  A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO THE INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE WITH BY MEMBER OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE AND CHAIRMAN OF EXAMINATIONS TO DR. L. L. ZAMENHOF THE AUTHOR OF PREFACE. This volume has been prepared to meet a twofold need. An adequate presentation of the International Language has become an imperative necessity. Such presentation, including full and accurate grammatical explanations, suitably graded reading lessons, and similarly graded material for translation from English, has not heretofore been accessible within the compass of a single volume, or in fact within the compass of any two or three volumes. The combination of grammar and reader here offered is therefore unique. It is to furnish not merely an introduction to Esperanto, or a superficial acquaintance with it, but a genuine understanding of the language and mastery of its use without recourse to additional textbooks, readers, etc. In other words, this one volume affords as complete a knowledge of Esperanto as several years' study of a grammar and various readers will accomplish for any national language. Inflection, word-formation and syntax are presented clearly and concisely, yet with a degree of completeness and in a systematic order that constitute a new feature. Other points worthy of note are the following: The reasons for syntactical usages are given, instead of mere statements that such usages exist. For example, clauses of purpose and of result are really explained, instead of being dismissed with the unsatisfactory remark that "the imperative follows por ke," or the "use of tiel ... ke and tia ... ke must be distinguished from that of tiel ... kiel and tia ... kia," etc., with but little intimation of when and why por ke, tiel ... ke and tia ... ke are likely to occur. Affixes are not mentioned until some familiarity with the general character of the language is assured, as well as the possession of a fair vocabulary. They are introduced gradually, with adequate explanation and illustration. Of importance in connection with word-formation is an element distinctly new—the explanation and classification of compound words. Such words, like affixes, are withheld until the use of simple words is familiar. Another new feature is the gradual introduction of correlative words in their logical order, and in their proper grammatical categories, before they are called "correlatives," or tabulated. The tabulation finally presented is a real classification, with regard to the meaning and grammatical character of the words, not merely an arbitrary alphabetical arrangement. The use of primary adverbs precedes the explanation of adverb derivation; prepositions, especially de, da, je, etc., receive careful attention, also the verb system, and the differentiation of words whose English equivalents are ambiguous. A general characteristic of obvious advantage is that almost without exception new forms and constructions are illustrated by means of words or roots already familiar. Likewise, the new words or roots of each lesson recur at least once in the next lesson, and usually in some lesson thereafter as well. Each reading exercise gives not only a thorough application of the grammatical principles of the lesson, but a review of those in the preceding lesson, and no use is made of words or constructions not yet explained. The comparative ease of the language, and the lack of necessity for reciting paradigms, permit the reading exercises to be long enough for the student to feel that he has really mastered something. These exercises are further unique, in that each after the fifth is a coherent narrative, and nearly every one is a story of genuine interest in itself. These stories, if bound separately, would alone constitute a reader equivalent to those used in first and second year work in national languages. (For list of titles, see Table of Contents.) The second element of the twofold need which this volume meets is the necessity for a presentation of Esperanto, not as a thing apart, but in that form which will make it most serviceable as an introduction to national tongues. A stepping-stone to both ancient and modern languages, Esperanto may render invaluable aid, and pave the way for surmounting the many difficulties confronting both student and teacher. Through Esperanto, the labor in the acquirement of these languages may be reduced in the same proportion in which the pleasure and thoroughness of such acquirement are increased. For this reason, the grammatical constructions of Esperanto are here explained as consistently as possible in accordance with the usage of national languages, especially those in the school curriculum, and precise names are assigned to them. Such matters as contrary to fact conditions, indirect quotations, clauses of purpose and of result, accusatives of time and measure, expressions of separation, reference, etc., thus become familiar to the student, long before he meets them in the more difficult garb of a national tongue, whose exceptions seem to outnumber its rules, and whose idioms prove more puzzling than its exceptions, unless approached by the smooth and gradual ascent of the International Language, Esperanto. Ivy Kellerman.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO. LESSON I. ALPHABET. 1. The Esperanto alphabet contains the following letters: a, b, c, ĉ, d, e, f, g, ĝ, h, ĥ, i, j, ĵ, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, ŝ, t, u, ŭ, v, z. VOWELS. 2. The vowels of the alphabet are pronounced as follows: a as in far. e as in fiancÉ, like a in fate. This "long a" sound in English frequently ends with a vanish,—a brief terminal sound of ĭ, which makes the vowel slightly diphthongal, as in day, aye. Such a vanish must not be given to any of the Esperanto vowels. i as in machine. o as in toll, for. u as in rude, rural. CONSONANTS. 3. The consonants b, d, f, h, k, l, m, n, p, t, v, z, are pronounced as in English, and the remaining eleven as follows: c like ts in hats, tsetse. ĉ like ch in chin, much. g like g in go, big. ĝ like g in gem, j in jar. ĥ is produced by expelling the breath forcibly, with the throat only partially open. As in pronouncing German and Scotch ch, Spanish j, Irish gh, Russian x, Classical Greek χ etc. There are only a few words containing this consonant. j like y in yes, beyond. ĵ like z in azure, s in visual. r is slightly trilled or rolled. s like s in see, basis. ŝ like sh in shine, rash, ch in machine. ŭ like w or consonantal u. See Diphthongs, 5. NAMES OF THE LETTERS. 4. The vowels are named by their sounds, as given in 2. The names of the consonants are bo, co, ĉo, do, fo, go, ĝo, ho, ĥo, jo, ĵo, ko, lo, mo, no, po, ro, so, ŝo, to, ŭo, vo, zo. These are used in speaking of the letters, in pronouncing them in abbreviations, as ko to po for k. t. p. (= etc.), and in spelling words, as bo, i, ro, do, o, birdo. DIPHTHONGS. 5. Diphthongs are combinations of two vowels uttered as a single sound, by one breath-impulse. The diphthongs in Esperanto contain an i or u sound as the second element, but in order to avoid confusion with combinations of vowels not forming diphthongs (as in naiva, like English naÏve, etc.), they are written with j and ŭ instead. Their pronunciation is as follows: aj like ai in aisle. ej like ei in vein, ey in they. oj like oi in coin, oy in boy. uj like ui in ruin, u(e)y in gluey. eŭ like ayw in wayward, or like É(h)oo pronounced together. aŭ like ou in out, ow in owl. COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS. 6. Each consonant, in a combination of two or more consonants, is pronounced with its full value, whether within a word or at its beginning. There are no silent letters. a. Thus, both consonants are clearly sounded in the groups kn, kv, gv, sv, in such words as knabo, kvin, gvidi, sviso. b. The combination kz, as in ekzisti, ekzameno, must not be modified to the gs or ks represented by x in exist, execute. c. The combination sc, as in escepte, scias, is equivalent to the combination sts in last said, first song, pronounced together rapidly. The s in a word beginning with sc may be sounded with the end of the preceding word, if that word ends in a vowel, as mis-cias for mi scias. d. The n and g are pronounced separately in the combination ng, in such words as lingvo, angulo, producing the sound of ng heard in linger, not that in singer. e. Each of two similar letters is clearly sounded, as interrilato, ellasi, like inter-relate, well-laid. SYLLABLES. 7. Each word contains as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs. The division of syllables within a word is as follows: a. A single consonant goes with the following vowel, as pa-no, be-la, a-e-ro. b. A consonant followed by l or r (which are liquids) goes with the l or r, as in ta-blo, a-kra, a-gra-bla. c. Otherwise, the syllable division is made before the last consonant of the group, as sus-pek-ti, sank-ta, deks-tra. d. Prefixes are separated from the words to which they are attached, as dis-meti, mal-akra, and compound words are divided into their component parts, as ĉef-urbo, sun-ombrelo. ACCENT. 8. Words of more than one syllable are accented upon the syllable before the last, as tÁ-blo, a-grÁ-bla, sus-pÉk-ti. WORDS FOR PRACTICE. 9. (To be pronounced aloud, and correctly accented) Afero, trairi, najbaro, aero, hodiaŭ, pacienco, centono, ĉielo, eĉ, samideano, treege, obei, obeu, Eŭropo, gvidi, ĝojo, ĉiujn, justa, ĝuste, juĝi, ĵaŭdo, lingvo, knabo, larĝa, pagi, kvieteco, ekzemplo, ellerni, fojo, krajono, forrajdi, kuirejo, ĉevalejo, sankteco, scio, nescio, edzo, meze, duobla, ŝipo, ŝarĝi, poŝo, svingi, sklavo, palaj, ŝafaĵo, atmosfero, monaĥo, geometrio, laŭdi, vasta, eksplodi, senĉesa, sensencaĵo, malluma, arbaranoj, manĝo, freŝa, aŭskulti, daŭri. LESSON II. NOUNS. 10. Words which are the names of persons or things are called nouns. The ending, or final letter, of nouns in Esperanto is o:
THE ARTICLE. 11. The definite article is la, the, as la knabo, the boy, la ĉevalo, the horse, la tablo, the table, la pomo, the apple. In English there is an indefinite article "a, an" for the singular, but none for the plural. Esperanto has no indefinite article for either singular or plural. Therefore knabo may mean boy, or a boy, pomo may mean apple or an apple. ADJECTIVES 12. A word used with a noun (expressed or understood) to express a quality or characteristic is called an adjective. The ending of adjectives in Esperanto is a:
ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES. 13. An adjective is said to modify a noun whose quality it expresses. When directly preceding or following its noun, it is called an attributive adjective: la granda ĉevalo, the large horse. PRESENT TENSE OF THE VERB. 14. Words which express action or condition are called verbs. When representing an act or condition as a fact, and dealing with the present time, they are said to be in the present tense. The ending of all Esperanto verbs in the present tense is -as:
15. The person or thing whose action or condition the verb expresses is called the subject of the verb: La suno brilas, the sun shines (is shining), subject: suno. Vocabulary. (To be memorized in this and in all following lessons.)
READING LESSON. 1. Bona viro. 2. La granda tablo. 3. Blanka floro. 4. Flava birdo. 5. La bela birdo kantas. 6. Forta knabo kuras. 7. La bona viro marŝas. 8. La bela ĉevalo kuras. 9. La suno brilas. 10. Birdo flugas kaj knabo kuras. 11. Ĉevalo blanka marŝas. 12. La bela luno brilas. 13. La knabo kantas kaj la viro dormas. 14. Bela granda pomo. 15. La bona knabo kantas. 16. La granda ĉevalo dormas. 17. La suno brilas kaj la luno brilas. 18. Granda forta tablo. 19. Violo flava. 20. La bona flava pomo. SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. 1. A beautiful flower. 2. A good large table. 3. A yellow violet and a white violet. 4. The moon is-shining (shines). 5. The good boy is-walking (walks). 6. The beautiful yellow bird is-flying (flies). 7. The strong man is-sleeping (sleeps). 8. The white bird is-singing (sings). 9. A strong horse runs, and a man walks. 10. The sun shines, and the boy is-singing (sings). 11. The large yellow apple. 12. An apple large and good. LESSON III. THE PLURAL NUMBER. 16. The plural number of nouns, that is, the form which indicates more than one person or thing, is made by adding -j to the noun, as viroj, men, from viro, man; tabloj, tables, from tablo, table. -oj is pronounced like oy in boy. See 5. 17. An adjective modifying a plural noun agrees with it in number, being given the plural form by the addition of the ending -j. An adjective modifying two or more nouns used together is of course given the plural form: bonaj viroj, good men. -aj is pronounced like ai in aisle. See 5. 18. The article is invariable, that is, does not change in form when used with plural nouns, as la viro, the man, la viroj, the men. The verb is also invariable in form: La viroj marŝas, the men walk, the men are walking. PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND NOUN. 19. When the adjective is a part of that which is told or predicated of the subject of the verb, as when used with the verbs "to be," "to seem," etc., it is called a predicate adjective: La birdo estas bela, the bird is beautiful. 20. A noun may also be used as part of the predicate, and is then called a predicate noun: Violoj estas floroj, violets are flowers. 21. Predicate nouns and adjectives agree in number with the word or words with which they are in predicate relation: Rozoj estas belaj, roses are beautiful. Vocabulary.
READING LESSON. 1. La alta viro estas en la ĝardeno. 2. Blanka ĉevalo estas en la kampo. 3. Belaj birdoj sidas sur la verda arbo. 4. La bonaj knaboj estas en la domo. 5. La ĉambroj en la bela domo estas grandaj. 6. Freŝaj floroj kuŝas sur la tablo. 7. La violoj en la kampo estas belaj. 8. La luno kaj la suno ŝajnas grandaj. 9. La kolomboj estas belaj birdoj. 10. La knaboj ŝajnas fortaj. 11. Ruĝaj pomoj estas sur la tablo en la ĉambro. 12. La fortaj viroj sidas sur seĝoj en la longa ĉambro. 13. La arboj estas altaj kaj verdaj. 14. La kolomboj sur la arboj kantas. 15. Fortaj ĉevaloj marŝas kaj kuras en la verdaj kampoj. 16. La knaboj dormas en la granda domo. 17. Ruĝaj, flavaj, kaj verdaj folioj estas en la ĝardeno. 18. Longa tablo estas en la domo. 19. Belaj birdoj flugas kaj kantas en la kampo. 20. Freŝaj rozoj ŝajnas belaj. 21. La folioj estas verdaj kaj ruĝaj. SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. 1. The trees in the garden are tall and green. 2. The rooms in the house are long. 3. The flowers on the table are red, yellow and white. 4. The leaves are long and green. 5. The men are-sitting (sit) on chairs in the garden. 6. In the garden are yellow roses. 7. The birds in the field are doves. 8. The boys in the room in the house seem tall. 9. Fresh violets are beautiful flowers. 10. The horses in the green fields seem strong. 11. Doves are-singing (sing) in the garden. 12. The men in the large house sleep. 13. The house is long and high, and the rooms in the house are large. 14. Red and yellow apples lie on the big table. 15. Green leaves are on the trees in the large garden. LESSON IV. TRANSITIVE VERBS. 22. The verbs so far given have been intransitive verbs, expressing a state or an action limited to the subject, and not immediately affecting any other person or thing, as la knabo kuras, the boy runs. On the other hand a transitive verb expresses an act of the subject upon some person or thing; as, la knabo trovas — —, the boy finds — —. THE ACCUSATIVE CASE. 23. The person or thing acted upon is called the direct object of a transitive verb, and is given the ending -n. This is called the accusative ending; and the word to which it is attached is said to be in the accusative case: La viro havas seĝon, the man has a chair. The ending -n follows the ending -j, if the word to be put in the accusative case is in the plural number. 24. An attributive adjective modifying a noun in the accusative case is made to agree in case, by addition of the same accusative ending -n. This prevents any doubt as to which of two or more nouns in a sentence is modified by the adjective, and permits of variation in the order of the words: La knabo trovas belan floron, the boy finds a beautiful flower. 25. A predicate adjective or noun (19) is never in the accusative case, nor is the accusative ending ever attached to the article, which is invariable as stated in 18. THE CONJUNCTION KAJ. 26. In the expression both ... and ..., the conjunction kaj is used for both words, being merely repeated: La viro kaj marŝas kaj kuras, the man both walks and runs. THE NEGATIVE NE. 27. The negative word meaning "not" when forming part of a sentence, and "no" when used as an answer to a question, is ne. When used as a sentence-negative, it usually immediately precedes the verb. For emphatic negation of some other word than the verb, ne may precede that word: Violoj ne estas ruĝaj, violets are not red. |
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