Celebes is an island of which hitherto the public has had but very scanty accounts. The part of it best known to Europeans is MakÁsar, situated nearly at the southernmost extremity of the western side: it was here the first European settlement on the island was established. On the south part of Celebes there are not any ascertained volcanos, but some are said to exist in the northern division. Some of the mountains are very high. The Bontain mountain, called by the natives LÁmpo BÁtan (big belly), is the highest on the south part of the island, and being seen at the distance of one hundred and twenty miles, must be about eight thousand five hundred feet above the level of the sea.

The largest river on the southern limb is that called ChinrÁna, which formerly constituted the boundary between the kingdoms of BÓni and LÚwu. It rises on the north side of the Bontain mountain, and runs northward as far as Mario, whence, inclining towards the north-east, it passes through part of SÓping, and then, turning to the east, enters WÁju, after having received a navigable stream from the Laut-SÁla, or Fresh-water Lake. After passing through WÁju it follows a south-east course, and falls into the bay of BÓni, a few miles below the town of ChinrÁna. This river is navigable for boats as far as MÁrio, and admits of the passage of prÁhus of five or six kÓyans as far as the fresh-water lake. Along the whole of the coast, at no great distance from each other, smaller streams fall into the sea, some of them being so considerable as to admit of a navigation of five or six miles, and many of them at their mouths affording shelter to trading prÁhus. Among the most considerable are BarÓbo, LinjÉ, and KÁjang, to the east; DuniÁng, LÉmbang, HalikÓngkong, PÓnre, and JenepÓnto, on the south; and Chikoang, Tape JÁra, SÁndra bÓni, GÚa, TÉlu, Maros, BenÁng'a, LangkÁra, and PontiÁna, on the west.

It has not been ascertained by whom, or at what particular time, the name of Celebes was conferred on this island. It is generally attributed to the Portuguese, and certainly is of foreign origin: none of the natives, except those who have intercourse with Europeans, recognize either the whole island or any part of it under this appellation; even among those who make use of the word, it is applied to SumbÁwa, an island about two hundred and fifty miles to the south-west of it, as well as to what we call Celebes.

In the south-western limb of the island there are two principal languages, called by Europeans the MakÁsar and BÚgis, and by the natives MengkÁsa or MengkasÁra, and WÁgi or Ugi. The former, or some dialect of it, is spoken in all the districts extending from BÁlu kÚmba to SegÉre. The petty states included in this compass are BÁlu kÚmba, Bontain, Tara[Vol II Pg lxxxvi]bÁya, GÚa, MÁros, and SegÉre. The BÚgis is much more general beyond and over the whole tract extending from BÓni to LÚwu, comprehending the four great states of LÚwu, BÓni, WÁju, and SÓping, besides their numerous dependencies.

In MÁndhar and its vicinity is spoken the MÁndhar language. The centre and body of the island to the northward is distinguished by being inhabited by the TurÁjas or HarafÚras, who speak a more simple dialect, and are considered the aborigines of the island; and on the north-east corner of the island at ManÁdu and GÚnung tÉlu, the inhabitants are distinguished by some peculiarities.

The following observations must be understood as principally referring to the south-western limb, the part of the island which fell under the influence of MakÁsar.

It is impossible to ascertain, with any degree of precision, either the origin of the inhabitants or their present numbers. From the most correct accounts that could be obtained, it would appear that the southern limb contains a population of about half a million; but from the quantity of land now lying waste, which bears the appearance of having been once cultivated, from the number of decayed and half-choked water-cuts, evidently once used for the purpose of irrigation, and the multitude of spots where ranges of cocoa-nut trees mark out the sites of villages and cottages no longer in existence, we may infer that the number of inhabitants has greatly declined. At present there seem to be no serious checks to population, except the wars and the lawless violence of the people, and what often occasions, and always aggravates them, slavery and the slave trade. The people seem to procure a sufficient subsistence without much exertion. The climate is salubrious, and there is abundance of water. Marriages are early. In the history of the island the years of famine are particularly noticed. The women are held in more esteem than could be expected from the state of civilization in general, and undergo none of those severe hardships, privations, or labours, that restrict fecundity in other parts of the world. Polygamy prevails, the number of wives being limited only by the means of the husband to purchase or support them. It is more difficult to procure a wife than a husband; a female slave bears a higher price in the market than a male; and the compensation fixed for the murder of a man is only thirty dollars, while that required for the life of a woman is forty.

It cannot be known with certainty, whence the aboriginal inhabitants of Celebes emigrated to this island. The countenances of the natives, particularly of the women, more nearly resemble the Tartar features than any other. There are no early or generally received traditions concerning the time when the island was first peopled, or the adventures of the first race. Each state, however, has its traditionary tales, most of which relate to remote antiquity, or to a condition of society very different from that which at present exists. In the BÚgis states, the earliest stories refer to a period subsequent to the GalÍgas of SawÉra GÁding, and in the MakÁsar states to the RupÁma of Ma BesÉang, which will be mentioned here[Vol II Pg lxxxvii]after. The GalÍgas contain an account of the peopling of LÚwu or LÁwat from heaven.

The first of the two following accounts was given by the BÚgis ambassador; the other is an extract.

"In the first place, there was a supernatural being of the female sex, who, being married to Taja Rasupa, a person sprung from under the earth, had issue a boy and a girl, who were named Ladiwati and Chuli-puji.

"Chuli-puji married Lasikati, and by her had a son, called LÉptau, who had two or three other names besides, viz. Matan-tika, Malati-saprang, and Pulu Datu Pamusu.

"Pamusu's place of residence was in the country of Teku, afterwards known by the name of Boni. At this time Pamusu and all his children dying, the country of the Bugis was left without a raja, and remained so for about seven generations; at the end of which period a raja springing up among the Bugis themselves, government was again introduced into the country.

"On one occasion there came a storm of thunder and lightning, so violent as to rend the earth and cause it to rock like a boat tossed by the waves of the sea. On the thunder and lightning abating, and the earth ceasing to be longer agitated, there was observed in the middle of a plain, dressed in white, one of human shape, who was generally supposed to be a supernatural being, and to whom many people went up in a body, saying to it, 'remain then here and fly not about from place to place.' To them the being replied, 'what you say is well; but you cannot take me from your raja, as I am myself but a slave. If, however, you are really desirous of having a raja, there is my master at your service.' The Boni people then observed to the being, 'how can we make a raja of him, whom having never seen, we cannot tell what he is like?' 'If,' answered the being, 'you do really desire it, he shall be shewn to you.' They said, 'we do earnestly wish it, and request thou wilt be so kind as to carry us where we may see him of whom thou speakest.'

"When these people of Boni, together with the being who led them, had reached the open plain called Matajam, there came on a violent storm, accompanied with thunder and lightning, which rent and shook the earth. There arose, at the same time, a thick fog, which totally obscured every thing.

"As soon as the storm was over, and the earth no longer continued to be rent and shaken by the thunder and lightning, the clearness which immediately succeeded discovered to the view, seated on a stone, four supernatural beings, of whom three were separately employed in holding the umbrella, fan, and siri-box of the other, who was dressed in yellow. The being dressed in yellow then said to him in white, 'What would'st thou?' The being in white replied, 'I have conducted hither those people of Boni whom you now see before you;' and then said to the Boni people, 'Behold my master, of whom I spoke to you.'[Vol II Pg lxxxviii] Those people went up to the supernatural being in yellow, and thus addressed him: 'We, the slaves of your mightiness, have come to present ourselves before you, to solicit that you will favour and oblige us, by remaining among us as our raja, and that you will not continue to wander about from place to place.'

"The being complied with the wishes of the people of Boni and settling at Matajam had issue five children, of whom the first was a son and the four succeeding ones daughters. One of the daughters was married to a man of Palaka. The son was married to a BÓni woman.

"After being forty years in BÓni, the supernatural being disappeared, and was succeeded by the son, who, in point of size and height, had not his equal in BÓni, neither could any one be compared to him for strength or valour, or for the adulation which was paid him. He was the first who introduced the manufacture of krises, which he could model out of pieces of iron, by means of his fingers alone."

"Bitara GÚru was the eldest son of DÉwata Pitutu by DÉwi PalÉng'i, and inhabited the seventh heaven. DÉwata Pitutu had a brother, called GÚru RÉslang, who held the rule of the region under the earth. DÉwata Pitutu had nine children in all.

"When Bitara GÚru was sent down upon earth by his father, DÉwata Pitutu, he was provided with the following articles, viz. TelatingpÉba, Siri ataka, Telarasa, Wampung, Wanu, Chachu-bana.

"From these, which were scattered about, every thing living and dead, in the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, which are to be found in the country of Lawat, originated. Preparatory to this, DÉwata Pitutu having compounded a medicine, of which the juice of chewed betel was an ingredient, rubbed Bitara GÚru all over with it, which immediately occasioned him to swoon. DÉwata Pitutu then put his son into a hollow bambu, and, having rolled this up in a piece of cloth, and caused the gates of the sky to be opened, he hurling sent down his son to earth, amidst a tremendous storm of thunder, lightning, wind, and rain, which arose on that occasion. Having reached about half way between the earth and sky, BitÁra GÚru (dreadfully alarmed at the situation he was in) threw abroad all the articles which had been given to him, agreeably to the instructions of his sire. After his arrival on the earth, Bitara GÚru remained for three days and three nights shut up in the bambu, without food or drink. By his exertions, however, the bambu at last burst, when, getting out, he wandered through the woods till he came to the side of a river, where he met with a king of the gods dressed in yellow. One night there arose a violent storm of thunder, lightning, wind, and rain. On its clearing up there was seen a fine country, with a superb palace and fort, and houses, &c. &c. of the most beautiful structure. In this beautiful country Bitara GÚru sat himself down as sovereign, with a complete establishment, and gave it the name of Lawat."

No account can be procured of any intercourse having subsisted be[Vol II Pg lxxxix]tween this island and Western India or China, prior to the introduction of Mahomedanism. No inscriptions or other monuments, indicating the former prevalence of the Hindu worship over Celebes, have as yet been found. There not having been found, however, is no proof that they do not exist, for the wars that have lately prevailed have prevented Europeans from exploring in search of such objects in that part of the country where they are most likely to present themselves. The best informed natives call themselves descendants of Hindus, and the names of their divinities, Batara GÚru, Baruna, &c. seem to indicate either a common origin or a former intercourse. It is also remarkable, that some of the inhabitants of LÚwu and the neighbouring state of Bontain are said to dress in the same manner as the Hindus of Western India, and that Hindu temples are reported to exist in some parts of this state. Brahma and Budha have, however, never been heard of; and though DÉwas are often mentioned, their attributes are equally unknown.

The intercourse of these islanders with the natives of Java seems to have been ancient and frequent. The earliest records of the BÚgis and MÁkasar states denote not only an early communication with Java, but render it highly probable that a colony from Java settled in the south-west limb of Celebes. In no other way can we account for the transfer of the names of places from the former to the latter island, such as those of MajapÁhit, GrÉsik, Japan, and some others. In the genealogy, too, of the sovereigns of LÚwu, one of the first of their DÉwa princes is said to have been married to a princess of MajapÁhit on Java.

Though some of the BÚgis states have a good deal of trade, they principally depend upon themselves for subsistence. The mode of husbandry is, of course, very rude, and feudal institutions stand in the way of their improvement; but private property in the soil is established, and lands are held in free tenure or by rent-hold. The amount of the rent, in the latter case, is generally one-third of the produce, paid in kind; the cultivator is entitled to one-third, and the owner of the buffaloes or bullocks which assist is entitled to the remaining third. Labourers employed to reap are paid a sixth of what they collect. No class is excluded from a proprietary right in the soil, and the proprietor can dispose of his land by sale whenever he chooses.

The people of Celebes are active and enterprising traders; the character of a merchant is held in esteem, and the sovereign princes reckon it no disgrace to enter into commercial speculations. Unfortunately, however, they are actuated by the narrow spirit of the trader, to the prejudice of the liberal policy of the monarch, and make their power subservient to their love of gain, by establishing in their own favour monopolies against their subjects. Monopolies are common in every state on the island, but most of them are only of a temporary nature. The sovereign of LÚwu monopolizes the trade in brass; the Raja of SÓping that of siri (betel leaf), which yields him three hundred dollars a month; and the Raja of Sedendreng that of salt and opium.

So strong is the spirit of commercial enterprise among the inhabitants[Vol II Pg xc] of this island, that they frequently borrow sums for the purchase of commodities on which they expect profit, and stake their personal liberty, and that of their families, on the success of an adventure. In their trading voyages each person in the prÁhu has his own share of the cargo, and conducts business on his own account: each person likewise carries his own provisions; the latter practice, especially, is never departed from. The owner of the vessel agrees to undertake the voyage with a number of people, great or small, in proportion to its size, and apportions the vessel among them in the following manner. The two jÚru mÚdus, or steersmen, receive one pÉtah (or division) before the sanketan, and the whole space abaft of it; the owner is entitled to two pÉtahs in the broadest part of the boat; and the two jÚru bÁtus to the whole space between the masts; the remaining pÉtahs are divided among the crew, from whom the owner, or nakÓda, receives a freight of one-tenth or one-twentieth of the price of all the commodities they sell, according as they are bulky or small, in proportion to their value. The jÚru mÚdis and jÚru bÁtus only pay one-half of the proportion of freight paid by the rest of the crew. Sometimes the owner supplies the crew with an advance of money for an adventure, and receives at its termination not only re-payment of his loan, but a third of the profits of the speculation.

The principal articles of trade are cotton, which is imported from the surrounding islands, and re-exported after being manufactured into cloths, known by the name of BÚgis cloths, which are in great demand throughout the Archipelago, and, in general, of a more delicate texture than those manufactured in Java; birds' nests, trÍpang (sea slug), shark's fins, tortoise-shell, Ágar Ágar, hides, and other articles calculated for the Chinese market, are collected in considerable quantities, and furnish return cargoes for the annual Chinese junks which visit Celebes. Gold is obtained on Celebes, but in much smaller quantities than on Borneo or Sumatra.

Although the BÚgis, in general, are considered as great traders, the foreign commerce seems to be almost exclusively confined to the people of WÁju. These people are settled in considerable numbers in all the trading ports, from Acheen to Manilla, and it is they who form the crew of almost all the BÚgis prÁhus that navigate the eastern seas.

Several BÚgis prÁhus from MÁkasar annually visit the northern coast of New Holland and the Gulf of Carpentaria in search of trÍpang, and sometimes a small party is left to collect the trÍpang in readiness for the arrival of the prÁhus in the following year.

The BÚgis, indeed, is the great maritime and commercial state of the Archipelago. The cargoes of their vessels, particularly in opium, gold, and cloths, often amount to fifty or sixty thousand dollars each, and the people who navigate and are concerned in them are acknowledged to be fair and honourable traders.

The natives of the southern limb of Celebes are of a light active form of body, generally well made, and rather below the middle stature. They are said to be revengeful; but during the period of the British govern[Vol II Pg xci]ment at MakÁsar, few, if any, examples occurred to support such an assertion. Certain it is, that in no single instance, was the death of those who fell in a recent war between the two parties of the MakÁsar nation, avenged by their relations, although the persons by whose hands they had fallen were perfectly well known.

They attach themselves to their chiefs principally for their own convenience, but, in some cases, they have evinced a devoted fidelity. They often change their chief, but scarcely any thing can induce them to betray the chief they have left. In no instance has the prÁhu of a Dutchman or Chinese been carried off when navigated by MakÁsar or BÚgis people. Agreements once entered into are invariably observed, and a BÚgis is never known to swerve from his bargain. "That natural politeness which characterises the various nations distinguished by wearing what is termed the Malayan kris, is no where more forcibly exhibited than among the inhabitants of Celebes. Their minor associations are held together by all the attachment and warmth which distinguished the clans of North Britain:?—the same bold spirit of independence and enterprize distinguishes the lower orders, whilst the pride of ancestry and the romance of chivalry are the delight of the higher classes. Attached to the chase as an amusement, rather than as the means of subsistence, the harvest is no sooner reaped, than each feudal lord, with his associates and followers, devotes himself to its pursuits. The population being equally at the command of the feudal lord, whether in time of peace or war, agricultural pursuits, beyond a bare subsistence, are but little attended to." On the other hand, they are throughout notorious thieves, and scarcely consider murder as a crime. Instances of cold-blooded barbarous murders frequently occurred within two miles of the European fort, previously to the arrival of the British and the abolition of the slave trade. The unfortunate people who had been kidnapped and brought down to MakÁsar for sale, were often murdered to prevent discovery where a ready sale was not found.

Many of their customs are also extremely savage. The head of an enemy of rank is invariably severed from the dead body, and instances have more than once occurred of the heart being cut out and eaten by the conquerors. They are fond of the blood and raw flesh of animals. LÁwar dÁra, which is the liver and heart of a deer, cut into slices and mixed raw with the warm blood, is esteemed their favourite dish.

The present form of government in all the states, except WÁju, appears to be legal, fettered by a powerful aristocracy who elect the monarch: in LÚwu, particularly, the sovereign possesses a title, with more pomp and state attached to it than any other on the island, but with scarcely a shadow of authority. In SedÉndreng he is the most despotic, which has enabled him to become the richest and best armed prince in the island. A species of feudal system prevails throughout, but it does not extend to property in the soil. Each individual of a state considers himself the liege subject of some petty chieftain, who is himself equally bound to a more powerful one, and so on, by a regular chain, to the sovereigns of[Vol II Pg xcii] GÓa, (MakÁsar), BÓni, LÁwu, SÓping, SedÉndring, or TanÉte, or to the aristocracy of WÁju.

In each sovereignty there are two classes of nobility, called PaseajÁng'an and PalÉlÉ. PaseajÁng'an are the barons of the state, and may be considered in every respect as subjects, being obliged to obey all orders they receive from the sovereign, whereas the PalÉlÉ are independent petty chieftains (who have probably again under them both PaseajÁng'an and PalÉlÉ), who have attached themselves to a particular sovereign, but are only obliged to do fixed feudal services, such as to assist with their followers in case of war, to attend the public feasts given by the sovereign, and to assist in building and repairing the palace of state. In SÓping each PalÉlÉ is obliged to furnish and keep up at all times one effective soldier, called jua, for the immediate protection of the sovereign.

When the sovereign wishes to give orders to his PalÉlÉ, he summons him to his presence by a messenger who bears a bila-bila; the bila-bila is a leaf of the lÓntar with a number of knots on it, specifying the number of days at the expiration of which the vassal is required to attend. The PalÉlÉ receives it seated in the midst of his head people, with his right hand on the handle of his kris, and as soon as he has got it rises, draws his kris, and swears on it to be faithful to his sovereign. To neglect this summons is a breach of allegiance.

The provinces under European authority are purely feudal; the Dutch, as sovereign, considering themselves as sole proprietor of the soil, and the regents, or feudal lords, being at all times liable to immediate removal and dispossession, should they neglect to perform the feudal service required, of whatever nature it may be.

The sovereign is chosen from the royal stock by a certain number of counsellors, who also possess the right of subsequently removing him; and such is their influence, that the sovereign can neither go to war or adopt any public measure, except in concert with them. They have the charge of the public treasure, and also appoint the prime minister. The prince cannot himself take the personal command of the army; but the usage of the country admits of a temporary resignation of office for this purpose, in which case a regent succeeds provisionally to the rank of chief, and carries on the affairs of government in concert with the majority of the council. Women and minors may be elected to any office of the state; and when this takes place, an additional officer, having a title which literally means a support or prop, is appointed to assist.

In BÓni the prince is elected by the Orang-pÍtu, or seven hereditary counsellors. In GÚa (MakÁsar) the prince is chosen by ten counsellors, of whom the first minister, termed BechÁra BÚta, is one; this last officer is himself appointed by the council of nine, termed the nine standards of the country, but in the exercise of his office possesses very extraordinary powers: it is said he can remove the sovereign himself, and call upon the electors to make another choice. The inferior chiefs, or Krains, who administer the dependent provinces, are appointed by the government, and not elected by a council, although in the exercise of their office their[Vol II Pg xciii] power is in like manner limited; the number of the council varying in different states. When the prince in council has decided upon war, the assembled chiefs, after sprinkling their banners with blood, proceed to take a solemn oath, by dipping their krises into a vessel of water, and afterwards dancing around the blood-stained banner, with frantic gesture, and a strange and savage contortion of the body and limbs, so as to give the extended kris a tremulous motion, each severally imprecating the vengeance of the deity against his person, if he violates his vow to exterminate the enemy, to conquer or die.

The proportion of the crop which falls to the share of the landlord has already been stated. In some districts a sixth, and in others a tenth, belongs to the sovereign; but in general the landlord, the capitalist, and the cultivator, may be considered to share between them the whole produce of the land. The monopolies which the chiefs assume to themselves have also been noticed. Besides these there are a few imposts in bazars, which, with some other pecuniary emoluments, accrue to the chiefs, but they are, for the most part, rather to meet their personal expenses than to defray those of the state, and consequently hardly deserve the name of public revenue.

The arms formerly used for offence by the inhabitants of Celebes were the sÚmpit, or tube through which the poisoned dart is blown, the kris, spear, klÉwang (cutlass,) bÁdi, and pÁrany: to them may now be added muskets, musketoons, and small cannon. Those for defence were chain armour (baju rÁnti) and two kinds of shields, the one long the other round, made of very tough light wood, and bound together very strongly by pieces of split rattan.

The Mahomedan religion is professed in all those parts of Celebes which have any pretensions to civilization, and the Koran, of course, is the standard of law and worship, as far as it is known. According to the records of MakÁsar, the Mahomedan religion was introduced there about the year 1603, by Khateb Tungal Datu Bandang, a native of MenÁngkabau on SumÁtra. Nearly all the inhabitants of the south-west limb are Mahomedans, but of the centre and the other limbs of the island only a very small portion have been converted. There are Mahomedan schools in all parts of the south-west limb, but the Arabic language is only learnt by those designed for the priesthood. They do not consider themselves as belonging either to the sect of Omar or Ali, but as followers of the law of the prophet, without regard to either. Circumcision is performed on both sexes; on the males at ten or twelve years of age, on the females at six or seven.

It has been related, that the change of religion on Celebes happened just after the arrival of the Portuguese, who are said to have offered Christianity at the same time that the MalÁyus offered Mahomedanism. The king of MakÁsar is said to have been doubtful which of these systems he should adopt, till he consulted the wisest men in his dominions, who advised him to embrace the religion of the Koran in preference to that of the gospel, stating as an argument in its favour, that it had arrived first,[Vol II Pg xciv] and that God would never permit error to arrive before truth. But this does not appear on the records of MakÁsar.

The public feasts formerly held, sometimes for weeks together, appear to have been for political rather than religious purposes: at present the Mahomedan fasts and feasts are observed. Formerly the dead were generally buried, but in some instances burnt. There is still to be seen in LamÚru a burial-place belonging to the royal family, containing jars or urns with the ashes of their ancestors, which are held sacred, indeed almost worshipped, at the present day. The BÚgis name for the places of burial used before they were converted to Islamism is PatÚnan, or the place of burning. It is not known that any tribes of the TurÁjas burn their dead at present: they are said to deposit them in excavated rocks on the sides of hills, and to be so anxious to be buried among their relations, that if a man of rank dies in a distant part of the country, the body is salted to preserve it, and, in that state, carried back to his own residence. Very little is known of these people by the inhabitants of the south-western limb, but they are universally considered as the first inhabitants of the island. They are a very fine race of people: the women particularly so. It is said they will not suffer strangers or Mahomedans to reside among them, and that the custom of procuring a certain number of human heads previous to marriage is as prevalent among them as with the DÁyas of Borneo, and the HarafÚras of the Eastern Archipelago in general.

Each state has its own system of laws, but they nearly concur in the following principles. Each sovereign generally possesses the right of putting to death any of his subjects, except the members of his own family. Should any one of these commit a crime and escape into another territory, he cannot be touched, but if taken in his own country he must be brought before the bechÁra, who alone are capable of passing sentence on him.

Each petty state has its bechÁra, composed of the principal people, both PaseajÁng'an and PalÉlÉ. All disputes between its followers are decided by it: it also judges and passes sentence in cases of theft, murder, and adultery, and decides all causes respecting the legal right to property; but an appeal may be made to the court or bechÁra of the principal state, the members of which are called the KapÁla BechÁra. The decision of any bechÁra is subject to the approval of the sovereign, where he is not himself a party interested: indeed he may, in general, supersede the authority of this court by deciding promptly, but it behoves him to attend strictly to the adat biÁsa, or ancient customs of the state, in his decision, for the bechÁra has the power to remove the sovereign and elect a new one. The same persons at all times decide on the fact and the law.

It is difficult to ascertain which of the dialects spoken on Celebes has most claim to antiquity. I have already stated, that the MakÁsar and BÚgis are considered as the two principal languages of that part of the island known to Europeans. The MakÁsar, the BÚgis, and Mandharese, which may be considered as dialects of the same language, use the same character with some trifling variations. The TurÁjas or HarafÚras of[Vol II Pg xcv] Celebes have a fourth language, probably the most original, but it is not known whether they are at all acquainted with writing.

Each nation considers its own the most ancient character. The MakÁsar alphabet is less complete than the BÚgis, which consists of twenty-two letters, varied by six vocal sounds. The form of the character is peculiar, and more nearly resembles that of the BÁtas on Sumatra than any other we know of. It is difficult to decide whether the BÚgis or MakÁsar language is the most ancient. Many words have the same meaning in both, and many others differ so little[299] as to be evidently of the same origin; but the BÚgis has often six or seven synonymes, whereas the MakÁsar has never more than two, and seldom more than one. Some of the BÚgis words bear strong evidence of Hindu origin, as sÓda from sÓna, gold; parÁma from brahma, fire; which is not at all the case with the MakÁsar.

La GalÍga, the reputed son of SawÍra GÁding, is considered the author of the history of SawÍra GÁding, which is a kind of heroic poem, and is read in a chaunting voice, with a pause at the end of every fifth syllable. The measure consists of a dactyl followed by a trochee, as Sawira Gading to Malampoa, (SawÍra GÁding the great). He is the only author whose name is commonly known; and all books, even the most modern, which are written in the same manner, are called after him GalÍga, although, properly speaking, the term should only be applied to the history of the heroes who are supposed to have lived previous to the seven generations of anarchy which subsisted at BÓni. SultÁna Zaenab Zakeyat Udiu, the seventeenth sovereign of BÓni subsequent to the anarchy, is said to have written an historical poem, containing the exploits of all the sovereigns of BÓni, from the reign of MÁta Se SÁmpo, the menÚron of MatÁjam, down to her own time; but it is not to be procured on the western side of Celebes. It appears, however, that every BÚgis family of high rank possesses a very authentic history of that period, collected from the records of the court of BÓni.

The author of the RupÁma is not known, nor indeed is the name of any MakÁsar author known. The RupÁma is considered by the BÚgis, as well as the MakÁsars, to be of equal antiquity with the SawÍra GÁding. Copies of both these works have been obtained.

In the account given by Dr. Leyden, in his valuable paper on the Hindi-Chinese nations,[300] upwards of fifty literary compositions in the language of this country are enumerated, most of which serve either to celebrate the deeds of their national heroes, or are of an amatory character. Besides these they possess codes of laws, or rather customs, said to be of considerable antiquity. The Koran has been translated into the BÚgis language. The use of rhyme is much less frequent than among the MalÁyus; and it has been observed by Dr. Leyden, that "the melody of the verse depends on the rhythm, and the measure of some of the historical [Vol II Pg xcvi]poems has, in this respect, considerable similarity to some of the specimens of Sanscrit verse." The BÚgis songs are very numerous, and in high estimation throughout the Archipelago.

They have no books on science, philosophy, or astronomy. The only stars they are acquainted with, are Jupiter (called PelÁs), the Pleiades (called WÓrong PÓrong), Sirius and Orion (JÁng'an JÁng'an, or the Fowl), the Great Bear (Jonga Jong'aya), Navis (Belikaipon), and Antares (LambÁro). They navigate their prÁhus by these stars, some of which must always be in sight, if the weather be clear.

The MakÁsars use the Mahomedan names for the months. The BÚgis divide their year of three hundred and sixty-five days into twelve months, beginning on our sixteenth of May. Whether this division of the year has taken place since the arrival of Europeans or not, is uncertain; but it is more than probable it has, as, with all this correctness, it does not appear they have any era; at least since the introduction of Mahomedanism, the Hegira seems to be used. The BÚgis names of the months, and the number of days they contain, are as follow:?—

Some division of time into months and years must have taken place at a much earlier date; as some of the earliest of the present line of kings, and the length of their reigns, are particularly mentioned.

I have before stated that slavery is practised on the island, and that the states not only supply slaves for domestic consumption (if I may use that phrase), but for export and commercial traffic. There are examples of whole villages becoming slaves, and there is scarcely a state or family of rank on the island that has not its assortment of these degraded beings, many of whom are reduced to this condition by the most cruel and insidious means.

Of the thousands exported annually from MakÁsar, the greatest portion consisted of persons who had been kidnapped by people acting under the authority of the European Residents, or the princes of the country.

The sale of their subjects constituted one chief source of the revenue of the Rajahs; and the factors at the different Dutch residencies traded in slaves. It is reported of one factor that he exported nine hundred in a year. The payment or contribution to be made to the Dutch, was either measured in gold, silver, or slaves. In a treaty made between the people of GÚa and Admiral Speelman, we find that they promised to pay so much of the precious metals, or one thousand slaves. Those slaves that were obtained by law or descent, were called DÍngen; those kidnapped, PÁras.

The respective prices for slaves at MakÁsar were as follow:?— [Vol II Pg xcvii]

It appears from the report of a commission appointed to inquire into the abuses of the slave trade in Celebes, addressed to the council of policy, and dated MakÁsar, the 21st September, 1799, that the Dutch government of Batavia, from the year 1699 (the period of the first Dutch settlement at MakÁsar), had sent repeated orders for the prevention of abuses in the slave trade in Celebes; with what effect, the following extract from the same report will shew.

"The abuses which have successively crept in, and the intrigues which are now practiced to obtain slaves, are so manifold and perplexing, that it would be very difficult for us to enumerate or to trace them. In attempting such a detail with all the precision and attention possible, we should still ignorantly omit some things, and depict others in too faint and indulgent a light, the grounds of our information being often superficial and precarious; for, it is to be remembered, that the enormities which are committed in this trade conceal themselves in the dark, and it is only by accident that some traces of them can occasionally be discerned. For these reasons, the undersigned request that they may be excused for confining themselves to the most common and notorious abuses, which, being faithfully recorded, may still afford sufficient evidence of the dreadful and detestable crimes which spring from avarice, and of the frightful shapes in which she perpetually displays herself, instigating and exciting the vengeful and blood-thirsty passions of the natives, and creating a fertile source of trouble and mischief.

"The making of a slave transport, if properly viewed, consists in nothing more than this:?—A person, calling himself an interpreter, repairs, at the desire of one who says that he has bought a slave, to the Secretary's office, and accompanied by any native, who, provided with a note from the purchaser, gives himself out as seller. For three rupees a certificate of sale, in the usual form, is immediately made out; three rupees are also paid to the notary, two rupees put into the hands of the interpreter, the whole transaction is concluded, and the purchaser has thus become the lawful owner of a free-born man, who very often is stolen with his (the purchaser's) concurrence and co-operation. He does not, however, trouble himself about that, because the stolen victim is already concealed where nobody can find him. The transaction also very seldom becomes public, because never were found more faithful receivers than the slave-traders. It is a maxim with them, never, as they call it, to betray their prison; a phrase which we shall presently have the honour more fully to explain. But what will be thought of the value of those public instruments, to which the name of Slave Transports is attached, when at times it is found that both purchaser and seller are fictitious, and that they are united in one league with the interpreter. By such means it is obvious, that the right of[Vol II Pg xcviii] property upon a stolen man may be acquired with as much ease as if he were pinioned before the door or within the yard of the pretended purchaser, and with no greater cost than the small sum of one rupee, or something more, according to circumstances, which must be put into the hands of him who gave himself out for the seller. To find a person for this purpose does not require a long search, for it is a very easy trade to pursue, and there are numbers of the most profligate of the natives continually roving about who do nothing else, and maintain themselves exclusively upon such small profits; even the slaves of the inhabitants being bribed, suffer themselves, for a small fee, to be thus employed. The victim himself, who is stolen and sold, is never examined, nor do the Dutch or native interpreters at all concern themselves about the matter; they are not much afraid of the risk of their responsibility; so that, at any time, it were possible to prepare beforehand as many transports as might be required.

"Let us further represent to ourselves this, our town of MakÁsar, filled with prisons, the one more dismal than the other, which are stuffed up with hundreds of wretches, the victims of avarice and tyranny, who, chained in fetters, look forward with despair towards their future destiny, and taken away from their wives, their children, their parents, their friends and comforts, languish in slavery, helpless and miserable! We may picture to ourselves the condition of one (and how often do such instances occur) who perhaps saw his aged father lose his life by his side, in attempting to rescue the pride and comfort of his declining years, whilst the survivor, incapable of further resistance, is torn from him, robbed irrecoverably of what is most precious to every human being, and carried away, in a condition more dreadful than death itself, a condition of despair and uncertainty, in which that moment only shall produce a change, when he is resigned for a trifle to the arbitrary will of a master, who has paid the stipulated price, and acquired the right of placing him amongst the number of his domestic animals, treating him at times no better than he would do those creatures.

"If we would lift up another corner of the curtain, a scene no less afflicting presents itself. Here we discover wives lamenting the loss of their husbands, children missing their parents, parents missing their children, who, with hearts filled with rage and revenge, run frantic through the streets and before our doors, to do all that the filial love of children for their parents, the tenderness of parents for their offspring can inspire, in order, if possible, to discover where their dearest pledges are concealed. Often, very often, is all their labour and trouble in vain, being obliged to return back hopeless and comfortless to their afflicted friends and relations. Sometimes, indeed, the profoundest secrecy is not proof against their indefatigable scrutiny, and if they do by any chance learn where a father, mother, a son or daughter, a husband or a wife, is kept in concealment, hope revives within their bosoms, and absorbed in the prospect of becoming their deliverers and saviours, every sacrifice is considered trifling, by means of which they can regain[Vol II Pg xcix] possession of the objects of their anxious care. But, alas! these unhappy people have not as yet reached the end of their sufferings; an obdurate purchaser, deaf to all the pleadings of distress, will be prepared coolly to make his advantage of it, and proportionally to enhance the ransom of his victim, till, by extorting an exorbitant price, he may plunge the unhappy relative from a moderate property into indigence, or, which is still worse, burden him with debts, which, sooner or later, will reduce himself, and perhaps his whole family, to slavery!

"It must not be thought, that when these wretched people have thus carried their point, and when, to furnish the sum demanded, they have sold their houses and goods, or even pawned themselves[301], that, after the payment of the ransom agreed on, the matter is finished. No! the trader will not deliver up the pretended slave until he departs for Batavia: and if we ask, why? it is, that his prison may not be betrayed; that is to say, that it may not become generally known throughout the country, what numbers of stolen people he keeps shut up within his prison, and that the cry of vengeance against many execrable acts that are concealed in the dark, may not everywhere be heard, by which many villains would become notorious. A son is therefore only exhibited to the afflicted father: he sees him in a pitiful condition linked with fetters, and it is frequently at such a moment that the ransom is agreed on. The grief wherewith a father's heart is pierced at such a sight, the rapid succession of his emotions from grief and despair to hope and longing, when contrasted with the deliberate calmness with which a covetous purchaser knows how to take advantage of the poor man's distress; the indifference, the obstinacy, with which he persists in his bloody demand of each rix-dollar, each stiver, nay almost of each penny; in a word, every thing that can have any relation to such a striking spectacle, can be more easily conceived than described, and we have said enough to exhibit the abomination of proceedings, which cannot fail to have a most pernicious influence upon society.

"But it may be said, the laws and regulations speak in favour of the oppressed. We have shown above, in what manner government have endeavoured, from time to time, to provide against such abuses, and to this we beg leave to refer; but where avarice is predominant, laws, reason, rights, humanity, all that is sacred, are too often compelled to yield. Besides, various obstacles conspire, which time and local circumstances have engendered, so that in spite of the most salutary statutes (which are indeed so far nominally in force) the evil cannot be effectually checked; and experience has taught us, that the most rigorous orders which government could devise, would be insufficient to make a due provision against the increase of these abuses.

"Those, whose fate we have now hastily drawn, are not always stolen by foreign nations at distant places. No: about and near the houses of our own inhabitants, in our kampongs, within our own town, it very often happens. A numerous gang of villains, known by the name of[Vol II Pg c] bondsmen (verpandeling), with a number of whom every slave-trader is careful to provide himself according to his means, are most useful instruments in procuring slaves in the easiest and cheapest way; and being instructed in all the arts of villainy, and eager for prey, they rove about in gangs during the night and at unseasonable hours, and if successful in overpowering some one, they carry the victim to their employer, or to any purchaser, and it is very seldom that any thing more is heard of it, than that such a one has lost his slave, or that such a native is missing. The stolen man, woman, or child, is already chained and shut up within the prison of some slave-trader, which is never visited. The slaves for foreign markets are always carried on board at night; and if a stolen person were either free-born, or the slave of an inhabitant, he dares not make himself known as long as he is in his ravisher's hands, for, in that case, they would kill him immediately, even were it before the door of the person who wanted to buy him, whilst the robbers would have no difficulty in getting out of the way, and beyond the reach of justice.

"Those who are trained to this business, whether bondsmen or slaves (for even amongst this latter class of people thieves of men are often found), are very fertile in all kinds of intrigues to accomplish their ends; for except casual victims, who sometimes fall by accident into their clutches, a considerable time will often elapse before they succeed in securing the object they have marked out for their prey, because the devoted creature is frequently on his guard; and as it cannot be done openly without great precaution, for he would certainly sacrifice his own or their lives to preserve his liberty; they, therefore, lie in wait for him a long time, endeavouring by indirect means to make acquaintance with him, in order to gain his confidence, and then, we will not say always, to conduct or allure him into the house of the slave-trader, or otherwise, as is sometimes the case, to lead him to a remote spot, or at least to some distance from his house, when he immediately finds himself attacked by two or three of these ruffians, who have long previously agreed with his pretended friends, and before he has time to put himself into a posture of defence, or to take hold of his krÍs, it is already wrested from him, and his hands are tied behind his back. To cry for help would be immediately fatal to him, he is therefore compelled to be quiet, and to suffer himself to be sold as a slave by the ruffians who had previously arranged where to carry him.

"Why such violations are so seldom made public, and thieves of men are so rarely detected, many sufficient reasons may be assigned. For instance: the profound secrecy of the prisons; the clandestine manner in which slaves for traffic are carried on board in the dark of the night; the sinister manner in which the purchase is transacted and confirmed; the facility with which the villains are able to escape, when after some time the theft becomes notorious; the difficulty of making satisfactory inquiry about a crime, of which but a few of the perpetrators and their accomplices are generally within the reach of justice, whilst the stolen[Vol II Pg ci] person is still more rarely present, so that it generally happens, in such a case, that the most guilty get off; the still greater uncommonness of offenders of this sort being caught in the very act, so as to fall at once into the hands of justice; and, finally, the secret protection which some native petty princes, living upon plunder, afford to their subjects. All these, and many other circumstances, combine to facilitate the practice of kidnapping, which thus goes on almost undisturbed, and generally unpunished!

"A rich citizen, who has a sufficient number of emissaries called bondsmen, carries on his trade much more easily than a poor one does. The latter is often obliged to go himself to the KÁmpong BÚgis or elsewhere, to take a view of the stolen victim and to carry him home; whilst the former quietly smokes his pipe, being sure that his thieves will, in every corner, find out for him sufficient game, without his exerting himself otherwise than indirectly. The thief, the seller, the interpreter, are all active in his service, because they are all paid by him. In some cases the purchaser unites himself with the seller, on purpose to deceive the interpreter; whilst, in other cases, the interpreter agrees with the thief and pretended seller, to put the stolen person into the hands of the purchaser! What precautions, what scrutiny, can then avail, when we reflect, that the profound secrecy of the prisons, and the strict precautions in carrying the slaves on board, are equalled only by the licentiousness with which the transports are fabricated?

"A distinction ought, however, to be made between such illegal and criminal practices, and a more moderate trade in slaves, many of whom, it is true, are stolen, but not in our vicinity, nor in the districts of the Company. The remainder are generally such as, according to the separate laws and customs of the native nations of Celebes, have in some way or other forfeited their liberty, either in war, or for some misdemeanour, or on account of debts. These are likewise higher in price, so that the trader cannot have so much gain upon them; they may also appear at broad daylight, an interpreter may with security answer for them. Such slaves can be brought on board very quietly in the day time; the frequency of murder, as in other cases, is not much to be dreaded, and our town has considerably less danger to apprehend from these than from the class before mentioned."

The report concludes by recommending specific measures, and expressing an opinion, that "it would not be inexpedient, if, but for one year, the exportation of slaves from hence were suspended."

In the following year, the residents received instructions from the high regency, in which several of their predecessors were accused of having "assumed a despotic sway over the natives, plundered those over whom they had been placed to protect them, and of having even dared, with the assistance of the native chiefs, whom they have found means to debauch, to put the natives in irons, and to sell them as slaves."

Mr. ChassÉ, when governor of MakÁsar, much to his honour, attempted to put a stop to manstealing in the neighbourhood of his residency. He[Vol II Pg cii] did not, however, succeed to any extent. When the British arrived, it appeared that numbers of plunderers were roaming about for the supply of the slave market, which was still open; so that the inhabitants of the villages adjacent to MakÁsar, never dared to approach, except in parties of at least five or six armed men. An equal caution prevailed throughout the country.

To enforce the British abolition laws, there was formed at Batavia, in the beginning of the year 1816, a society called the Java Benevolent Institution, and in the course of the year this society published an account of its proceedings, containing, among other interesting matter, "Remarks upon MakÁsar, &c. compiled from the information of Lieutenant Owen Phillips, assistant resident there." This paper concludes as follows:

"The laws recognized between the Dutch Company and the states of BÓni and GÚa may be considered a fair criterion of their general spirit and tendency. They were agreed to in an early period of the Dutch establishment, when Admiral Speelman concluded a treaty with those states, and they have not since undergone any material alterations. The penalties therein prescribed were required to be paid in money or property of any description, at the arbitrary rates fixed by the same laws, and which appear on the whole to be extremely favourable to the individual; debtors or convicted felons, in default of payment, becoming bondsmen. But the temptation to corruption afforded by an open market and an increased demand for slaves for traffic, introduced a practice of condemning, first to bondage, and then fabricating for three dollars a certificate of slavery; a practice which, although not recognized in the laws subsisting between the European and native powers, was yet generally known to prevail, and if not formally sanctioned, was openly tolerated under the former system.

"Whilst these laws are administered in the native states by their councils or bechÁras, the administration of justice in the Company's territories was vested in the Regent, under the superintendance of the Drost, but who has usurped the power of actually deciding, particularly in cases where he is interested in the condemnations, from the right which the judge enjoys, of a moiety of the property arising from the sale of persons condemned to slavery, or in the appropriation of a certain number of them to his own use! The abuses arising out of these unlawful usurpations appear to have attained a great height in 1799, when the commission was appointed to inquire into them; but (as in the case of restraints which had from time to time been imposed by law) that inquiry did little more than recognize the right of control over the actors and participators in such abuses; a right which could readily and profitably be compromised by men who, from habit, were actuated by little determined abhorrence of such crimes, and no steady resolution to eradicate them. To this cause alone must be attributed the difficulties stated by the commission to be opposed to the due execution of the laws, and to the suppression of the enormities that were generally practised; and although partial reforms were effected,[Vol II Pg ciii] according to the disposition and principles of the persons who presided successively in MakÁsar, the enormous gains to be derived from the toleration of corruption was a powerful obstacle to its removal: and it may be said of the abuses and enormities detailed by the commission in 1799, that although perpetuated with more or less aggravation, as the controuling authority was more or less conscientious and vigilant, no radical removal of them took place, nor were the suggestions of that commission carried into effect, except partially within the town of MakÁsar.

"On the establishment of the British government, the practice and mode of kidnapping within the town of MakÁsar had, in some degree, been restricted and ameliorated; but this did not extend to the country. Some limitations had therefore been imposed on the connivance and direct participation of the public functionaries; but bondsmen were still generally employed as man-stealers, and the practice of concealing in secret prisons, of assassinations to prevent detection, and of midnight embarkations, were but little controlled or inquired into, as may be sufficiently inferred from the laxity of the public tribunals, and the rare instances of any infractions of these laws being punished by them.

"The introduction of the prohibitory laws by the establishment of the British government, naturally operated to cause a sudden and complete suspension of the open traffic; and although individuals are still clandestinely carried from MakÁsar, the number is so small, that the utmost vigilance has hitherto been unable to convict the perpetrators, especially as the numerous gang of bondsmen and man-stealers, though compelled at present to resort to other avocations, are yet at the call of corrupt employers, and live in the hope that occasion may again offer of freely returning to their pursuits, without apprehension of any consequences. This truth will be more generally appreciated, if we explain the course through which these people are led to engage in the desperate trade of kidnapping. The bondsmen, who are thus employed by slave-traders, are generally dissolute adventurers from the native states, who repair to MakÁsar, perhaps, with a little property which they lose by gambling; their next resource is to borrow from some one of the numerous Dutch or Chinese speculators (slave-traders) a sum of money, and which is only to be had at the exorbitant interest of fifty per cent, or, as expressed in the local terms, 'one wang per month on the Spanish dollar.' A debt thus dissolutely contracted is not likely to be retrieved by patient industry. But were such a disposition to prevail, the opportunity is scarcely afforded, and the obligation is generally allowed to accumulate until the debtor is about to pay the price in his captivity. To retrieve himself from this dire alternative, he has recourse to the trade of kidnapping, and the ready employment he meets with, added to the sudden gains which he hopes to acquire, stimulate him to repair his fortunes in this irregular and desperate pursuit. Such are the bondsmen who are the active agents of slave traders in MakÁsar; and while the abolition has had the two[Vol II Pg civ]-fold effect of diminishing their numbers and of checking their depredations, it must be obvious that this salutary reform can only endure whilst the spirit which produced it is fostered. The commission in 1799 forcibly depicted the utter incompetency of the most rigid prohibitions, in restricting the barbarities which then prevailed: but there is yet a stronger fact, which bears equally upon the traffic, on whatever footing it might be re-admitted; it is, that the resources arising from what were considered legal condemnations to slavery, would be totally inadequate to supply the market under any probable limitations. As the demand increased, the more frequent condemnations on frivolous pretences would naturally ensue, if indeed such a practice in any degree could be considered legal: but the temptations to open violence arising from the numerous accessaries, and the direct or indirect participation of public functionaries, added to the comparative cheapness of stolen men, are such strong inducements to revive ancient abuses, under an actual demand, that no hope could be entertained of controuling them. On the other hand, the maintenance of the abolition laws, as they have hitherto tended to correct in a remarkable degree the monstrous practices which obtained, must, in their ultimate operation, effectually reform, not only the habits and dispositions of the inhabitants of MakÁsar, but check those frequent condemnations which, in the native states, may be chiefly imputed to the advantages that were generally made of them. To illustrate, in a familiar instance, the effect of this amelioration brought about by the silent operation of the prohibitory laws; on the first arrival of the English, the inhabitants of the adjacent villages did not dare to come to MakÁsar in parties of less than five or six men well armed. This was equally the case throughout the country, as there was an open sale for almost any number of people that could be stolen. The case, however, is now entirely altered, at least within the influence of the British authority. Men, women, and children, are now to be seen moving singly about the country in all directions, without fear and without arms. Formerly a man going on a hunting party, or a peasant to till his ground, went armed as if going to war; at the present day numbers of people may be seen in the paddy fields without a spear amongst them. I may add, that these effects are not confined to the Company's provinces, but are felt nearly throughout the states of GÚa, Telu, and TurÁta, where there can be no doubt that a few years would be sufficient to realize, under the present system, a great increase to population, and the more important introduction of commerce and civilisation.

"The principal pirate settlements are KÁli and TÚli TÚli, situated on the north-west coast. The depredations of these hordes are generally carried on between Java and the Straits of Saleyer; their haunts are the islands near Seleyer, also GÚnuny Api, and the isles at the entrance of the Bay of SembÁwa, and in general the small isles included between the coasts of Java to the west, Borneo to the north, and Celebes to the east." [Vol II Pg cv]

A COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY OF THE BUGIS, MAKASAR, MANDHAR, BÚTON, SÁSAK, BÍMA, SEMBÁWA, TEMBÓRA, AND ENDÉ LANGUAGES.

[299] See Comparative Vocabulary annexed, including the dialects of the south-west limb of Celebes, and some of the islands in its vicinity, on which Bugis settlements have been formed.