Edmund Roberts

DESCRIPTION Of CANTON—SACKING OF THE CITY—PLACE OF HONOUR—MOURNING—COMPASS—MATERIALS FOR BUILDINGS—HOUSES—PRINCIPAL OFFICES—DUTIES AND PENALTIES OF GOVERNOR—FIRES—GOVERNOR’S SALARY—DIVISION OF POWER.

The name of Canton on Chinese maps, is written Kwang-tung-sang-ching, that is, the capital of the province of Kwang-tung, but when speaking of the city, the natives call it san-ching, the “provincial city,” or the “capital of the province.” It is built on the north bank of Choo-keang or Pearl river, stands inland and is in a direct line, about sixty miles from “the great sea.” The scenery around the city, in the adjacent country, is rich and diversified, but deficient in boldness or grandeur.

On the north and northeast of the city, the country is hilly and mountainous. In every other direction a wide prospect opens to the view of the beholder. The rivers and canals, which are very numerous, abound with fish, and are covered with a great variety of boats, which are continually passing to and from the neighbouring towns and villages. Southward from the city, as far as the eye can see, the waters cover a considerable portion, perhaps a third of the whole surface. Rice-fields, and gardens, occupy the lowlands, which are diversified with a few hills, rising here and there, to relieve the otherwise unbroken aspect. The extent of the city, including all within and without the walls, is not very great; though very populous, it derives its chief importance from its extensive domestic and foreign trade. Canton is one of the oldest cities in this part of the empire; since the foundations were first laid, it has undergone numerous changes.

It is not easy, perhaps impossible, to determine its original site and name, or to ascertain the time in which it was first built. Although either of the questions is unimportant to the reader, a brief account of what the Chinese themselves narrate, respecting one of their largest and most populous cities, may interest him. Their classics speak of Canton being in existence four thousand years since; that it was then called Nan-keaon, and Ming-too, “the splendid capital.” It first began to pay tribute to the emperors of China in the year B.C. 1123. The historians of the empire are only able to trace the origin of Canton to the last emperors of the Chow dynasty, two thousand years since; it was then surrounded by a stockade, composed of bamboo and mud. We find it was but little visited by foreign vessels till the year one thousand before Christ, when they held intercourse with eight “barbarous” nations, from Teeu-chuh (India.)

In the time of the western or Han dynasty, two hundred years previously to the Christian era, persons came from Canton, Loo-whang-che and other nations in the south. The nearest nation was about ten days’ journey and the most remote, five months’; their territories were large and populous and they possessed rare commodities. In the year one hundred and seventy-six of Christ, vessels from India and Egypt, or Arabia, “came with tribute;” from this time trade was carried on with foreigners, at Canton. In the year seven hundred, an imperial commissioner was first appointed to receive “fixed duties;” ninety-five years subsequently, all foreign vessels (owing to gross extortion) resorted to Cochin-China. After the fall of the Tang dynasty, A.D. 906, five dynasties arose, reigned and fell, within a period of fifty-three years. A tribute in gold, silver, ivory and other valuable commodities, was sent to the successor of Tang, to the amount of five millions of taels. In consequence of this acknowledgment, the emperor created Lewyen, “King of Canton” or “King of the Southern sea.” At this period, the court of Canton was cruel in the extreme—criminals were flayed, boiled and roasted, thrown on spikes, and forced to fight with tigers and elephants. The city was freed from the monster, (Lewyen,) by the founder of the Shang dynasty, in the year of the Christian era, nine hundred and sixty-four; it subsequently became more prosperous and beautiful; witches and wizards were prohibited; sorcery was interdicted; the temples which had been built for the practice of superstitious rites, were thrown down; the people were forbidden to offer the sacrifice of human life, to demons; they were enjoined to relieve the sufferers from noxious diseases which are prevalent; dispensaries of medicine were established; useless and extravagant articles of apparel were discountenanced, and pearls and ornaments for head-dresses were disallowed. In the year one thousand and sixty seven, a wall, about two English miles in circumference, enclosed the city to protect it against the Cochin-Chinese. In the year twelve hundred, “foreigners resident” received metals, silks, &c., and in return, they gave rhinoceros’s horns, elephant’s teeth, coral, pearls, gems, crystals, foreign cloth, pepper, red-wood, and drugs. In the year fourteen hundred, one hundred and twenty houses were built for the accommodation of foreigners.—In sixteen hundred and forty seven, the present Tartar family came into power; Canton was summoned to submit to its new master; on refusing, its walls were beaten down with great cannon, and on the twenty-fourth of November, sixteen hundred and fifty, it was taken:—for six days the inhabitants “were given to the sword,” the city was plundered—and upward of seven hundred thousand persons were slain, during the siege, and six days’ slaughter: “every house was left desolate!” only one house remains standing which was built before the sacking of the old city. That part of the city which is walled in is nearly square, and divided by a partition-wall, running from east to west; the northern, much the largest part, is called the “old city;” the southern portion, more recently built, the “new city.”

The circuit of the wall does not exceed six miles: its southern part, running east and west, is parallel with the river, from which it is removed about fifteen or twenty rods: on this side are the “Foreign Factories;” on the north, the city rests on the brow of the hill, and is at its highest point about two hundred and fifty feet above the surface of the river. The foundation and lower part of the wall, the arches and the gates, are formed of coarse sandstone; its remaining portion is built with soft brick. The walls are from twenty-five to forty feet high, and from twenty to twenty-five feet thick; the north side being the most substantial; on the east side the elements have made great havoc: a line of battlements with embrasures surmounts the walls, in the rear of which is a broad pathway. Two short walls, designed to block up the narrow space between the main wall and the ditches of the city, extend from its southeast and southwest corners; through each of these there is a gate.

The city has sixteen gates, of which twelve are outer, and four open through the wall which separates the old from the new city; they are all guarded by soldiers, closed at an early hour in the evening, and opened at dawn of day. The streets and buildings in the suburbs are similar to those in the city, the houses of which occupy the whole space between the wall and the river on its southern side; on its eastern quarter they are much less extensive; and in its northern division there are only a few solitary huts. The houses on the south are generally built against the wall which they overlook.

The suburbs are scarcely less extensive and populous than the city, in which there are upward of six hundred streets, flagged with large stones, chiefly of granite; they vary in width from two to sixteen feet, the medium and most usual breadth being from six to eight.

These narrow streets are usually thronged by a numerous motley group; through many of them, the pedestrian in the rear is liable to tread on the heels of the leader; the stout, half-naked, vociferating porters, carrying every description of merchandise, and the nimble sedan-bearers, make up, in noise and bustle, for the deficiency of carts and carriages: these, together with the numerous travellers, various kinds of retailers, pedlars, and beggars, present before the spectator a scene of great animation and endless variety. Many of the visiters and much of the merchandise are conveyed into the city by means of canals or ditches, of which there are several; one of the largest extends along the whole length of the wall on the east, and another on the west side of the city, so that boats can pass through and out by either canal. The eastern, western, and southern suburbs of the city are also furnished with large canals, into which a number of smaller tributaries flow: the Chinese term these ditches “the veins of the city.” Reservoirs are found here, but none of them are extensive: much of the water is supplied from the river and canals; wells are not unfrequent, and rainwater is used for making tea, &c.; fine wholesome water is also furnished from numerous springs, which rise in the north of the city, both within and without the walls. Several bridges (some of which are of stone) are thrown over the canals.

The Chinese of the present day have seldom ventured or desired to step beyond the limits which circumscribed the efforts of their remote ancestors; they have been equally slow and unwilling to adopt or imitate the usages and improvements of distant foreigners, and glory in this, their prominent characteristic: hence without much claim to originality, they are exceedingly unlike the nations of the West.

In giving a description of this people, or any thing which appertains to them, we must not therefore form our estimate by the criterion of European taste or usage. With the Chinese the left, as the place of honour, takes precedence of the right; white is the badge of mourning. From the peculiar construction of their compass, called Chenan, chay, “a chariot pointing towards the south,” they do not number the cardinal points in our order, but almost always mention the south before the north; the west before the east; instead of saying north, they say, west-north; west-south, &c. Without attempting to account for this contrariety, it is obvious that the fact itself should be kept in mind, while surveying the various works, occupations, institutions and habits of the Chinese.

It is generally supposed that the remote ancestors of this people, in the migration eastward, dwelt in tents; their circumstances would require such habitations; when they became stationary, their wants would prompt them to seek a more substantial covering; but their houses, pagodas, and temples, of the present day, bear evident proofs that this early covering from the heat and storm, was the only model which presented itself for imitation, in the erection of more secure and permanent habitations. The roof, concave on its upper side; and the veranda, with its slender columns, show most distinctly the original features of the tent; the whole fabric of the ordinary buildings is light and slender, retaining the outlines of its primeval simplicity. They therefore, will seek in vain, who expect to find here stately edifices, built after the Grecian or the Gothic model.

Barrow, after having visited the imperial palaces, and travelled from north to south, through the whole breadth of the empire, affirms, that all the buildings of the Chinese are without elegance or convenience of design, without any settled proportion; mean in their appearance, and clumsy in their workmanship. Macartney was much better pleased with their architecture; though it is totally unlike any other, and irreconcilable to our rules, yet, in perfect consistence with its own, it frequently produces a most pleasing effect.

The buildings of Canton present as great a variety in structure and style as can be found in the whole empire.

A large part of the city and suburbs, is built on low ground or flats. Special care is therefore required to secure a solid basis, for houses and temples.

Near the river, and in all the most loose and muddy situations, houses are raised on wooden piles, which make the foundation as secure as brick or stone, perhaps, even more so. In some cases the piles rise above the surface of the ground, the buildings constructed of wood, resting directly upon them: in other instances, the piles reach only within a few feet of the surface, and the remaining part of the foundation is made of mud, brick, or stone; when this is finished, the walls are usually carried up and completed with the same material. Many of the houses are nearly baseless, or have only a slender foundation composed of mud, of which also the walls are composed; hence, in severe rain, storms, and overflowings of the river, of which some have recently taken place, many of the walls are thrown down.

Bricks are in most general use for the walls of houses; three fifths of those in the whole city are composed of them; the remaining part being mostly constructed of mud; most of the Tartars in the old city are said to inhabit dwellings of the latter kind.

Stone and wood are rarely employed in erecting the walls of houses: the first is frequently employed in making gate-ways and door-posts, and the second for columns, beams, and rafters. Many of the floors in houses and temples are formed of indurated mud; marble flags and tiles are likewise used for roofs; they are laid in rows on the rafters, alternately concave and convex, forming ridges and furrows, luted by a cement of clay.

Windows are small and rarely supplied with glass; paper, mica, shell, or some other translucent substance, supplies its place; very little iron is employed in building.

The materials above named, for buildings, are procured here at moderate prices and in great abundance. Wood, usually a species of the fir, is floated down the rivers, and brought to the city in large rafts. Bricks are made in the neighbourhood of Canton, brought hither in boats, and sold at various prices, from three to eight shillings a thousand. These bricks are of a leaden blue or of a pale brown colour; a few being red; the variation of teint is produced by the different modes of drying and burning them; the red bricks are those most thoroughly burned; the leaden blue have received only a partial action of the fire, the pale brown, the sun’s action alone.

Excellent stone for building is found in the hilly country on the north of the province, and also in several of the islands, south of the city. Granite and sandstone are those principally found and in great variety.

Such is the general style and usual material of the buildings in Canton. In passing through the city, the spectator is struck with the great contrast between them, though this diversity does by no means fully exhibit the relative condition and circumstances of the people: a few only are rich, and the external appearance of their houses does not exceed, in elegance, the dwellings of the middle class; many are very poor—and the aspect of their abodes affords abundant evidence of their abject state.

The poorest people are to be found in the extreme parts of the suburbs, along the banks of the canals, and in the northern part of the old city; their houses are mere mud-hovels; low, narrow, dark, unclean, and without any division of apartments. A whole family, consisting of six, eight, ten, and sometimes twice the number, is crowded into one of these dreary abodes; yet we meet with individuals, enjoying health and long life under these circumstances. To pass through the streets or lanes of such a neighbourhood, is sufficient to reconcile a person to any ordinary condition of life.

Neither intelligence or industry could ever be confined in such miserable cells. In habitations, a little more spacious and cleanly than these, perhaps one third part of the people in Canton have their abodes: these stand close on the street, and have usually but a single entrance, which is closed by a bamboo screen, suspended from the top of the door; within these houses, there are no superfluous apartments: a single room is allotted to each branch of the family, while a third, which completes the number within the whole enclosure, is used by all the household as a common eating-room.

Chinese houses usually open towards the south; but in these, as also in the poorer kind, this favourite position is disregarded. Dwellings of this description, are rented at four or five dollars a month. Another class of houses, inhabited by a more wealthy but less numerous part of the community, are the residences of those in easy circumstances, who enjoy plenty without any of the accompaniments of luxury; these houses together with the plot of ground on which they stand are surrounded by a wall, twelve or fourteen feet high, that rises and fronts the street, so as completely to conceal all the buildings from the traveller, as he passes by.

The prospect, in passing along the narrow streets which are lined with these houses, is very cheerless. If allowed to enter some of these dwellings more pleasing scenes will be presented. A stranger enters the outer enclosure through a large folding door into an open court, thence he is conducted by a servant to the visiters’ hall; which is usually a small apartment, furnished with chairs, sofas, tea-stands, &c.; here the host presents himself to introduce his guest to the younger members of the family.

These halls are open on one side, the others being ornamented with carved work, or hung with various scrolls presenting in large and elegant characters, the moral maxims of their sages: or perhaps, exhibiting rude landscapes, or paintings of birds and flowers. The remaining portion of the enclosure is occupied with the domestic apartments; a garden and, perhaps, a small school-room.

The houses occupied by a few of the most opulent in Canton are by no means inferior to the imperial palaces, excepting it be in the space which they fill. The family residences of some among those merchants, who are licensed by government to trade with foreigners, furnish good specimens of this description of buildings. The seat of the late Consequa, now half in ruins, was once superb; that of the present senior hong-merchant, is on a scale of great magnificence; it is a villa or rather palace, divided into suites of apartments, which are highly and tastefully decorated. The dwellings occupied by the government offices, and the numerous temples of the city, need not be particularized in this place; suffice it to remark, that they are usually more spacious than private houses, and that, at present, most of them are in a very ordinary condition; very few of the houses or temples in Canton, have more than one story, the halls of which are of the whole height of the fabric, without any concealment of the beams or rafters of the house. Terraces are often built above the roofs, and when surrounded by a breastwork, afford in the cool of the day, a very pleasant and secure retreat, to which the inmates can ascend, in order to breathe a pure air, enjoy a wider prospect, or to witness any event that transpires in the neighbourhood. These terraces are not perhaps unlike the flat-roofs of other orientals. In some other points there is also a coincidence between the houses of the Chinese, and those which are noticed in the sacred writings.

Professor Jahn in his Biblical Archaeology, when referring to the buildings described in the Scriptures, says: “The gates not only of houses, but of cities, were customarily adorned with an inscription which was to be extracted from the law of Moses; a practice in which may be found the origin of the modern Mezuzaw or piece of parchment inscribed with sacred texts, and fastened to the door-posts. The gates were always shut, and one of the servants acted the part of a porter: the space immediately inside of the gate, called the porch, is square, and on one side of it is erected a seat for the accommodation of those strangers who are not to be admitted into the interior of the house. From the porch we are introduced through a second door into the court, which is commonly paved with marble, and surrounded on all sides. Sometimes however only one side is enclosed, with a peristyle or covered walk, over which, if the house has more than one story, there is a gallery of the same dimensions, supported by columns and protected by a balustrade.

In the church, large companies are received at nuptials and feasts: on such occasions, a large veil of thick cloth is extended by ropes over the whole court, to exclude the sun’s heat. The back part of the house, called in Arabic, the harem, and in Hebrew, by way of eminence, the palace, is allotted to the females. Behind the “harem,” is a garden into which the women can enjoy the pleasure of looking from their apartments. In the smaller houses the females occupy the upper story; the place assigned them also, by Homer in the “Iliad” and “Odyssey.”

In the buildings of the Chinese, the various inscriptions are seen on the door-posts: the porter at the outer gate; the porch and court within; the peristyle with its columns and perhaps a gallery above; the palace, Kin-tee or “forbidden ground,” with its garden, bears a striking resemblance to those of the above description. The inner apartments of the emperor are in like manner, by way of eminence, called Kung-teen, or the “palace.”

The government of Canton now claims our notice. Here, as in every other place throughout the dominions of the Mantchow Chinese, all power emanates from one man, honoured as the vicegerent of “High heaven;” hence the present line of monarchs have not been satisfied with the dignity of sovereigns but have laid claim to the character of sages.

The sovereign of men, say they, “is heaven’s son; nobles and statesmen are the sovereign’s children; the people are the children of nobles and statesmen. The sovereign should serve heaven as a father, never forgetting to cherish reverential thoughts, but exciting himself to illustrate his virtues, and looking up to receive from heaven, the vast patrimony which it confers; thus the emperors will daily increase in felicity and glory. Nobles and ministers of state should serve their sovereign as a father, never forgetting to cherish reverential thoughts, not harbouring covetous and sordid desires, nor engaging in wicked and clandestine thoughts, but faithfully and justly exerting themselves; thus their noble rank will be preserved. The people should never forget to cherish reverential thoughts towards the nobles and ministers of state, to obey and keep the laws; to excite no secret or open rebellion; then no great calamity will befall their persons.”

In accordance with these views, a spacious hall called Wan-show-kung is dedicated to the emperor, in every province of the empire, the walls and appertenances of which are yellow, which is the imperial colour. In Canton the Wan-show-kung stands near the southeast corner of the new city, within the walls. It is used solely for the honour of the emperor and his family, and, annually, three days prior and subsequent to the imperial birth days, all the civil and military officers of the government, together with the principal inhabitants of the city, assemble in it, and there pay him adoration.

The same solemnities are required on these occasions as if the monarch were present; no seats are allowed in the sacred place; every one who repairs there, takes with him a cushion upon which he sits, cross-legged, on the ground. So much is done for absent majesty.

Among the principal officers, who exercise authority in the city of Canton is first, Tsung-tuh: this officer is styled Leang-kwang-tsung-tuh, or the governor of the province of Kwang-tung and Kwang-se. He is clothed with high authority, and in many cases independent of all the other officers within the limits of his jurisdiction; usually, however, he acts in concert and confers with them who like himself, have been sent hither from the capital. He has no power to originate or carry into execution any law or regulation, without the sanction of the emperor, and is required to act according to precedents and existing statutes. In certain cases pointed out by law, he can, with the concurrence of foo-yuen, inflict immediate death.

New regulations are frequently proposed to the emperor by the governor and his council; when these have received the imperial sanction, (which they generally do,) they have the force of law. The governor is ex-officio, an honorary president of the supreme tribunal at Peking, and occasionally, a member of the imperial cabinet. His commands are most peremptory, and his authority can never be slighted or resisted with impunity. The responsibilities of his office are great: he is accountable to the emperor for the good management of all affairs in the two provinces; the prosperity of the people and the fruitfulness of the seasons are also items in the vast account which he must render to his sovereign: he is required to make a faithful report of every calamity which may come within the pale of his jurisdiction, whether occasioned by fire, pestilence, earthquake, or famine, to the emperor and the supreme tribunal, under penalty of being dismissed from office. Any real or supposed deficiency in his capacity, subjects him to the most severe punishment. The late governor of the province, Le, may be adduced to prove this fact, who, during the last year for the “untoward affair” of Leen-chow, was deprived of all rank and honours, chained, imprisoned, condemned, and sent into banishment.

In case of fire breaking out in the provincial city, and consuming more than ten houses, the governor is fined nine months’ pay; if more than thirty houses are consumed, he forfeits one year’s salary, if three hundred are destroyed, he is degraded one degree.

Fires occurring in the suburbs, do not subject him to the same punishments. All the principal officers and a few of the most respectable private citizens, frequently wait on his excellency. These “calls” are visits of business or ceremony, according to circumstances, and more or less frequent, as the disposition of the parties may direct. On certain occasions, such as the arrival of a new governor, all the civil and military officers of both provinces, are required to send to him “an accurate and conspicuous account of themselves, their term of service, and the condition of their respective districts.” “But whoever,” said one of the late governors, “of the superior or inferior officers, or the salt or hong merchants, or any other persons, shall represent himself to be intimate with me and in my confidence, or if persons shall write to each other to that effect, or shall suffer themselves to be thus deceived; he or they shall be arrested and brought to trial; and those who conceal such reports shall be considered as equally guilty with those who give rise to them.”

All ultimate appeals in the two provinces, are made to the governor. At the gate of his palace are placed six tablets, in which are written appropriate inscriptions for those who wish to appeal to his authority; the first is for those who have been wronged by covetous, corrupt, or sordid officers: the second, for those who have suffered by thieves or robbers; the third for such as have been falsely accused; the fourth, for those who have been injured by swindlers and gamesters; the fifth, for such as have suffered by wicked persons of any description, and the sixth is for those who wish to give information concerning any secret schemes or machinations.

On the third and eighth, the thirteenth and eighteenth, the twenty-third and twenty-eighth days of each month, the people are allowed to take these tablets in their hands, and to enter one of the outer apartments of the palace, where they may, in person, present their complaints to his excellency. This mode of proceeding is however seldom adopted: to send or carry up a petition to his gate, is the most common method of seeking redress from the hands of the governors. When all these means fail, an appeal may be made to Peking.

The mode of appeal by entering the gate of the magistrate, is allowed also at the offices of foo-yuen, and an-cha-sze.

The governor’s house stands in the new city, near the yew-lan gate; it is spacious and belongs to the government. The salary of this officer is fifteen thousand taels, annually. It is generally believed that his extra emoluments during the same period, amount to more than twelve times that sum; although presents of every kind, to officers of government, are disallowed.

Loo-kwan, the present governor, is an aged man, and a native of one of the northern provinces. He seems to belong to that class of persons who are fond of ease and pleasure, very ambitious—but desirous that all under their authority should know their places and perform their respective duties. He has a large number of persons employed about him, as advisers, secretaries, servants, &c. A small number of troops, who serve as a body-guard, are also attached to him, and at the same time, constitute a part of the city-police.

Foo-yuen, the second officer, who is also called seun-foo, is usually styled, by foreigners, “lieutenant-governor.” His jurisdiction is confined to this province, in which he is second in authority. The title of Choo, the present foo-yuen, as it appears in the government papers, runs thus: “An attendant officer of the military board; a member of the court of universal examiners; an imperial censor; patrolling soother of Canton; a guide of military affairs and a controller of taxes.”

Division of power, when it is to be intrusted to those who have been selected from the people, is the policy of the Mantchow family. The foo-yuen, though second to the governor, is not under his control; and in certain cases, acts independently of him.

They often confer together, and in matters in which they cannot agree, refer for a decision to Peking. The foo-yuen holds the wang-ming, “king’s order,” or death warrant, by virtue of which criminals, in cases of great emergency, can be put to the sword without a reference to the emperor. His residence is in the old city, in a palace built in the reign of Shwn-che, by one of the Tartar generals, who was sent hither to “pacify” the rebellious subjects of the South. Choo is a native of Keeang-soo and a thorough-bred son of Han—stern, resolute, and even obstinate—rather careless about emolument, a comtemner of bribes—a terror to bandits, a hater of “divine vagabonds”—respected by few, and feared by all. In his person, he is tall and well formed; his looks show that he has “gone hither and thither,” discharging the functions of public life, without toil and anxiety. His origin is very humble and he has grown old in the service of his country. He has one son who is a source of grief to his parent; like the governor, he has a small body of soldiers under his command, but the number of persons kept in his immediate employ, is small. In his habits of living—we have his own word for it—the patrolling soother of Canton is both simple and an example to the people.

Tseang-keun, the third officer, usually denominated the Tartar general, is commander of the Tartar troops in Canton, and is answerable for the defence of the city. In most cases he acts independently of the tsung-tuh and foo-yuen. The soldiers under his immediate command, except a small detachment stationed on the river, are quartered in the old city, where the general keeps his court and camp. He is always, we believe, a mantchow and not unfrequently a member of the imperial family.

Subordinate to the tseang-keun, there are two foo-too-tungs or lieutenant-generals, and a great number of inferior officers, who rank as majors, captains, lieutenants, &c. His house, which was built by Tsing-nan-wang, is said to exhibit some of the finest specimens of architecture that can be found in the provincial city.

Hae-kwan-keen-tuh, the fourth officer, is known to foreigners and often addressed by them as, “the grand hoppo of the port of Canton.” He is generally a member of the imperial household, and receives his appointment direct from the emperor. His jurisdiction (he being commissioner of customs) is limited to the maritime commerce of Canton. We shall have occasion, subsequently, to speak of this department, when the commerce of the city is referred to.

Heo-yuen, the fifth officer, holds the highest literary appointment in the province; he is usually spoken of, as “the literary chancellor of Canton.” His office is one of great influence and respectability, inasmuch as literary rank, of which he is judge and dispenser, is necessary for preferment to all civil offices in the state. He has a general supervision of all public schools, colleges, and literary examinations, within the province. On some occasions his authority extends to the military department.

The sixth officer, Poo-ching-sze, is the controller of the revenue of the province; under the foo-yuen, he directs the appointment and removal of all the subordinate officers of the local government. The principal officers under him, are the king-leih or secretary, and a koo-ta-sze or keeper of the treasury.

Gan-cha-sze or an-cha-sze, the seventh officer, is criminal judge of the province; all the criminal cases which occur within its limits, are brought before him for trial. Sometimes he sits in judgment alone; but in cases involving the life of the accused, he is usually assisted by other chief officers of the province. A degree of civil power, at times, appertains to him in conjunction with the poo-ching-sze. The government posts are under his control;—among other officers attached to this department, there is a sze-yo who has the general management of the provincial prisoners; his rank and his duties are similar to those of the keeper of a state-prison.

Yen-yun-sze, the eighth officer, has the superintendence of the state department: there are, under him, a yun-tung who attends to the transportation of salt from one place to another, and several other minor officers.

The salt-trade is a government monopoly, the duties upon which form an important branch of the imperial revenue. This trade is limited to a small number of licensed merchants, who are generally very rich, and are often called upon to make liberal grants towards the support of the provincial government.

The ninth officer, Tuh-leang-taou, has the control of all the public granaries in the province; their superintendents are subject to his direction and inspection. Canton and the suburbs contain fourteen public granaries; these are required to be kept filled in order to furnish supplies for the people, in times of scarcity.

Kwang-chow-foo-chee-foo, or a magistrate of the department of Kwang-chow-foo, is the tenth officer in Canton; his title is often abridged, sometimes to Kwang-chow, at others, to Che-foo: Kwang-chow is simply the name of the foo. Chee-foo means, literally, “known of the department (or foo),” and denotes that it is the office or duty of this magistrate to be fully acquainted with the portion of territory over which he is placed. Either term is sufficient to denote, pretty nearly, what is the authority of an officer placed at the head of all the affairs of such a division of the province. There are numerous civil officers placed in various parts of the department, all of whom are under his immediate inspection. He has also under his authority a sze-yo, whose duties, as superintendent of the prisoners of the department, are similar to those of chief jailer in a county-prison.

The eleventh principal officer in the province is Nan-hae-heen-che-heen; this officer is subordinate to the che-foo, and is to the district of Nan-hae what the che-foo is to the department of Kwang-chow. As che-heen, he is required to know all the affairs of the district. The department of Kwang-chow is divided into fourteen heens or districts, of which Nan-hae and Pwan-yu are two of the principal, and include the city of Canton.

The last officer whom we shall particularize, is Pwan-yu-heen-che-heen; the rank and duties of this magistrate are the same in the district of Pwan-yu as are the last-named officers in the district of Nan-hae: their titles, like that of the che-foo, are commonly abridged; thus, when speaking of the Nan-hae magistrate, the people say, Nan-hae-heen; and when it is not necessary to mention the district, they simply say che-heen, designating by each of their phrases, the magistrate of the district of Nan-hae.

We have named and characterized as far as our limits will admit, and the nature of the subject requires, the principal officers who exercise authority in Canton; the reader will doubtless find it difficult, as we have done, to determine the exact limitation of their respective spheres, which, like the courses of the planets, often seem to intersect each other. At first sight of so many bodies, all in motion within limits so narrow, we feel surprised that they do not come into collision, destroy each other and carry destruction through the empire. On a close inspection, however, we are able to discover some of the secret laws which govern this complicated system, preserve it in being, and keep it in motion. Two influences, the one military, and the other literary, are perhaps the principal forces which regulate and control the measures of the Chinese government. Religion, which often has a gigantic power over governments, is here blended with civil and state ceremonies, and exerts but a feeble, and usually a most baneful influence on the political destinies of the nation.

All the officers enumerated in the foregoing list, excepting the two che-heens, the che-foo, and the tseang-keun, are general officers—their jurisdiction extending to all other parts of the province, as well as over the metropolis. There are likewise two other officers, commanders-in-chief of the land and naval forces, who, like the other members of the provincial government, act alone in certain cases, and sometimes in concert with the other general officers. The government is despotic as well as military; and so constructed, that those who form the provincial government, shall, while they enjoy a degree of independence, serve as mutual checks; while at the same time, each superior officer is held responsible for those who are subordinate, and accountable for himself. Even in the location of these officers, there has been a cautious reference to “division and balance of power.” For example: the tsung-tuh is stationed in the new city, almost within a stone’s-throw of his majesty’s most faithful “slave,” the hoppo; the foo-yuen and the tsang-kuen are placed in similar positions in reference to each other: these two last are so located in the old city, that, should circumstances require, they could act against the two first, in the new city. The same principle is observable likewise, if we mistake not, in the disposition which is made of the troops. The whole land and naval force throughout the province, has been estimated (nominally) at about one hundred thousand men; all of whom are with fixed limitations, under the control of the governor; he has, however, the immediate and sole command of only five thousand, and these are stationed at a distance from the city. On all ordinary occasions, except when he goes to a distance from Canton, he is escorted by a detachment from the kwang-chow-hee, (the chief military officer of Kwang-chow,) which, in the absence of his own troops, serves him for a body-guard, and constitutes, at the same time, a part of the police of the city. The foo-yuen has only two thousand at his command; while the tseang-keun has five thousand, which, in an extreme case, would enable him to become master of the city. The proper seat of the governor is at Shaou-king-foo, several miles west of this city; but on account of the superior advantages of Canton, he is allowed to reside here; he cannot, however, bring his troops hither, lest, in conjunction with the foo-yuen, they should prove more than a match for the Tartar general-commandant and his five thousand fighting men. It should be remarked here, that no individual can hold an office in any province, department, or district of the empire, that includes the place of his nativity, or that extends within several hundred le of it.

The whole number of soldiers, ordinarily quartered in the city, does not probably exceed seven thousand. There are in the immediate vicinity of Canton, a few small forts, and the city itself is intended to be a stronghold; but neither is in such a state that they would serve any very valuable purposes of defence. Even the late rain-storm carried away one of the gates of the city, and opened a wide breach in the walls. Most of the forts are dismantled and defenceless, and present nothing more formidable than the frightful paintings of tiger’s heads, on the wooden lids which block up their port-holes. The two follies, Dutch and French follies as they are called, are situated in the river opposite to the city, and are fair specimens of the forts about Canton; there are likewise for the defence of the city, what have been called cavalry, and artillery; but of these, we have heard little, and seen nothing. Of the Tartar troops, there are two hundred chosen men, who on state occasions, appear well clad and warlike; but, generally, the soldiers are badly equipped, and poorly disciplined. All their armour and accoutrements, consisting of shields and helmets, bows and arrows, spears and javelins, short-swords and matlocks, seem ill fitted either for defence or attack; the heavy losses sustained by the troops of Canton, during the late highland war at Seen-chow, fully confirm these remarks; as do also recent imperial edicts, in which the soldiery are accused of idleness and lazy habits, and of “indulging in all the softness of civilians;” the police of the city is on the whole, vigilant and efficient. Besides those who act in the capacity of constables, thief-takers, &c., constituting the regular police, there are many neighbourhoods, as well as private individuals, which make arrangements for a constant nocturnal watch during the night; almost all the streets of the city are shut up by strong gates at each end; near one of which there is usually a guard-house. The night-watches are distinguished by bells, or some similar instruments kept by the watchmen, in the winter months, when there is great danger from fire, as well as thieves. Watch-towers are built on bamboo poles, high above the roofs of the houses; thus constituting a double watch. When thieves are discovered, or when a fire breaks out in any part of the city, the alarm by means of the watchmen, spreads quickly from one extremity of the city to the other. When riotous assemblies collect in the streets, they are, in most cases, speedily dissolved by a vigorous application of the bamboo or whip; many, doubtless, “shove by justice,” and to the day of their death go unpunished; yet the number who are arrested and brought to trial, annually, is very great; justice is often administered in the most summary manner; not unfrequently, in minor cases, the man receives the punishment, and again goes free, the same hour in which he commits the crime.

The forms of trial are simple: there is no jury, no pleading; the criminal kneels before the magistrate, who hears the witnesses and passes sentence; he is then remanded to prison, or sent to the place of execution. Seldom is he acquitted; when witnesses are wanting, he is sometimes tortured until he gives evidence against himself.

There are four jails in Canton; which together contain several hundred prisoners; the jail is called te-yo, hell, or literally “earth’s prison.” All capital offenders suffer just without the southern gates, near the river; hundreds die there annually. When brought to the fatal spot, they kneel with their faces towards the emperor’s court, and bending forward in the attitude of submission and thanksgiving, suddenly expire beneath the bloody sword of the executioner.