  DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR. John Barton Payne, Secretary United States Geological Survey George Otis Smith, Director THE PREPARATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS FOR REPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WITH BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF PROCESSES BY JOHN L. RIDGWAY U.S. Geol. Surv. WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
ILLUSTRATIONS.
THE PREPARATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS FOR REPORTS OF THE United STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. By John L. Ridgway. Part I. Preparation By Authors. There has been an obvious need in the Geological Survey of a paper devoted wholly to illustrations. No complete paper on the character, use, and mode of preparation of illustrations has been published by the Survey, though brief suggestions concerning certain features of their use have been printed in connection with other suggestions pertaining to publications. The present paper includes matter which it is hoped will be of service to authors in their work of making up original drafts of illustrations and to draftsmen who are using these originals in preparing more finished drawings, but it is not a technical treatise on drafting. The effectiveness of illustrations does not depend entirely on good drawings nor on good reproduction; it may be due in large part to the inherent character of the rough material submitted. If this material is effective or striking the finished illustrations, if well made, will be equally effective and striking. Each step in the making of an illustration—first the preparation of the author's original or rough draft, next the final drawing, and last the reproduction—is closely related to the others, and each is dependent on the others for good results. If the material has been well handled at all three steps the resulting illustration should be above criticism; if it has been poorly handled at any one of the three the effectiveness of the illustration is either impaired or ruined. A consideration of processes of reproduction is essential in the preparation of all illustrations, and the influence or effect of the process to be selected on the methods of preparing a drawing has seemed to warrant the presentation of brief descriptions of the processes usually employed by the Geological Survey. These descriptions include statements as to the kind of copy that is suitable for each process, the result produced by each, and the relative cost of the processes. PURPOSE AND VALUE OF ILLUSTRATIONS. An illustration in a report of the Geological Survey is not merely a picture having a remote bearing on the subject matter of the report; it must represent or explain something discussed or mentioned in order to become an illustration in the true sense of the term. The illustrations used in the Survey's reports are not employed for embellishment; the more pictorial kinds may be in some measure decorative, but decoration is distinctly not their primary purpose. The illustrations used in popular literature are designed to meet a public demand for ornament or attractiveness. Those used in scientific publications should be made plain and direct, without attempt to ornament or beautify. In the literature of science illustrations made by the reproduction of photographs or of explanatory diagrams or maps are intended simply to furnish greater illumination, and if the illustrations display photographic reality most statements or conclusions thus illuminated seem less open to dispute. A photograph may thus serve the double purpose of explanation and corroboration. The graphic expression of data and of details in a Survey report is intended to aid the reader in comprehending the report, and this is the prime advantage of its use, but it also enables the writer to omit from his text numerous descriptive details. It would generally be difficult without illustrations to present a clear picture of the geology of a region in its exact relations, and especially to describe adequately the form and the details of the structure of many fossils. The tasks of both the writer and the reader of reports on geology and kindred subjects are thus greatly facilitated by geologic maps, sections, paleontologic drawings, and illustrations of other kinds. The responsibility for good and effective illustrations rests largely upon the author, who should select and plan his illustrations with a view to their utility in aiding the reader to understand his report. SELECTION AND APPROVAL OF ILLUSTRATIONS. There is no rule limiting the number of illustrations that may be used in a publication of the Geological Survey, but in selecting illustrations for a report an author may easily fall into the error of over-illustration. The number of diagrammatic drawings or of drawings that express the author's deductions is rarely in excess of the needs of a paper, but the number of photographs submitted is often excessive. The number of pages in a manuscript may be a factor in determining the proper number of illustrations, but as the need of illustrations varies greatly from paper to paper this factor alone is not decisive. The tendency to overillustrate led the Director to issue the following order[1] governing the approval of illustrations: [1] From Survey Order 63, Oct. 20, 1915. The primary responsibility for the selection of illustrative material shall rest upon the author and the chief of the branch transmitting the report: No one knows the subject matter of the report better than its author, though a sympathetic critic is usually needed to correct the personal equation that may express itself In an excessive number of illustrations or the use of photographs into which no one but the field man himself can read what he wishes to illustrate. The approval by the chief of branch of the illustrations selected by the author will be taken as vouching for those illustrations as essential and adequate, and the scientific value of the illustrations will not be subject to review in the section of illustrations. The chief of the section of illustrations shall decide the technical questions relating to the preparation of these illustrations for reproduction and may recommend the rejection of any that do not promise effective or economical reproduction. In the consideration of such questions, especially any relating to maps, the cooperation of the editor of geologic maps and chief engraver will be expected. The judgment of an author as to the illustrative value of a photograph is likely to be biased by his knowledge of the features that are actually included in the view represented, not all of which may be shown clearly in the photograph; his knowledge of all the features enables him to see more in his picture than his readers will be able to recognize without detailed description. Photographs in which special or significant features are obscured by foliage or lost in hazy distance do not make acceptable illustrations, and the use of a picture that requires much description to make it illustrate reverses, in a measure, the relations of text and illustrations. A photograph is not necessarily good for reproduction simply because it shows some particular feature to be illustrated; the quality of the print it will afford when reproduced from an engraved plate should also be considered. Some loss of detail by reproduction must be expected, and therefore only the clearest and most effective prints obtainable should be submitted. If an author has difficulty in making his preliminary or "original" drawings he may request that a draftsman be detailed to aid him. The request should be made to the Director through the chief of branch and properly approved. The work will then be done in the section of illustrations as advance preparation, but finished drawings should not be thus prepared unless the conditions are unusual. The administrative geologist reviews all illustrations submitted and represents the Director in matters relating to illustrations. SUBMITTAL OF ILLUSTRATIONS. All material intended for illustrations, except paleontologic specimens, should be submitted with the manuscript of the paper to be illustrated but in a separate package marked "Illustrations to accompany a paper on —— by ——." The package should contain a carbon copy of the list of illustrations that accompanies the manuscript or, if the titles to be printed on or with the illustrations include fuller descriptions than are given in that list, a carbon copy of the list giving complete titles and descriptions, the original of which should also accompany the manuscript. In the list each plate and figure should be separately numbered consecutively in the order in which it should appear in the report, and a figure opposite each title should show the number of the manuscript page on which the illustration is first mentioned or most fully discussed. Roman numerals should be used for the plates and arabic numerals for the figures. Each drawing or photograph should bear, in addition to the number and title, any suggestions concerning preparation, reduction, and method of reproduction which the author may consider especially desirable. The list should be headed "Illustrations." Specimens other than fossils that are to be illustrated must be submitted directly to the section of illustrations, but the author may first obtain photographic prints of them in order to make up his plates. The specimens should be carefully packed and any that are fragile should be so marked. The illustrations in reports of the Geological Survey may be classified into five more or less distinct groups—(1) maps, (2) diagrams (including graphs, sections, plans, figures of apparatus, and stereograms), (3) outdoor photographs, (4) photographs and drawings of specimens, and (5) sketches. These may be further divided into two large groups, which may be called permanent and ephemeral. The permanent group includes illustrations that do not lose value through lapse of time or by natural alteration, such as detailed geologic maps, well-prepared structure sections, views of specimens, and good photographs or drawings of natural phenomena; the ephemeral group includes maps showing progress, key maps, diagrams showing yearly production, and many others that should be prepared in such a way as to minimize cost of preparation and reproduction. U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PREPARATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE I METHODS OF INSERTING PLATES AND FIGURES. The illustrations will be finally divided into plates and figures when they are fully prepared, but if an author desires to determine the classification in advance of transmittal he should submit his material to the section of illustrations, where methods, processes, and reductions will be decided for each. In determining which shall be plates and which shall be figures, size and method of reproduction are the only factors to be considered; there are no other real differences. Illustrations that require separate or special printing, such as those reproduced by Lithography and by the photogravure, photogelatin, and three-color processes, must be printed separately from the text as plates and inserted in the report at the proper places; those that are reproduced by relief processes, such as zinc and copper etching and wax engraving, if not too large, can be printed with the text as figures. If an illustration to be reproduced by a relief process is marked for reduction to a size not exceeding that of the page of the text, it can be called a figure and be printed with the text. Half tones, though etched in relief, are rarely made text figures in Survey reports, because to give satisfactory impressions they must be printed on the best quality of coated paper, which is not used for the text. By using the coarser screens shown in Plate VI (p. 56), however, a half-tone cut may be made that can be used in the text if it is smaller than the page. The regular book publications of the Geological Survey are issued in three sizes—(1) octavo (annual reports of the Director, statistical reports on mineral resources, bulletins, and water-supply papers); (2) quarto (professional papers and monographs); (3) folio (geologic folios). The following table gives the measure of the text of each size and the measure of the trimmed page, in inches:
Most professional papers are printed in two columns of type, each 3 inches wide, and folios are printed in three columns, each 43/8 inches wide. A text figure in one of these publications can be made to fit one or more columns, and it may run the full length of the text page. The limits of the dimensions of plates and figures, in inches, are given in the following table. If for any reason a plate can not be reduced to the dimensions of a page it can be folded once or more; and if it is large and unwieldy it may be placed in a pocket on the inside of the back cover. (See Pl. I.)
For an octavo report a single-page plate with side title should be 4 inches or less in width, and a plate with bottom title should be 7 inches or less in depth. In other words, the actual depth and width of a single-page plate in a page of any size must depend on the number of lines in its title, the inclusion of which should not extend the matter much, if any, beyond the dimensions given in the table. A difference of 1 inch or less in the width of a folding plate may determine whether it must be folded once or twice, so that by consulting this table an author may save expense in binding and promote the reader's convenience in handling the plate. A text figure (including the title) can not extend beyond the text measure but may be of any size or shape within that measure, as shown on Plate I, figures 4, 8, 9, 10. SUBDIVISIONS OF PLATES AND FIGURES. If a plate consists of two or more parts or photographs each part should be marked with an italic capital letter—A, B, etc.—which should be placed directly under each. If it is made up of many parts, in the form of plates that accompany reports on paleontology, each part should be similarly marked with an arable numeral—1, 2, 3, etc. If a text figure is subdivided into two or more parts, each part should be marked with a roman capital—A, B, C, etc.; and if details of a part are to be described each detail should be marked by an italic lower-case letter—a, 6, c, etc. PREPARATION OF COPY BY AUTHORS. CHARACTER OF ORIGINAL MATERIAL. In the Geological Survey, as elsewhere, the "originals"—that is, the original material submitted by authors for the illustration of their reports—differ greatly in character and in degree of clearness. Some are carefully prepared; others are rough, obscure in part, and defective in detail. Drawings made from poor originals progress slowly, because the draftsman spends much time in interpreting uncertain features or in conference with the author concerning details. An original should be perfectly clear in detail and meaning, so that the draftsman can follow it without doubt. It should not consist of parts that must be brought together to make a new drawing, because the result of the combination of the parts will be uncertain at the outset and may not prove satisfactory. Each original illustration should be prepared with the idea that the draftsman who will make the finished drawing will be unfamiliar with the subject and will need definite instructions; all data should be plotted and each figure or plate should be completely made up before it is submitted. More or less roughly prepared originals are expected, but they should show no uncertainty in details. Obscure features may be cleared up by inclosing the features in penciled loops connected by a line with notes written on the margin, such as "omit this line," "turn at an angle of 30° from true north," "add," "cut out." PRELIMINARY PREPARATION OF MAPS. The base map that generally accompanies a report may be an original field sheet or it may have been compiled from various sources by an author and made to incorporate the results of his field work. It should not be a collection of maps of different scales and standards to be worked into a new map. The source of the data shown on every original base map should be indicated on the map, whether it is to be used as an illustration or as a record of field work. This information is required as a permanent record for showing the reliability of the map, for use in comparing data, and for giving full credit to those who are responsible for the data. An author should see that this requirement is observed in order that proper credit may be given and should especially see that all cooperative agreements and organizations are properly mentioned. An original map should preferably be complete in itself. It should not consist of several parts or sheets unless the data to be represented are unusually complex. All elaborate or technical finish of border lines, lettering, or like features should be left to the draftsman or the engraver. Base maps that involve the compilation of new data should be prepared by either the topographic branch or the division of Alaskan mineral resources. If a base map already published is to be reused it should be submitted to the chief topographic engineer or to the chief of the division of Alaskan mineral resources for approval. This procedure will insure a single standard of geographic accuracy in maps appearing in Survey publications. A geologist who requires a base map that includes new topographic data should address a request for its preparation to the chief geologist, who, through the Director, will refer the request to the topographic branch. The request must be accompanied by a full statement regarding the proposed report and the time when it is likely to be submitted. The preparation of such base maps by draftsmen in the division of geology, the land-classification board, the water-resources branch, or the section of illustrations has been discontinued except for the minor adaptations provided for above. If a report requires the preparation of a base map that includes no new topographic data such a map must be compiled from other authentic maps by the division or branch in which the report originates. If, however, no draftsmen are available in that division or branch, an arrangement can be made with any other branch—as the topographic or publication branch—that may have draftsmen available, with the understanding that the cost of the work shall be reimbursed to the branch doing the work by the branch ordering it. For indicating geologic and other data, however, an author may make use of an authentic base map already published, and after it is reduced or enlarged to appropriate scale by photography such a map may suffice for transmittal with a manuscript. MATERIAL AVAILABLE FOR BASE MAPS. The maps already published by the Geological Survey[2] and other Government bureaus should always be consulted when a new base is to be compiled. The following list includes most of the maps available: 1. The Survey's regular topographic atlas sheets, published on three scales—15-minute sheets, scale, 1:62,500; 30-minute sheets, scale, 1:125,000; 60-minute sheets, scale, 1:250,000—approximately 1 mile, 2 miles, and 4 miles to 1 inch, respectively—and its "special" maps,[2] some of which are published on other scales. All these maps can be used as bases for detailed geologic maps, for compiling maps on smaller scales, and for revising other maps. 2. The United States part of the international map of the world, now being published on the scale of 1:1,000,000 (approximately 16 miles to 1 inch). Each sheet of this map represents an area measuring 6° of longitude and 4° of latitude. The published sheets of this map may be used as bases for general maps. The sheets are drawn on the scale of 1:500,000, and photolithographs on this scale are available for use as bases for geologic or other maps. The adaptability of the 1:1,000,000 scale map to use as a base for general geologic maps is shown in the geologic maps of the southern peninsula of Michigan and of Indiana in Monograph 53 (Pls. IV and VII), the map of Florida in Bulletin 60 (Pl. I), and the map of Vermont in Water-Supply Paper 424 (Pl. I). 3. The Survey's two-sheet wall map of the United States, 49 by 76 inches, scale 1:2,500,000 (approximately 40 miles to 1 inch). Parts of this map can be used as bases for general geologic or other maps and as copy for index and other small diagrammatic maps. This map is published both with and without contours. 4. Land Office maps and township plats. These maps are now being published on a scale of 12 miles to 1 inch; they are also photo-lithographed on one-half that scale, or 24 miles to 1 inch. The township plats are printed on a scale of one-half mile to 1 inch. The maps are especially useful in compiling maps in which land lines (townships and sections) are essential, and the township plats afford valuable detail and are useful in field work and in revising other maps. Township and section lines should appear on all land-classification maps published by the Survey. On maps on a scale less than 1:250,000 only the townships should be shown; on maps on scales greater than 1:250,000 the sections should be shown; on maps on a scale of 1:250,000 the sections should be shown, unless their representation will materially impair the legibility of the map, in which case only the townships should be shown. (See fig. 1.) 5. Post-route maps, covering single States or groups of adjacent States, published on sheets of different sizes and on scales determined mainly by the size of the State. The map of Texas is published on a scale of 12 miles to 1 inch, that of Virginia on a scale of 7 miles to 1 inch, and that of West Virginia on a scale of 6 miles to 1 inch. Both the Land Office and the post-route maps are useful for reference in compiling maps on smaller scales. Post-route maps are especially useful for comparing and verifying the location of cities, towns, and railroads. 6. Coast and Geodetic Survey charts, published on scales that are governed by the area represented and the amount of detail to be shown. These maps should always be used in compiling and correcting coast lines. 7. Maps and charts published by the Corps of Engineers of the Army, the Mississippi River Commission, the surveys of the Great Lakes, and the boundary surveys. These maps are especially useful if the scale of the map to be compiled requires considerable detail. 8. The Survey's three small base maps of the United States—(a) a map 18 by 28 inches, scale 110 miles to 1 inch, which is published both with and without contours, or with relief or hypsometric shading; (b) a map 11 by 16 inches, scale 190 miles to 1 inch; (c) a map 71/2 by 12 inches, scale 260 miles to 1 inch, designed for use as a two-page illustration in a bulletin or a water-supply paper. 9. The Century, Rand McNally & Co.'s, Cram's, Stieler's, The Times, Johnston's Royal, and county atlases. 10. State and county maps. 11. Railroad surveys, which are useful in furnishing data for elevations as well as for locations of towns and stations. 12. The latest national-forest maps and proclamations. It is, however, not necessary that national forests, bird reservations, and national monuments be shown on a map in a report unless their addition is specially requested by the author or by the chief of the branch submitting the report, and they should not be shown if they will obscure other more important data. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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