candidate for literary honours; and the father and tutor of the delinquent shall both be prosecuted and punished. All the furniture and utensils, such as the writing-desks, inkstands, &c., in the apartments where the students write their essays, must be searched; and also, each and all of the managers, copyists, attendant officers, servants, porters, &c. If, in any manner, a learned person, who is to decide on the papers, be admitted to the apartments of the students, dressed as a servant, he shall be punished; and the chief examiner delivered over to a court of inquiry. A watch, composed of military officers and soldiers, is maintained day and night, both in the inner and outer courts of the hall; and if any of these men are guilty of conveying papers to the candidates, concealed with their food, or in any other way, they shall be punished.

There are many other regulations and precautions which have been adopted to prevent fraud, but a sufficient number have been stated to show somewhat of the interest which gathers around these examinations, and the schemes which are formed to gain distinction, without the toil and fatigue of hard study. Of the thousands of candidates assembled at these examinations in Canton, only seventy-one can obtain the degree of Kew-jing; the names of the successful essayists are published by a proclamation, which is issued on or before the tenth of the ninth moon, and within twenty-five days subsequent to the closing of the examination. This time is allowed to the examiners to read the essays, and prepare their report. The proclamation, which contains the name of the successful candidates, after it has received its appropriate signatures, is pasted up at the office of the foo-yuen.

At a given hour three guns are fired; and the foo-yuen at the same time comes forth from his palace, accompanying the official paper; it is forthwith pasted up, and again a salute of three guns is fired; his excellency then advances, and bows three times towards the names of the “promoted men,” (hin-jir), and finally retires under another salute of three guns. Ten thousand minds are now relieved from their long suspense. Swift messengers are despatched by those who have won the prize, to announce to their friends the happy result of the long trial which they have undergone; while the many return with disappointment to their homes, the successful few are loaded with encomiums and congratulations, and their names with their essays sent up to the emperor. To crown the whole, a banquet is prepared for these newly-promoted men, of which the examiners and all the civil officers of rank in the province partake. Gold and silver cups for the occasion must be provided by the provincial treasurer. The chief examiner, from Peking, presides; the foo-yuen, at whose palace the banquet is given, and who is present as visiter, is seated on the right, and the assistant-examiner on his left. The governor of the province is also present, a train of inferior officers wait as servants, and two lads, dressed like naiads, holding in their hands branches of olive, grace the scene with a song from their ancient classics.

There are three other examinations in Canton, which occur twice in three years, and are attended by great numbers of aspirants. At the first, which is attended by the students of Nan-hae and Pwanyu, the che-heens preside; at the second, which is attended by candidates from all the districts of Kwang-chow-foo, the che-foo presides; but the third is conducted by the literary chancellor of the province, whose prerogative it is to confer the degree of sew-tsae upon a limited number of the most distinguished competitors.

These are preparatory to the triennial examination, and inferior to it in interest; they need not, therefore, be further particularized. It may be remarked, however, that they are open to persons of all ages; and a case very recently occurred where a hoary head of eighty, accompanied by a son and grandson, attended the examination; all of them were candidates for the same literary honours. To qualify the young for these examinations, and thereby prepare them for rank and office in the state, is a leading object of the higher schools and colleges among the Chinese. But a great majority of the schools in Canton are designed only to prepare youth for the common duties of private life. These latter, as well as many of the higher schools, are private establishments. And though there are teachers appointed by government, in all the districts of the empire, yet there are no public or charity-schools for the benefit of the great mass of the community. Whatever may be his object and final distinction, almost every scholar in Canton commences his course at some one of the private schools. These, among the numerous inhabitants of this city, assume a great variety of form and character, according to the peculiar fancy of individuals. The opulent, who are desirous of pushing forward their sons rapidly, provide for them able teachers, who shall devote the whole time to the instruction of two, three, or four pupils. A school of this description we have repeatedly visited; it is in a hall belonging to merchants from Ning-po, and is kept by an old man, who has three lads under his care; one five, another seven, and a third nine years old: he instructs them in the learned dialects, and the youngest has already made greater proficiency than is usually accomplished by boys at the age of ten. Sometimes the inhabitants of a single street, or a few families who are related to each other, unite, have a teacher, and fit up a school-room, each defraying a stipulated part of the expenses. At other times, the teacher publishes the rules and terms on which he will conduct his school, and seeks for scholars wherever he can find them. Children are not generally sent to school until they are seven or eight years old; they enter, usually, for a whole year, and must pay for that term whether they attend regularly or not. The wages of the teachers vary greatly: in some instances (and they are not unfrequent in the country) the lads pay only two or three dollars, but generally fifteen or twenty per annum. When the teacher devotes his whole time to two or three pupils, he often receives a hundred dollars from each.

The ordinary school-room, with all its defects, presents an interesting scene. At the head of it there is a tablet, on which the name of the sage—“the teacher and pattern for myriads of ages”—is written in large capital letters; a small altar is placed before it, upon which incense and candles are kept constantly burning. Every morning, when the scholar enters the room, he bows first before the tablet, and then to his teacher; the former is not merely a tribute of respect, but an act of worship, which he is taught, nay, compelled, to pay to Confucius. The boys usually continue in school from six o’clock in the morning until six in the evening, except two or three hours, which they are allowed for their meals. When in school, they all study aloud, each raising his voice at the same time, and striving to outdo his fellows, the noise of which is very great. Upon those who are idle or disobedient, the teacher plies the rattan, with woful severity. Every lesson must be committed perfectly to memory, and the lad who fails in this, is obliged to bow down, and learn it upon his knees; those who are the most incorrigible are made to kneel on gravel, small stones, or something of the kind, in order to enhance their punishment. The San-tse-king, the famous “three-character classics,” is the first book which is put into the hands of the learner. Though written expressly for infant minds, it is scarcely better fitted for them than the propositions of Euclid would be, were they thrown into rhyme. But, “it is not to be understood” at first; and the tyro, when he can rehearse it from beginning to end, takes up the Four books, and masters them in the same manner. Thus far the young learners go, without understanding aught, or but little, of what they recite; and here those who are not destined to a literary course, after having learned to write a few characters, must close their education. The others now commence the commentary on the Four books, and commit it to memory in the same way; and then pass on to the other classics. The study of arithmetic, geography, history, &c., forms no part of a “common-school” education.

The high schools and colleges are numerous, but none of them are richly endowed, or well fitted for the purposes of education. The high schools, which are fourteen in number, are somewhat similar to the private grammar-schools in England and America; with this difference, that the former are nearly destitute of pupils. There are thirty colleges; most of which were founded many centuries since. Several of them are now deserted, and falling to ruins. Three of the largest have about two hundred students each, and, like all the others, only one or two professors. We have sought long and diligently, but thus far in vain, for some definite information concerning the existing discipline and regulations of these colleges; should we affirm that they are without rules and order, we should say what we do not doubt, but cannot prove. All those systems of instruction which have sprung up in modern times, and are now accomplishing so much for the nations of the West, are here entirely unknown. There are a few books in the Chinese language which contain excellent maxims on the subject of education, give numerous rules to facilitate the acquisition of knowledge, and detail systems of gymnastic exercises for the preservation of health.

Of the whole population of Canton, not more than one half are able to read. Perhaps not one boy out of ten is left entirely destitute of instruction, yet, of the other sex, not one in ten ever learns to read or write. There is scarcely a school for girls in the whole city. Public sentiment—immemorial usage—and many passages in the classics, are against female education; the consequence is, that females are left uninstructed, and sink far below that point in the scale of being, for which they are fitted, and which they ought ever to hold. The degradation into which the fairest half of the human species is here thrown, affords cause for loud complaint against the wisdom and philosophy of the sages and legislators of the celestial empire. We do not knowingly detract from the merits of the Chinese; in comparison with other Asiatics, they are a learned and polished race. Those who have been educated are generally remarkably fond of books: and though there are no public libraries in Canton, yet the establishments for manufacturing and vending books are numerous. To supply those who are unable to purchase for themselves the works they need, a great number of circulating libraries are kept constantly in motion.

While the purest moral maxims are found mixed up at times, in the Chinese language, as in ours, with gross licentiousness, the charge does not lie against works comprising the library of the youthful students, which, in this particular, is wholly unexceptionable.

The situation of Canton and the policy of the Chinese government, together with various other causes, have made it the scene of a very extensive domestic and foreign commerce. With the exception of the Russian caravans which traverse the northern frontiers of China, and the Portuguese and Spanish ships which visit Macao, the whole trade between the Chinese empire and the nations of the West centres at this place. Here the productions of every part of China are found, and a very brisk and lucrative commerce is carried on by merchants and factors from all the provinces. Merchandise is brought here from Tonquin, (Tung-king) Cochin-China, Camboja, Siam, Malaca, or the Malay peninsula, the eastern Archipelago, the ports of India, the nations of Europe, the different states of North and South America, and the islands of the Pacific. We shall briefly notice the several branches of this extensive commerce, enumerate some of the principal commodities which are brought to this city, as well as those which are carried from it, and add such remarks concerning the situation and circumstances of the trade, and those who conduct it, as seem necessary to exhibit its full magnitude and importance.

Concerning the domestic commerce, we can do little more than mention the articles which are here bought and sold for the several provinces; each of which we shall notice separately, that we may, by taking a view of their position and number of inhabitants at the same time, see to what advantage the present trade is conducted, and the probability of its future increase or diminution. The maritime provinces claim priority of notice, after which, those on the northern, western, and southern frontiers will pass under review, and finally, those in the centre of China proper. The colonial trade is, in the present view, omitted.

From Fuh-keen, come the black teas, camphor, sugar, indigo, tobacco, paper, lacquered ware, excellent grass-cloth, and a few mineral productions. Woollen and cotton cloths of various kinds, wines, watches, &c., are sent to that province; which, with its population of fourteen millions, might, in different circumstances, receive a far greater amount of foreign manufactures and productions in exchange for its own. The trade of the province is carried on under great disadvantages. It has been shown by an accurate and detailed comparison between the expense of conveying black teas from the country where they are produced, to Canton, and of their conveyance from thence to the port of Fuh-chow in Fuh-keen, that the privilege of admission to the latter port would be attended with a saving to the East India Company of £150,000 annually, in the purchase of black teas alone.

Che-keang sends to Canton the best of silks and paper; also, fans, pencils, wines, dates, “golden-flowered” hams, and “lung-tsingcha”—an excellent and very costly tea. This province has a population of twenty-six millions, and makes large demands for foreign imports; these, however, by way of Canton, go to that province at no small expense to the consumer.

Keang-nan, which is now divided into the two provinces of Keang-soo and Gan-hwuy, with a population of seventy-two millions, has the resources as well as the wants of a kingdom. Notwithstanding its distance from Canton, large quantities of produce are annually sent hither, and exchanged for the productions and manufactures of the western world. Green teas and silks are the principal articles of traffic, which are brought to Canton; and they usually yield the merchant a great profit.

From Shan-tung, fruits, vegetables, drugs, wines, and skins, are brought down the coast to Canton; and coarse fabrics for clothing are sent back in return. The carrying of foreign exports from Canton to Shan-tung, whether over land or up the coast in native vessels, makes them so expensive as to preclude their use among the great majority of the inhabitants, who are poor and numerous. The population of Shan-tung is twenty-eight millions. From Chih-le, ginseng, raisins, dates, skins, deer’s flesh, wines, drugs, and tobacco, are sent hither; and sundry other foreign imports go back in return. The population, amounting to twenty-seven millions, is in a great degree, dependant on the productions of other provinces and countries for the necessaries of life.

Shan-se sends skins, wines, ardent spirits, and musk. Among its fourteen millions of inhabitants, there are many capitalists who come to Canton to increase their property by loaning money. Various kinds of cloths, European skins, watches, and native books, are sent up to the province of Shan-se.

Shen-se also supports a large money trade in Canton, sends hither brass, iron, precious stones, and drugs; and takes back woollen and cotton cloths, books and wines. The population is about ten millions.

Kean-suh sends to Canton gold, quicksilver, musk, tobacco, &c., and receives in return, for its fifteen millions of inhabitants, a small amount of European goods.

Sze-chuen sends gold, brass, iron, tin, musk and a great variety of other drugs; and receives in exchange, European cloths, lacquered ware, looking-glasses, &c. Sze-chuen is the largest of the eighteen provinces, and has a population of twenty-one millions.

Yun-nan yields, for the shops of Canton, brass, tin, precious stones, musk, betel-nut, birds, and peacock’s feathers; and receives silks, woollen and cotton cloths, various kinds of provisions, tobacco and books in return. The population is five millions.

Kuang-we has a population of seven millions, and furnishes the provincial city with large quantities of rice, cassia, iron, lead, fans, and wood of various kinds; and takes in return many native productions, and most of the articles that come to Canton from beyond sea.

From Kwei-chow, one of the central provinces, are brought gold, quicksilver, iron, lead, tobacco, incense, and drugs; a few articles, chiefly foreign goods, find their way back to that province. Its population is five millions.

From the two provinces, Hoo-nan and Hoo-pih, come large quantities of rhubarb; also musk, tobacco, honey, hemp, and a great variety of singing-birds; the number of inhabitants is five millions. They make very considerable demands on the merchants of Canton, both for native productions and foreign imports.

Keang se sends to this market, coarse cloths, hemp, china-ware, and drugs; and receives in return woollens and native books. The population is twenty-three millions. Ho-nan has an equal number of inhabitants, and sends hither rhubarb, musk, almonds, honey, indigo, &c.; woollens, and a few other foreign goods are received in return.

This account of the domestic commerce of Canton, is taken from native manuscript. We have sought long, but in vain, for some official document which would show at once, the different kinds, and the amount of merchandise, which are annually brought from, and carried to, the several provinces of the empire. The account which has been given must be regarded only as an approximation to the truth. Some articles, doubtless, have been omitted, which ought to have been noticed, and vice versa; one commodity in particular, opium, known to be carried into all the provinces, and used to the amount of more than fifteen millions annually, is not even mentioned. Still, the statement which we have brought into view, shows that there is, in every part of the empire, a greater or less demand for foreign productions; a demand which, so long as the commerce is confined to this port, will be supplied very disadvantageously, both for the foreigner and the native; but while it does remain thus restricted, there is reason to suppose that it will, under all its disadvantages, gradually increase; and even if the northern ports of the empire should be immediately thrown open, it will not soon cease to be important.

Though the merchants and factors from the other provinces enjoy a considerable share of the commerce of Canton, yet they do not confine themselves to the domestic trade; they participate largely in that to Tung-king, Cochin-China, Siam, and the islands of the eastern Archipelago. The whole number of Chinese vessels, annually visiting foreign ports south of Canton, is not probably less than one hundred; of these, one third belong to Canton; six or eight go to Tung-king; eighteen or twenty to Cochin-China, Camboja, and Siam; four or five visit the ports of Singapore, Java, Sumatra, and Penang; and as many more find their way to the Celebes, Borneo, and the Philippine islands. These vessels make only one voyage in the year, and always move with the monsoon. Many of the vessels, from Fuh-keen and the northern ports of China, which go south, touch at Canton, both when outward and homeward bound. But the whole amount of trade to foreign ports, carried on by the Chinese merchants of Canton, is not very great; this is not the case with that which is in the hands of foreigners, which we shall notice in the following chapter.