In the introduction to my work on ‘British and Foreign Harbours,’ I have suggested a method by which shoals formed by alluvial deposits in the open sea might be converted into effective breakwaters, so as to become harbours of refuge; or the means of removing them altogether. It is well known that many existing shoals form, to some extent, safe roadsteads at certain times of tide, e.g. the Goodwin Sands, the banks outside Yarmouth Roads, the banks off the coast of Holland, and many other places. These are generally formed off alluvial shores, where the meeting of opposing currents causes an eddy or line of stagnation, and the alluvial matter held in suspension is deposited, forming a bank, according to the extent, width, and direction of the eddy. In some instances, as in the case of deltas of rivers, and along coasts where the waters are densely charged with alluvial matter, these shoals, by continual deposit, are raised to the level of high water of neap tides, when a succession of marine vegetation appears on the surface, finally becoming a rich grass marsh; except under special circumstances, the land is seldom raised higher, and where there is no flow of tide the same result takes place at the medium level of the waters.

In other cases, as in the open sea, where the waters are exposed to violent agitation by the wind, these deposits not only rarely reach the level of high water, but, except under particular circumstances, seldom exceed the level of half-tide, and often the banks remain many fathoms below low water, though even in their lowest state they are far above the bottom of the sea. As all these banks are composed of alluvial matter, we can only ascribe the different levels, first, to the variable quantity of alluvium with which the waters are charged; secondly, to the degree of agitation to which the waters are exposed; and thirdly, to the velocity and extent of the opposing currents which produce the banks. Having thus stated generally the causes that produce these banks, I now come to my proposition, namely, the best mode of utilizing them for making harbours of refuge, or the method for clearing them away where they may be injurious.

With regard to the first, it is only necessary to increase the power of the depositing eddy by means of artificial works, to raise the banks to any height required; by this means they may be rendered permanent breakwaters at the least expense. Secondly, where these shoals are injurious they may be removed by diverting the course of one or both currents, so that the line of stagnation shall be destroyed; the action of the sea will then gradually remove the shoal. Thus we have the means in our power of converting these sandbanks into most valuable harbours of refuge, or of removing them where they are found to be injurious. This I do not pretend to call an invention, but simply an idea, and I am not aware that it has been suggested before. Modern engineers have not sufficiently directed their attention to the construction of harbours. It is a very simple affair to build piers or breakwaters of any extent, provided the requisite means are forthcoming, but it is a totally different thing to ascertain whether, after these works have been constructed, they will answer the purpose originally intended.

When President of the Institution of Civil Engineers, during the years 1845-6-7, I drew up detailed reports of the history of the profession from its commencement in Great Britain up to that time, showing what had been done in every department, by whom, and at what date. These reports are published in their ‘Transactions.’ Subsequent presidents have to some extent adopted a similar course; but with all due respect to them, they have not taken that large and scientific view of the profession of a civil engineer which it is imperatively necessary to adopt in order to keep the profession up to that high tone which its importance requires, not only for its own credit, but for the benefit of the world at large. Perhaps there is no profession (with all proper respect to others) that has conferred so much benefit upon mankind as that of the civil engineer. Its objects are clearly defined in the two mottoes belonging to the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, which was the first of the kind established in this country, having originated with Smeaton, Mylne, and my father, namely, “Omnia numero pondere et mensurÂ;” ?? f?se? ??at???te? t???? ????e?a. Up to that date the profession of a civil engineer may be said to have been unknown in Great Britain; previous to that time we were simply known as “vulgar mechanics”—men who toiled with their hands, as masons, bricklayers, carpenters, blacksmiths, &c. But those who so called us would have entertained a very different idea of the “mechanics” if they had been forced to dispense with their services. Let me ask how could the various and complicated operations which alone render modern trade, and therefore modern civilization, possible, be carried on without the aid of the mechanic, alias the civil engineer?

The object of the Smeatonian Society was merely a social gathering in the form of a club, to assemble the members at dinner at certain times, when they could discuss in a friendly manner the various subjects connected with their profession, and to endeavour to obliterate all those rivalries and jealousies which unfortunately are too common amongst professional men of all classes. The society was to serve as a rallying point for the profession, and it was believed that when their members increased sufficiently (for there was little more than a dozen engineers in the kingdom at the time who were counted as such) the society might extend its usefulness by reading papers, discussing them, and publishing them regularly to the world, in the same manner as the already established scientific societies; this has since been done by the Institution of Civil Engineers. But I think the time has now arrived when that Institution should be enlarged, and take a wider sphere. It has hitherto been confined too much to the class practising purely engineering works; but the mechanical engineers now form a body which must be treated with every deference. It is very true that the latter are freely admitted into the institution, but there seems to be a tacit understanding amongst the former that they should not attain the honour of becoming presidents and vice-presidents. It is true that the late Mr. Field, a most distinguished mechanical engineer, was elected president, and served his time; but this, I believe, arose more from his having been one of the earliest members of the institution than from any respect due to the particular class of the profession to which he belonged. Now there cannot be a greater mistake than this. Every member of that institution, to whatever class he belongs, from the moment he is elected should be in every respect upon precisely the same footing as those who are now considered the governing class, and the ablest man should be chosen from each grade as president or vice-president alternately, so that each department should successively occupy the chair. Also, instead of choosing the president and council by rotation, according to seniority, the acknowledged best men in every department should be chosen as officers. And further, the institution thus regulated should have the power of giving certificates of competency after the candidates for admission have been duly examined by independent examiners; and until they have received these certificates they should not be allowed to practise. This is the rule in every other learned profession, and there can be no reason why it should not be adopted by the engineers. It is the only method by which it can take rank amongst the learned professions; and as no other requires more scientific knowledge, or is entrusted with a greater portion of responsibility or a larger amount of trust, or where failure becomes more disastrous, it is quite clear that no man should be allowed to practise it unless he has passed a proper examination, and has received a certificate of competency from proper authorities.

Against this proposal it may be argued, that many illiterate men, although of great original genius, would be excluded if their competency were tried by such a test. My reply is, let them not be tried only by the ordinary rules of scientific books, but also by the general principles which the candidate professes, and let those principles be tested, to prove how far they are in accordance with sound philosophy. A man like Stephenson or Brindley, although illiterate, may understand these principles perfectly, and yet may not be able to explain them. Nevertheless, let him be examined, but in a different manner from the ordinary routine, and it will soon be discovered whether his profession and his practice are founded upon true mechanical and philosophical principles.

If these examinations are properly conducted every possible objection will be abolished, and no scientific educated engineer, or any illiterate person of true scientific genius, will be prevented from pursuing the profession, whilst only the speculator and charlatan will be excluded. By this means the public will be assured that the works for which they subscribe the funds will be conducted in the best manner, and most probably to a successful termination. At present, the system upon which public works are carried on is wholly wrong. There is no system. Any man without business, competent or not, dubs himself engineer, starts a project, well or ill founded, as the case may be, generally the latter, and issues a prospectus to the public, to obtain the necessary funds to carry his proposal into effect. Next he gets a contractor to back him by taking a certain number of shares, provided that he has the contract at his own price. The shares he looks upon as good for nothing, and therefore adds so much more to his ordinary profits, so that instead of receiving 10 or 12 per cent. upon his cost price, which is the usual rule of the trade, he gets double, with the shares into the bargain, all of which is added to the capital of the undertaking; and in order to carry into effect this wasteful policy, the contractor generally stipulates for two or three of his own nominees to be placed upon the board, to “look after” his interests, so that, in point of fact, he pays himself pretty nearly what he likes. The engineer, who ought to be his master, loses all control over him, and in many cases becomes little better than his servant. This is certainly a most discreditable state of things, and has been the cause of the most wasteful expenditure, and the ruin of many valuable undertakings, and it will always continue to be the case so long as the present system prevails.

The real object of the civil engineer is to promote the civilization of the world, by the proper application of all the great mechanical means at his command, and to take a high, independent position as a scientific man, thoroughly versed in his profession both theoretically and practically, and wholly independent of contractors, and all sinister influences. Unless he can do this, he never will be held in that esteem and respect, or take that high position without which no professional man can properly discharge the duties that he owes to himself and to the public.

Against what I have said it may perhaps be urged that I assign too high a place to the profession to which my father and myself have had the honour to belong; but I think that when the subject has been calmly and fairly considered it will be generally admitted that I have not done so without reason. Without wishing for a moment to depreciate the merits of any other body of men, I think it will be conceded that the objects proposed by the engineer, and the acquirements, knowledge, and experience that he must possess before he can practise successfully, are at least equal to those of any other profession, particularly after the practical examples exhibited to the world of the great benefits that engineering has already conferred upon mankind. Therefore are we entitled to be ranked amongst the most learned professions, and to receive all the honours they have most justly earned; and I trust the time is not far distant when this justice will be accorded to them.

Before concluding this sketch of my career I will offer a few observations as to what I consider, from my experience, the best plan of education for the profession of a civil engineer. Hitherto there has been no regular system. A youth leaves school about the age of seventeen or eighteen, without any previous training, and his parents, thinking that he has got a mechanical turn, as it is termed, decide at once to make him a civil engineer, whether he likes it or is fit for it or not. They then send him, with a considerable premium, to an engineer of some standing and practice, who, unless special conditions are made (and very few engineers will make them), will not undertake to teach him the profession. The pupil is sent into the office, and placed under the direction of the principal assistant, who directs him to do whatever is required, if he can do it, whether drawing, writing, or calculating, or anything else; and if he wishes to learn anything, he must find it out himself: neither the principal nor assistant explains the principles or reasons of anything that is done. If he prove to be steady, intelligent, and useful, keeps the regular office hours, and evinces a determination to understand thoroughly the why and wherefore of every kind of work that is brought before him, and by this means acquires some practical knowledge, he will soon attract the notice of his employer, and will be gradually transferred from one department to another, until the expiration of his pupilage, which varies from three to four years; then, if he really has acquired a competent knowledge of the profession, and the employer thinks his old pupil can be of further service to him, he is engaged at a moderate salary, to be employed in such capacity as he is fit for. If during his pupilage he has made but little progress, nothing beyond mere routine, he is discharged with a certificate according to his merits, and sent into the world, to find his way forward as best he can.

Now it should be understood that the pupil only learns one part of his business, such as the construction of railways, canals, improvement of rivers, docks, drainage, harbours, and waterworks, and the buildings connected with them; but there is another and very important part of civil engineering, namely, the mechanical department, of which he remains totally ignorant. Nor will he gain any insight into the raising of coals, iron, or any other geological product. Now, in order to form a good civil engineer, in my opinion it is absolutely necessary that he should be well acquainted with all these different branches. To this it may be replied, that it is not necessary an engineer should be acquainted with all departments of the profession, but only with the one to which he intends more particularly to devote himself. Now this is a very great mistake, for they are all so intimately connected, that without having a general knowledge of the whole you cannot practise in any one department with complete success; for whenever you have to rely upon the resources of another department you can never make sure of being thoroughly well served, unless you are yourself a tolerable judge of work. I repeat, then, that an engineer who has studied only one department cannot be termed properly educated. And the question arises, what is the best mode of education for a pupil to obtain this multifarious, and, as I contend, absolutely necessary, information, to enable him to practise the profession of a civil engineer in the most enlightened, scientific, and practical manner? My answer is this: Let him first get a sound elementary education in the several departments of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, natural philosophy, geography, geology, astronomy, chemistry, land and hydrographical surveying, as well as grammar, English composition, history, French, German, and Latin, according to the improved system of modern education; every youth of ordinary talents has a tolerably fair knowledge of these at seventeen or eighteen. What then should be the training for an engineer? First let him go through the best course of modern education at his command, including the elements of geometry, mathematics, and the physical sciences, not excluding Latin and Greek, in spite of the prejudice against them now frequently expressed. Then let him be apprenticed for two or three years to some good steam engine and machinery manufacturer, where he should learn to make drawings and calculations, handle tools, make models, steam-engine machinery, and put machinery together. By this means, if he applies his mind to it properly, he may become a practical as well as theoretical mechanician, which is the soundest basis for good engineering; indeed, without this it is impossible for an engineer to be thoroughly successful, but being well grounded in this most important knowledge, all the others will become comparatively easy. Having gone through this apprenticeship, let him bind himself for three or four years to some well-known civil engineer, of large practice in railways, docks, harbours, waterworks, canals, drainage, rivers, &c. In this office the pupil will learn everything connected with these departments, and as they are founded more or less upon practical mechanics, he will soon find that from his previous mechanical education he has already acquired considerable knowledge of them, and it will only be necessary to apply those principles, modified according to the particular circumstances required: in fact, the principles are the same, although applied upon a larger scale.

In laying down a railway the young engineer will have to consider the particular local, geographical and geological features of the country through which the line is to pass, and the extent of mechanical power that will be necessary to work it effectually, consistent with the cost of making the cuttings and embankments. Here is a purely mechanical question, which the pupil’s previous instruction will enable him to decide, and which he could not do without this instruction.

If it be a question of improving a river, the quantity of water flowing through it, the inclination of its bed, the extent and levels of the district which it has to drain, will reduce themselves to the laws of the pressure and movement of fluids, which are explained under the general theorems of hydraulics and hydrostatics, supplemented by certain rules derived from practical experience, such as friction, &c.

Again, if it be the making of a harbour, the student must first thoroughly examine the nature of the locality, that is, its geographical position and geological character. As regards the former, whether the harbour is to be at the mouth of a river, whether that river discharges its waters into a bay, or through a projecting exposed line of coast where the main tidal currents run continuously and rapidly past it. With regard to the latter, whether the adjacent coasts be flat and alluvial; or elevated, but still composed of soft alluvial or sandy and calcareous soil, easily abraded or worn away by the passing currents; or whether they be composed of the harder or primary rocks. He must also carefully consider the strength and the direction of the currents. All these various conditions must be carefully weighed before coming to a decision.

In constructing close harbours, the same observations must be made. Each of these cases requires a totally different kind of treatment, and the correct method can only be ascertained by a thorough investigation and knowledge of the local circumstances, such as winds, tides, currents, coasts, &c., so that the harbour when constructed may afford every facility for ingress and egress, safety when within, and not be liable to any deposit.

In order to give the requisite supply of water to canals it is imperative that sufficient reservoirs should be established chiefly at the high level if possible, also at each intervening ascent and descent; but it is most desirable that there should be only one high level, and generally speaking this may obtained; but when, from particular local circumstances, this cannot be done, then the high levels, even at considerable extra expense, should be reduced to as few as practicable. The same may be said with regard to railways, but in the case of canals it is always absolutely necessary that there should be reservoir space to supply the greatest amount of lockage that may be required during the season when there is the least quantity of rainfall. The rainfall in any given district may always be ascertained by proper rain gauges; and whenever it has been found that there is no probability of obtaining a sufficiency of water to pass the amount of trade that may be expected over any given length of canal, then the high level must be lowered sufficiently to obtain the required supply. When, from peculiar local circumstances, this cannot be done, then it will become necessary to erect steam engines of the requisite power to pump back the water from the lower to the higher levels. But as a rule it will be found, that by laying out a canal properly, and by storing sufficient water to answer all the required lock supply at proper places, pumping back will only be necessary in extreme cases. This, however, is a question of detail that will be governed by the local circumstances of each particular case. With regard to the construction of canals, that must be regulated by the quantity of trade to be passed, and the charges that it will bear; but, within certain limits, the larger the canal the better. In the case of ship canals for seaborne vessels, it is advisable to construct them wherever they can be made at a reasonable cost, and there is traffic enough to pay a fair interest upon the capital.

In the drainage of extensive districts of lowlands, whether bordering upon rivers or otherwise, it is the better plan, with some exceptions, to divide the lowland from the highland waters, and to discharge them by separate outfalls; because if they are both discharged by one outfall, the highland water, coming from a higher level, and naturally having the greatest velocity, will force its way first to the outfall, and until it is discharged the lowland water cannot get off, but will accumulate upon and inundate the adjacent lands. Again, if only one outfall be provided, a much more extensive system of main and interior drains will be required, as these latter must serve as reservoirs to contain both waters until they can be discharged by the common outfall; but by keeping them distinct from each other, the highland water may readily be discharged into the upper part of the rivers or watercourses, whilst the lowland water may be made to discharge itself at the lowest point the outfall will admit of, and will get off before the highland water can reach it. Moreover, the highland water, being discharged so much higher up the watercourses or rivers, will scour out their channels as well as the outfall, prevent them from filling up, and preserve them in the best state both for drainage and navigation. These catchwater drains for the highland waters will also be found very useful for supplying the lowland districts with fresh water for cattle, domestic purposes, and irrigation during the summer and dry seasons, when fresh water is so much needed for the lowlands. This system was first introduced by my father, in 1805, in the drainage of the extensive district of lowlands bordering upon the river Witham, between Boston and Lincoln, amounting to about 150,000 acres.

Generally speaking, before attempting to improve the interior drainage of any lowland district, it is necessary, in the first place, to examine the state of the outfall, and how far it is capable of improvement; before this is ascertained it is impossible to lay down any effectual plan. In order to make the outfall effective it should be improved to the greatest extent practicable, so that the low-water line or level may be reduced to the lowest point. Having done this, the interior drainage may be laid out accordingly. When this is combined with the catchwater system above described, the drainage may be rendered as complete as possible, as far as it can be upon the natural principle of gravitation. When the water cannot be discharged from the outfall at all times by gravitation, we must enlarge the main and tributary drains, so that they may serve as reservoirs to contain the drainage water during the time that the outfall sluice is closed in consequence of the water in the river or the sea, where the outfall sluice may be placed, being higher than the level of the water in the main and interior drains. No land can be considered as properly drained unless the surface of the water in the adjacent drains can be kept from 2 to 3 feet below the surface of the adjacent lands at all times. There must be no stagnation of water; at the same time there must always be the means, as far as practicable, of supplying the land with that proper degree of moisture necessary for nourishing the soil, either from the direct rainfall or from the water discharged into the catchwater drains from the adjacent highlands; and if these be not sufficient, then they may be supplemented by reservoirs of the proper dimensions attached to them. The best mode of arranging this is, of course, a matter of detail, keeping always in view the great principle of a thorough drainage and an ample supply of fresh water. The system that I have above explained is based upon the soundest principles of theory and practice, and therefore I feel no hesitation in recommending it.

With regard to the sewerage and drainage of towns, the same principle may be adopted, modified according to local circumstances. The drains here will require greater fall or inclination. The sewage should not be discharged into the watercourses, but into separate depÔts at a proper distance from the dwellings. These depÔts should be thoroughly ventilated, and the sewage deodorized by mixing it with earth, or some other suitable substance, that will not impair its value, and then it may be sold for manure; and thus instead of becoming a nuisance it may be turned to profitable account.

All rivers in densely populated countries should have their flood waters stored in capacious reservoirs, with proper sluices, in the main or adjacent subsidiary valleys, so that during the dry seasons there may be always an ample supply of good water for domestic and agricultural purposes, irrigation, and navigation. The reservoirs will also be advantageous in preventing the too frequent inundations and consequent devastation caused by floods.

In waterworks gravitation should be adopted wherever practicable, so that the source of supply shall be placed at such an elevation that it may command the highest part of the buildings to be supplied, thus all artificial power for pumping will be avoided. But in most cases, except where natural lakes can be found, it will be necessary to make settling or filtering reservoirs, from which the water when sufficiently pure may be delivered into the supply reservoirs, and both of these should be capacious enough to contain a sufficient supply for a month, more or less, according to the particular local circumstances. Last, but not least, the quality of the water for the proposed supply should be thoroughly tested chemically, in order to ascertain its purity; it should be as soft as possible, and be free from vegetable as well as all other matter prejudicial to health; and it must be obtained in sufficient quantity to guarantee a supply of thirty gallons a day to each inhabitant of the town, with the means of augmenting the supply at the same rate for any increase of inhabitants. The conduit which is to supply the service reservoir should be covered throughout, as well as the service reservoir, which of course should be occasionally cleansed; the other, or settling reservoir, near the fountain head, need not be covered if made large enough; that also should be cleansed as often as is necessary.

Where the water cannot be supplied by means of gravitation, then the artificial method of pumping by steam engines or water-wheels, or other means, must be adopted; but in this case also settling, filtering, and service reservoirs must be employed, as already described. It is unnecessary to remark that in all cases the reservoirs and conduits should be made thoroughly water-tight and impervious to any drainage water from the adjacent districts.

Docks may be divided into two classes, viz. floating and dry docks; the former may be designated as enclosed spaces filled with water, penned up to such depth as may be required for floating vessels of all classes. These docks or basins must be rendered water-tight, and in most cases it is necessary to surround them with nearly vertical walls, to economize space and to enable vessels to come alongside and discharge and receive cargoes.

With regard to the situation of these docks and designing the plans for them, this depends upon the local circumstances and the requirements of the particular class of vessels that they are to accommodate, and the trade that is to be carried on in them. Without a thorough knowledge of all these circumstances it is impossible to give anything like a correct opinion as to their dimensions, mode of designing them, or any other particulars. I may say generally, however, that as these docks are always situated contiguous to some river or harbour, either with or without the tidal ebb and flow, the position and direction of the entrances to the docks become of the greatest importance, in order that they may not be too much exposed, and that vessels may be enabled to enter and depart with the greatest facility; and in such part of the river or harbour where there is the greatest depth of water and the best channel outwards and inwards. There should also, as far as possible, be the means of supplying the basins with clear water, in order to diminish the amount of deposit within; there should also be a smaller or entrance basin adjoining the outer lock, the level of water in which can be more readily adjusted with that of the adjacent river or harbour, so that vessels may be taken into the docks with the greatest despatch out of the reach of the currents in the outer harbour, and without the necessity of lowering the surface of the water in the inner basin.

Floating docks in general should have dry docks attached to them, for the purpose of repairing vessels; and these dry docks should communicate by means of a tunnel or culvert with the tidal river or harbour.

With regard to the warehouse accommodation for receiving and delivering the different classes of merchandise brought to or taken out of the vessels frequenting the docks, these should as far as possible be made fire-proof, and should be properly adapted for the reception of the different articles placed in them, so that they may be stowed away in the most convenient manner and be readily accessible. Where space will permit it is desirable to keep the warehouses as low as possible; by this means the damage in the event of fire will be greatly reduced, and the expense of taking in and delivering goods considerably diminished, and the cost of construction lessened also.

Between the warehouses and the edge of the dock there should be sufficient space for a road all round the warehouses; and between the road and the edge of the dock there should be landing-sheds, so that the cargoes of vessels, when discharged, may be placed there, to be examined and sorted, and from thence taken away to their destination, or delivered into the warehouses, as occasion may require. All inflammable articles, such as oils, naphtha, turpentine, tar, pitch, jute, hemp, flax, &c., should be stowed away in low warehouses or covered sheds, completely isolated, and with the interior divided into distinct compartments, with access round each. These compartments should be no larger than necessary. Railways should be laid along all the quays, and should be carried through the ground floors of the whole of the warehouses, while the upper floors should also have rail or tramways through each division of goods, with the necessary turn-tables at their intersection with each other. These railways should be worked either by steam power or horse traction, as may be most advisable. All the quays and warehouses should be supplied with a sufficient number of cranes, of the requisite strength to lift and stow away the heaviest goods. These cranes should be worked either by hydraulic, steam, vacuum, manual, or animal power, as may be most advisable; in fact, they should be so designed that they may be worked either by the one or the other, as may be required.

Fresh water should be laid round all the quays and warehouses, through iron or glazed earthen pipes, and there should always be an ample supply, either for vessels frequenting the docks, or for extinguishing fires; and for this purpose capacious tanks or reservoirs should be established at the most convenient places; and if these reservoirs cannot be made at a sufficient height so as to command the highest warehouses, then the water should be forced through the hose attached to the supply-pipes by steam or other power, as shall be found most advisable. Gas, also, in properly fitted pipes, should be distributed over the quays and warehouses, and the movable lights should be as few as possible; those that are used should be properly guarded, so that all risk of fire from them may be avoided. No lucifer-matches should be permitted in any part of the establishment, nor should smoking be allowed. By these means the probabilities of fire will be reduced; and if, notwithstanding these precautions, a fire should break out, there will be the most ample provision for extinguishing it in the shortest possible time, and with the least damage to the property.

With regard to architecture, that strictly belonging to the office of the civil engineer is of the most simple character. The buildings should be laid out in the best manner, and the most convenient for their respective purposes, and thoroughly substantial. At the same time, their exterior appearance should possess a certain degree of symmetry and dignity, so as to impress upon the spectator the idea that they are thoroughly adapted for their purpose. The materials should be chiefly iron, stone, and brick; and timber should only be used when absolutely necessary. At the same time, although it is not altogether necessary, the civil engineer should have a thorough knowledge of the five orders of architecture, and the mode of applying them; the principles of constructing and equilibrating arches of all kinds must be thoroughly understood; and if he intends to combine the practice of domestic and public architecture with that which is only strictly necessary for civil engineering, then he must enter more largely into the subject, and study the different ancient and modern styles of building.

Surveying and levelling will also form an important part of his duties. In order to understand them it is necessary that he should know thoroughly plane and spherical trigonometry, and the calculations necessarily connected with them. He should also have a certain knowledge of astronomy, to enable him to calculate the tides and other phenomena connected therewith, and to be able to lay down correct charts of any harbour or sea coast, with the soundings, currents, and winds prevailing there.

Geology will form another important department of study, without which he cannot understand the nature of the materials that he will have to deal with, such as stone, lime, cements, earths, &c.; the angles at which they will stand in making deep cuttings and embankments; the best and most durable kind to be employed in any particular work, the proper mode of working it, and how to place it in the best position so as to resist the effects of the atmosphere or running water, the concussion of waves, &c., in the most effectual manner. The study of geology will further enable him to account for the formation of shoals and any given line of coast, together with the operation of the currents upon them, and the best mode of remedying their disastrous effects; also the best plan for designing and constructing harbours on each particular coast or situation.

Again, by having a thorough knowledge of the strata and formation of any given district of country, he will be enabled to ascertain where water may be found, and in what quantity; and if he practises mining, he will be able to predict with tolerable certainty where different kinds of minerals may be obtained, such as coal, iron, lead, copper, tin, gold, silver, &c., and the mode of working them to the greatest advantage.

In fact, geology combined with mineralogy he will find to be of most essential service in almost every department of civil engineering.

Embankments.—This is another department of engineering which requires a good deal of skill and judgment, particularly along an exposed open coast, where lowlands are to be protected against the encroachments of the sea. The first point is to select the line of embankment in such a manner that there shall always be in front of it a good foreshore, so that the force of the sea may be broken before it reaches the embankment; that is to say, where practicable, to have a certain extent of green or outlying marsh in front of it, so that the embankment when completed will seldom have a head of water to contend with at high tide of above six or seven feet. And even with this moderate depth at high water, when exposed to the action of a heavy gale of wind, there will for three or four hours be a considerable broken sea, calculated to do a great deal of damage, if the embankment be not properly constructed. Now, if the embankment have a good green foreshore in front, with sea slope of about 5 or 6 to 1, well sodded up, a facing of clay about 18 inches thick, 6 feet above the highest level of spring tides, the top being 6 feet wide, with back slopes of 2 to 1, with a back ditch 10 feet from the foot of the inner slope, the interior of the embankment being composed of sound earth well rammed or pressed together, so as to make it solid—an embankment of this kind will be able to resist such a pressure as we may ordinarily expect it to be exposed to.

There may be extraordinary cases where this will not be sufficient. When these occur it will be necessary to pave the surface with stone, about 9 inches thick, or with fagots. The former is, however, decidedly the best plan, as it will be permanent, whereas fagots are constantly rotting, and require renewal.

If the sea shows a tendency to carry away the foreshore, it must be prevented, by means of jetties so disposed as to collect the alluvial matter held by the sea water in suspension. These, if properly designed and constructed, will generally have the desired effect.

In cases where the water outside is deep and the sea face of the embankment may be exposed to a head of water of 12 feet and upwards, much greater precautions must be taken to guard against accident. The sea slopes of the embankment must be increased to 7 or 9 to 1, well faced with clay and paved with stone, having the foreshore in front well protected with jetties. In fact, no two cases will be alike: each must be treated separately according to the particular local circumstances, and therefore it is impossible to design a proper plan for any embankment without knowing all the local circumstances. The general principle is that the sea face of the embankment should never be less than from 4 or 5 to 1. In some particular cases a less slope will do, say 3 to 1. This, however, certainly depends upon local circumstances. The base of the outer slope should be particularly watched, and if any crack appears to be forming, it should be immediately stopped by jetties carried out as far as necessary. In forming embankments it is usual, when it can be done, to take the earth from the outside of the sea slope, but this should never be done within less than 10 yards from the base of the slope, and these “floor pits,” as they are termed, should generally not exceed 12 to 18 inches in depth, and be increased in width in proportion to the quantity of earth required for the bank; at every 10 or 15 yards, in the longitudinal direction, the earth should not be removed, but left to form small cross banks between the floor pits, so as to prevent any current being formed in them; thus these floor pits will soon be filled up by the alluvial matter brought in by the tide, when the outside slopes of the bank are neither exposed to the heavy lash of the waves nor to strong currents. Then if they are covered with good grass sods properly laid on and beaten into the face of the bank it may suffice, but not otherwise. If this should not answer the slope must be increased and, if necessary, paved with stone as above mentioned. When good clay cannot be obtained to face the bank, then the best of the earth that can be got must be employed, mixed with straw, well puddled with water, and laid upon the surface of the bank in a moist state about 18 inches thick, and then faced with stone about 9 inches thick, well rammed edgeways into it. In cases where it is necessary to protect any line of coast against the ravages of the ocean, the measures to be adopted will depend upon the form and geological character of the coast to be so protected, whether low flats and alluvial, or cliffs composed of rocks more or less hard, and easily acted upon by the waves, rain, and atmosphere. In the former case it will generally be found that the coast is surrounded by extensive flat sands, and that the water holds a large quantity of alluvial matter in suspension. The great object, therefore, should be to cause this alluvial matter to be deposited in such form and in such places as are best adapted to our purpose. Now this may generally be effected in an inexpensive manner, considering the object to be attained, by a series of jetties, either composed of stakes wattled together with fagots, or lines of loose stones disposed in such a manner that they shall break the rising and falling waters, and make them stagnant between the jetties, so that they may deposit their alluvial matter. In the first instance these jetties need not be raised more than two feet above the level of the sand, and when the sand or alluvial soil has accumulated up to the top, they may be again raised to a similar height, and so on until the soil in front of the coast has been converted into a green marsh; thus there will not only be formed a protection to the coast invaded by the sea, but fresh land may be gained in front of it and embanked from the sea. It is impossible to explain the precise disposition and direction of these jetties and works without a thorough knowledge of the locality, and such circumstances as its exposure to winds, tides, and currents. The principle however is to check the currents gradually, and in such a way as to prevent any strong current from being formed; for if a new and strong current should be created, not only will the alluvial matter not be deposited, but the works themselves will be carried away, and all the labour and expense will be wasted. It is generally advisable that such works should be commenced near the shore, and worked downwards towards the sea; thus, if they are properly managed, no deep pools or strong currents will be formed behind them; and the required process of filling or silting up will proceed regularly seaward, always increasing the protection required, and obtaining additional land as they proceed.

In some cases, where the sea is heavy, it may be necessary to have stronger jetties or works to relieve and protect the minor ones above described; but these should only be resorted to in places where the others are insufficient, or in greatly exposed situations; wherever the minor works will suffice, as they will in most cases if properly applied and constructed, the less heavy works are resorted to the better, as the great object is to lead not drive Nature; that is, to work with her instead of against her. By this means a few bricks and stakes will do a great deal more than far greater and more expensive works. So far as regards low alluvial coasts, these, if properly managed, will be found comparatively easy to deal with.

When we come to rocky coasts that are wearing away by the combined action of the sea below and the rains and atmosphere above, and where there is little or no alluvial matter held in suspension by the waters, that might be collected so as to form a protecting deposit at their base, then we must adopt a different system, but not altogether ignoring the other when it can be made useful. In this latter case we must secure the bases of the cliffs at least up to high-water mark by means of retaining walls, where the rock itself is not hard enough to resist the action of the sea. These walls need not be carried higher than absolutely necessary. In some cases a mere footing will do; in others, the wall may be carried up to half tide; and in others up to the full high-water mark; and although the rock may be naturally soft, yet if its surface be protected by harder stone, even of a very moderate thickness, it will be quite sufficient to resist further encroachment by the sea. As these retaining walls will be founded upon a base of solid rock, there is very little fear of their being undermined; therefore, when I said before that it would be necessary to carry these retaining walls up to high-water mark, it must be understood as applying only to those rocks that are easily abraded by the sea.

There is another point to be attended to. The base being secured, we must look to the cliff above. Here, from the effect of rains, the water frequently cannot get away, accumulates behind at the top, and sinks through the fissures, when partly by hydraulic pressure and partly by the effects of frost, large masses are detached and fall below; and as this is continually occurring, the progress of decay goes on increasing. Having secured the base, the next thing, where practicable, is to slope off the upper surface of the cliff, so as to prevent it from overhanging, and then to make a drain at the back to carry off any water that may lodge there. By these means, if properly carried into effect, the base of the cliff being protected against the sea from below and rainwater from above, there is every probability that it will be preserved, in all ordinary cases. In extraordinary cases additional measures must be taken to meet them upon the same principles. With regard to retaining walls of brickwork or masonry, these should be always in excess of strength beyond the pressure, whether vertical or lateral, that they may have to resist. When the pressure is simply lateral, then the mean thickness of wall built of masonry and brickwork—the mean thickness, generally speaking, of the main body of the wall—should be about one-fourth of the height, besides counterforts at the back at certain distances from each other, regulated according to the particular circumstances. These, upon the average, including the thickness of the main wall, will make the total mass to be equal to nearly one-third of the total height. My father frequently made these walls curved in the front as well as at the back, the front being struck from a radius whose centre was level with the top of the wall, and of such a length that the face of the wall should batter one-fifth of the total height; the back of the wall should be struck from a centre at the same level as the other, but a little longer, so that at the base the wall might be about 2 feet thicker than at the top, in addition to two or three footings of 6 inches each; and the base of the wall was made to incline backwards, according to the radius from whence it was struck.

These walls, when they are to rest upon alluvial soil, must be founded upon a platform composed of piles of a sufficient length and thickness, driven at right angles to the line of the foundation, until with the blow of a ram weighing 15 cwt. and falling 20 feet they will not move one-eighth of an inch. These piles should be driven in regular rows, longitudinally and transversely, about 3 feet apart, and hooped and shod with wrought-iron hoops and shoes. At the front, immediately under the tie of the wall, there should be a row of grooved and tongued sheeting piles driven close together, and to the same depth as the others, about 6 inches thick, having a waleing or longitudinal brace 6 inches thick and 12 inches wide, well bolted in each side of the top of the sheeting piles. The loose earth should be taken out to about a foot in depth, and the space filled in with stone or brickwork to the level of the pile heads, which should be carefully trimmed, then covered with sills about 12 inches square, well spiked down to them. The spaces between the sills should be well faced with brickwork, and the whole surface should then be covered with 6-inch plank, properly spiked down to the sills below. Upon this platform the masonry and brickwork of the wall should be built. The wall should be carefully backed up as it proceeds with sound earth or clay, or clay mixed with one-sixth of gravel or concrete, as shall be deemed most advisable. These curved walls, if properly constructed, are stronger and more economical than the ordinary walls.

In some cases, as in that of Sheerness, for example, the foundation is so bad that a totally different plan must be adopted. At Sheerness it was necessary that the base of the walls should be increased, distributing the weight over a wider area, so that each superficial foot of the superincumbent mass should have a larger bearing, thus greatly relieving the pressure over every part.

The foundation upon which the walls were built was as bad as possible, being composed of nothing but loose running silt and sand. Upon such a foundation walls of the ordinary kind would not have stood; my father therefore saw the necessity of designing some new construction, upon the principles above mentioned. He had previously adopted something similar for the docks at Great Grimsby, in Lincolnshire, in 1786, which design was carried into effect with great success. The walls at Sheerness and at Great Grimsby were built both upon the same principle, modified according to local circumstances. Sheerness docks were finished altogether in the year 1826, and they have stood ever since.

I believe that I have now enumerated all the chief points to which the education of a civil engineer should be directed. Whilst he continues in an engineer’s office, whatever business is brought before him, he should always endeavour to thoroughly understand the reasons for which such and such a work is proposed to be made, and the principles upon which it is to be constructed; and if he finds, according to his previous education, difficulties either in the principle or construction, he should modestly state his doubts to his superior; if no explanation is given, he has simply to do as he is ordered, making notes of his doubts, and when the work is carried into effect he will then be able to ascertain how far he was right or wrong. If the work turns out to be a failure, his previous calculations will show him that he was right; but if the work succeeds, his calculations were wrong, and he should carefully go over them again to ascertain his error. He should follow the same process when he has to design and carry into effect any work upon his own responsibility, and if he is in doubt as to any point, let him consult some one of his professional brethren in whom he has confidence. When he is consulted on similar occasions by another engineer, let him give his advice and opinion to the best of his power; by this means he will gain the respect of his colleagues, and every one will be ready to help him when required.

Let him be particularly careful about his estimates; and after he has estimated fully the probable cost of a work, let him add an allowance of quite 15 per cent. for contingencies, which in all engineering works are so numerous and varied that it is almost impossible to foresee them.

We should always recollect that the great object of all engineering works is to produce a fair return for the capital expended upon them, or, in other words, that they should pay. If, after due calculation, it is found there is no chance of that, they should not be undertaken; for although it may be very gratifying to the professional reputation of an engineer to have executed a great work, it is but a poor consolation to his subscribers to find that their money has been comparatively thrown away without any adequate return.

Upon these grounds, therefore, I think it is better that the engineer should confine himself strictly to his business, that is, of designing and estimating any proposed work in the best possible manner to ensure the object intended. Let those who are most competent ascertain whether there is a sufficient prospect of traffic to pay a good return for the required capital; and so long as the engineer executes the work for his estimate, he cannot be blamed if the work does not pay a sufficient return. In fact, the whole commercial value of a work depends upon its cost, and therefore it is so important that the estimate should be adhered to as closely as possible, for if this be much exceeded the commercial calculation falls to the ground, and then the subscribers have just reason to complain. Against this I have heard it argued that if correct estimates were always made, and the ultimate cost of many works was known beforehand, they would never have been carried out, although notwithstanding the increased cost they have finally proved to be very valuable. This is certainly to some extent true; many inventions and discoveries have ruined the original promoters, yet have ultimately conferred the greatest benefits upon mankind; and many enterprises that have ruined the original undertakers have greatly enriched their successors. Still there can be no excuse for an engineer knowingly underestimating the cost of a work; he is undoubtedly bound to make a fair, honest estimate of every work committed to his charge, so far as his judgment goes; having done that his duty is discharged; nothing further can be expected of him than to see that the work entrusted to his care is strictly carried into effect according to that estimate.

Since the summer of 1866 I have done scarcely anything. The great crisis and subsequent panic that occurred at that time paralysed the commercial world. I considered my advancing years (I was then seventy-two), and the great hazard and uncertainty of carrying on business, and thought it most prudent to retire. After the harassing and anxious life that I had led for so many years, I felt my health so shaken as to require complete repose. But I hope, if God spares me, to be still useful to the profession and my country, by completing a work on the drainage of the fens and lowlands of Great Britain, and hydraulics generally. I also design to write a history of engineering, enlarged from my Address to the Institution of Civil Engineers, and a life of my revered father. All these I have already sketched out, and I hope to complete them, if it please God to spare my life a few years longer.

My apology for the present work is this: I think it is the duty of everyone who has led an active professional life faithfully to record the various works in which he has been engaged, the failures as well as the successes, detailing the causes of both; for we frequently learn more from the former than from the latter. I believe I have in this book faithfully done this. From unavoidable circumstances I have been obliged to trust entirely to memory while writing these pages, having been totally precluded from consulting notes or memoranda of any kind; I hope, therefore, that any inaccuracies that may be detected by the reader will be pardoned, though I believe that in the main my statements will be found correct.

Like others, I have had to contend with professional jealousy; but I believe I have on all occasions done justice to my rivals, and I have never wilfully attempted to injure anyone. Naturally of a very sanguine temperament, I am but too apt to view things in a favourable light, and to judge well of those with whom I come in contact; as a consequence of this I have often been deceived by those in whom I have placed the greatest confidence. This sanguine disposition has been the cause of many disappointments; but it has also enabled me to bear up successfully against failure, and still to look forward with hope to the future. Whenever a misfortune has occurred I have endeavoured to forget it as soon as possible; I always called to mind the words of the great Duke of Wellington, who said, There is no use in looking back and brooding over the past; forget it, and apply your energies to the future, and do better next time. This many people either cannot or will not do; hence they succumb. Doubtless everyone has his trials, and some are much better able to get through them than others; nevertheless, a very little reflection will show that what is past cannot be helped, and that by brooding over misfortune we do no good, but only waste our energies and invite failure in everything else.

The motto of life should be, Forward! We must expect to be checked, thwarted, and baffled in our endeavours to attain success; but these obstacles, instead of totally arresting our progress, should serve only to increase our energy. Like a river, impeded in its course, in silence waits till its accumulated strength sweeps the obstruction from its path, and it flows on majestically as before—so should we make every difficulty we encounter add to our strength, instead of increasing our weakness. Nevertheless, since “’tis not in mortals to command success,” we may sometimes struggle in vain; and fortune ever against us, we may be overcome at the last; but even then we have this satisfaction—we have fought a good fight; we have done the best we could; we have done our duty to the best of our ability, and that is all that can be required of us. To do my duty has been my endeavour through life; and probably if I had adhered to it more strictly I might have done a great deal better. Nevertheless, little as I have done, I should not have accomplished half so much had I not kept that one object in view, as far as my physical and mental powers would permit; and this is no small consolation. The old motto, “Nil desperandum,” should be constantly on our lips, and should act like the spur on a jaded steed. Affairs are never so bad but they might have been worse, and they may generally be mended by energy and perseverance, and a determination to make the best of everything. We may not be able to accomplish all we aspire to achieve; nevertheless by refusing to yield to misfortune we shall escape the reproach of cowardice and faintheartedness. When we suffer a defeat, let us calmly consider the cause of it, and nine times out of ten we shall find that it is through our own fault; these lessons of experience should be carefully laid to heart, and serve for our future guidance.

I have never deemed wealth desirable for mere personal gratification, but only in so far as it would have enabled me to help others, to promote the advancement of science and the well-being of my fellow creatures; this would have conferred the greatest happiness upon me, but it has been denied by the Almighty Disposer of events, and most probably with justice, that it might be done better by other hands. I therefore humbly bow to the Almighty’s decision; and if I have done the best I could in His sight, I am amply rewarded. I, however, most deeply regret that I have not done more. I return my most fervent thanks to the Almighty that He, out of His great mercy, has allowed me to do the little I have done; and I most devoutly hope that He through His Son Jesus Christ will pardon my shortcomings; and I say with all reverence, Bless the Lord for all His mercies!

Dawlish, December 9, 1867.