  [1] “How can a statement as to customs, myths, beliefs, &c., of a savage tribe, be treated as evidence, where it depends on the testimony of some traveller or missionary, who may be a superficial observer, more or less ignorant of the native language, a careless retailer of unsifted talk, a man prejudiced or even wilfully deceitful?”—Tylor’s Primitive Culture, Vol. I., p. 9. [2] Said of the bogies of the hills, in allusion to their clothes. Here quoted with reference to the official classes, in ridicule of the title under which they hold posts which, from a literary point of view, they are totally unfit to occupy. [3] A celebrated statesman (B.C. 314) who, having lost his master’s favour by the intrigues of a rival, finally drowned himself in despair. The Annual Dragon Festival is said by some to be a “search” for his body. [4] A poem addressed by San-lÜ to his Prince, after his disgrace. Its non-success was the immediate cause of his death. [5] That is, of the supernatural generally. [6] A poet of the T‘ang Dynasty whose eyebrows met, whose nails were very long, and who could write very fast. [7] “You know the music of earth,” said the Taoist sage, Chuang-tzu; “but you have not heard the music of heaven.” [8] That is, to the operation of some influence surviving from a previous existence. [9] This is another hit at the ruling classes. Chi K‘ang, a celebrated musician and alchemist (A.D. 223–262), was sitting one night alone, playing upon his lute, when suddenly a man with a tiny face walked in, and began to stare hard at him, the stranger’s face enlarging all the time. “I’m not going to match myself against a devil!” cried the musician, after a few moments, and instantly blew out the light. [10] When Liu ChÜan, Governor of Wu-ling, determined to relieve his poverty by trade, he saw a devil standing by his side, laughing and rubbing his hands for glee. “Poverty and wealth are matters of destiny,” said Liu ChÜan; “But to be laughed at by a devil——,” and accordingly he desisted from his intention. [11] A writer who flourished in the early part of the fourth century, and composed a work in thirty books entitled Supernatural Researches. [12] The famous poet, statesman, and essayist, who flourished A.D. 1036–1101. [13] “And his friends had the habit of jotting down for his unfailing delight anything quaint or comic that they came across.”—The World on Charles Dickens: 24th July 1878. [14] It is related in the Historical Record that when T‘ai Po and YÜ Chung visited the southern savages they saw men with tattooed bodies and short hair. [15] A fabulous community, placed by geographers to the west of the Dragon city—wherever that may be. So called because the heads of the men are in the habit of leaving their bodies, and flying down to marshy places to feed on worms and crabs. A red ring is seen the night before the flight encircling the neck of the man whose head is about to fly. At daylight the head returns. [16] A quotation from the admired works of Wang Po, a brilliant scholar and poet, who was drowned at the early age of twenty-eight, A.D. 675. [17] I have hitherto failed in all attempts to identify this quotation. [18] The cross-road of the “Five Fathers” is here mentioned, which the commentator tells us is merely the name of the place. [19] The past, present, and future life, of the Buddhist system of metempsychosis. [20] A certain man, who was staying at a temple, dreamt that an old priest appeared to him beneath a jade-stone cliff, and, pointing to a stick of burning incense, said to him, “That incense represents a vow to be fulfilled; but I say unto you, that ere its smoke shall have curled away, your three states of existence will have been already accomplished.” The meaning is that time on earth is as nothing to the Gods. [21] This remark occurs in the fifteenth of the Confucian Gospels, section 22. [22] The birth of a boy was formerly signalled by hanging a bow at the door; that of a girl, by displaying a small towel—indicative of the parts that each would hereafter play in the drama of life. [24] Literally, “ploughing with my pen.” [25] The patra or bowl, used by Buddhist mendicants, in imitation of the celebrated alms-dish of ShÂkyamuni Buddha. [26] Literally, “scratched my head,” as is often done by the Chinese in perplexity or doubt. [27] Alluding to the priest Dharma-nandi, who came from India to China, and tried to convert the Emperor Wu Ti of the Liang Dynasty; but, failing in his attempt, he retired full of mortification to a temple at Sung-shan, where he sat for nine years before a rock, until his own image was imprinted thereon. [28] The six gÂti or conditions of existence, namely: angels, men, demons, hungry devils, brute beasts, and tortured sinners. [29] Literally, “putting together the pieces under the forelegs (of foxes) to make robes.” This part of the fox-skin is the most valuable for making fur clothes. [30] The work of a well-known writer, named Lin I-ch‘ing, who flourished during the Sung Dynasty. [31] Alluding to an essay by Han Fei, a philosopher of the third century B.C., in which he laments the iniquity of the age in general, and the corruption of officials in particular. He finally committed suicide in prison, where he had been cast by the intrigues of a rival minister. [32] Confucius (Gospel xiv., sec. 37) said, “Alas! there is no one who knows me (to be what I am).” [33] The great poet Tu Fu (A.D. 712–770) dreamt that his greater predecessor, Li T‘ai-po (A.D. 699–762) appeared to him, “coming when the maple-grove was in darkness, and returning while the frontier-pass was still obscured;”—that is, at night, when no one could see him; the meaning being that he never came at all, and that those “who know me (P‘u Sung-ling)” are equally non-existent. [34] “Thus, since countless things exist that the senses can take account of, it is evident that nothing exists that the senses can not take account of.”—The “Professor” in W. H. Mallock’s New Paul and Virginia. This passage recalls another curious classification by the great Chinese philosopher Han WÊn-kung. “There are some things which possess form but are devoid of sound, as for instance jade and stones; others have sound but are without form, such as wind and thunder; others again have both form and sound, such as men and animals; and lastly, there is a class devoid of both, namely, devils and spirits.” [35] I have never seen any of these works, but I believe they treat, as implied by their titles, chiefly of the supernatural world. [36] The tutelar deity of every Chinese city. [37] That is, he had taken the first or bachelor’s degree. I shall not hesitate to use strictly English equivalents for all kinds of Chinese terms. The three degrees are literally, (1) Cultivated Talent, (2) Raised Man, and (3) Promoted Scholar. [38] The official residence of a mandarin above a certain rank. [39] The Chinese Mars. A celebrated warrior, named Kuan YÜ, who lived about the beginning of the third century of our era. He was raised after death to the rank of a God, and now plays a leading part in the Chinese Pantheon. [40] Catalepsy, which is the explanation of many a story in this collection, would appear to be of very common occurrence amongst the Chinese. Such, however, is not the case; in which statement I am borne out by my friend, Dr. Manson, of Amoy, who, after many years’ practice among the natives of that port, and also of Formosa, informs me that he has never even heard of a single instance of this strange complaint. [41] One of the twenty-four solar terms. It falls on or about the 5th of April, and is the special time for worshipping at the family tombs. [42] The common European name for the only Chinese coin, about twenty of which go to a penny. Each has a square hole in the middle, for the convenience of stringing them together; hence the expression “strings of cash.” [43] The belief that the human eye contains a tiny being of the human shape is universal in China. It originated, of course, from the reflection of oneself that is seen on looking into the pupil of anybody’s eye, or even, with the aid of a mirror, into one’s own. [44] Which will doubtless remind the reader of Alice through the Looking-glass, and what she saw there. [45] The all-important item of a Chinese marriage ceremony; amounting, in fact, to calling God to witness the contract. [46] That is, of the religion of Tao, or, as it is sometimes called, Rationalism. It was founded some six centuries before the Christian era by a man named Lao-tzu, “Old boy,” who was said to have been born with white hair and a beard. Originally a pure system of metaphysics, it is now but a shadow of its former self, and is corrupted by the grossest forms of superstition borrowed from Buddhism, which has in its turn adopted many of the forms and beliefs of Taoism, so that the two religions are hardly distinguishable one from the other. “What seemed to me the most singular circumstance connected with the matter, was the presence of half-a-dozen Taoist priests, who joined in all the ceremonies, doing everything that the Buddhist priests did, and presenting a very Taoist priests are credited with a knowledge of alchemy and the black art in general. [47] A celibate priesthood belongs properly to Buddhism, and is not a doctrine of the Taoist church. [48] The “angels” of Taoism—immortality in a happy land being the reward held out for a life on earth in accordance with the doctrines of Tao, for which, as Mr. Chalmers says, “three terms suggest themselves—the Way, Reason, and the Word; but they are all liable to objection.” Taoist priests are believed by some to possess an elixir of immortality in the form of a precious liquor; others again hold that the elixir consists solely in a virtuous conduct of life. [49] The beautiful wife of a legendary chieftain, named Hou I, who flourished about 2,500 B.C. She is said to have stolen from her husband the elixir of immortality, and to have fled with it to the moon. [50] The name of a celebrated pas seul of antiquity. [51] This form of sport may still be seen in the north of China. A hare being started, two Chinese greyhounds (which are very slow) are slipped from their leash in pursuit. But, as the hare would easily run straight away from them, a falcon is released almost simultaneously. The latter soars to a considerable height, and then swoops down on the hare, striking it a violent blow with the “pounce,” or claw. This partially stuns the hare, and allows the dogs to regain lost ground, by which time the hare is ready once more, and off they go again. The chase is ended by the hare getting to earth in a fox’s burrow, or being ultimately overtaken by the dogs. In the latter case the heart and liver are cut out on the spot, and given to the falcon; otherwise he would hunt no more that day. Two falcons are often released, one shortly after the other. They wear hoods, which are removed at the moment of flying, and are attached by a slip-string from one leg to the falconer’s wrist. During the night previous to a day’s hunting, they are not allowed to sleep. Each falconer lies down with one falcon on his left wrist, and keeps up an incessant tapping with the other on the bird’s head. This is done to make them fierce. Should the quarry escape, a hare’s skin is thrown down, by which means the falcons are secured, and made ready for a further flight. Occasionally, but rarely, the falcon misses its blow at the hare, with the result of a broken or injured “arm.” [52] Abstinence from wine and meat, and celibacy, are among the most important dogmas of the Buddhist church, as specially applied to its priesthood. At the door of every Buddhist monastery may be seen a notice that “No wine or meat may enter here!” Even the laity are not supposed to drink wine. [53] Having renewed his youth by assuming the body of the young man into which his soul had entered. [54] One of the “Six Boards” at the capital, equivalent to our own War Office, Board of Works, etc. [55] The Chinese names for two stars: ? Aquila and a Lyra. [56] Lanterns very prettily made to resemble all kinds of flowers are to be seen at the Chinese New Year. [57] This is, as with us, obligatory on all friends invited to a marriage. [58] The accompaniment of all weddings and funerals in China. [59] The soberest people in the world, amongst whom anything like sottishness is comparatively unknown, think it no disgrace, but rather complimentary, to get pleasantly tipsy on all festive occasions; and people who are physically unable to do so, frequently go so far as to hire substitutes to drink for them. Mandarins especially suffer very much from the custom of being obliged to “take wine” with a large number of guests. For further on this subject, see No. LIV., note 292. [60] The wedding-party was, of course, composed entirely of foxes; this animal being believed by the Chinese to be capable of appearing at will under the human form, and of doing either good or evil to its friends or foes. These facts will be prominently brought out in several of the stories to follow. [61] Lineal descendants of Confucius are to be found at this day near their founder’s mausoleum in Shantung. The head of the family is a hereditary kung or “duke,” and each member enjoys a share of the revenues with which the family has been endowed, in well-merited recognition of the undying influence of China’s greatest sage. [62] More or less proficiency in the art of poetry is an absolutely essential qualification for all who present themselves at the great competitive tests by which successful candidates are admitted to Chinese official life. [See Appendix A.] The following anecdote is given by the London correspondent of the Leeds Mercury:— “The new Chinese ambassador in this country is a man of considerable literary ability, and perhaps one of the few diplomatists since the days of Matthew Prior (Lord Lytton alone excepted) who has achieved distinction as a poet. Shortly after his arrival in this country, he expressed a wish to become acquainted with the principal English poets, and as Mr. Browning is more accessible and more a man of the world than the Poet Laureate, an arrangement was made the other day by which the two should be brought in contact with one another. After the mutual courtesies, Mr. Browning having learnt that His Excellency was also a poet, expressed a desire to know how much he had published. “Only three or four volumes,” was the reply, through the interpreter. “Then,” said Mr. Browning, “I am a greater offender than His Excellency, and unequal to him in self-restraint. What kind of poetry does His Excellency write: pastoral, humorous, epic or what?” There was a pause for a short time. At length the interpreter said that His Excellency thought his poetry would be better described as the “enigmatic.” “Surely,” replied Mr. Browning, “there ought then to be the deepest sympathy between us, for that is just the criticism which is brought against my own works; and I believe it to be a just one.”” [63] One of the two celebrated but legendary rulers of China in the golden ages of antiquity. Yao—who died B.C. 2258—nominated as his successor a young and virtuous husbandman named Shun, giving him both his daughters in marriage. At the death of Shun, these ladies are said to have wept so much that their tears literally drenched the bamboos which grew beside their husband’s grave; and the speckled bamboo is now commonly known as the bamboo of Shun’s wives. [64] Volumes have been written by Chinese doctors on the subject of the pulse. They profess to distinguish as many as twenty-four different kinds, among which is one well known to our own practitioners—namely, the “thready” pulse; they, moreover, make a point of feeling the pulses of both wrists. [65] The Chinese believe that wicked people are struck by the God of Thunder, and killed in punishment for some hidden crime. They regard lightning merely as an arrangement by which the God is enabled to see his victim. [66] Chinese “chess” is similar to, but not identical with, our game. The board is divided by a river, and the king is confined to a small square of moves on his own territory. The game par excellence in China is wei-ch‘i, an account of which I contributed to the Temple Bar Magazine for January, 1877. [67] The last emperor of the Ming dynasty. Began to reign A.D. 1628. [68] The trade of fortune-teller is one of the most flourishing in China. A large majority of the candidates who are unsuccessful at the public examinations devote their energies in this direction; and in every Chinese city there are regular establishments whither the superstitious people repair to consult the oracle on every imaginable subject; not to mention hosts of itinerant soothsayers, both in town and country, whose stock-in-trade consists of a trestle-table, pen, ink, and paper, and a few other mysterious implements of their art. The nature of the response, favourable or otherwise, is determined by an inspection of the year, month, day and hour at which the applicant was born, taken in combination with other particulars referring to the question at issue. [69] A firm belief in predestination is an important characteristic of the Chinese mind. “All is destiny” is a phrase daily in the mouth of every man, woman, and child, in the empire. Confucius himself, we are told, objected to discourse to his disciples upon this topic; but it is evident from many passages in the Lun YÜ, or Confucian Gospels, [Book VI. ch. 8., Book XIV. ch. 38, &c.] that he believed in a certain pre-arrangement of human affairs, against which all efforts would be unavailing. [70] An appliance of very ancient date in China, now superseded by cheap clocks and watches. A large clepsydra, consisting of four copper jars standing on steps one above the other, is still, however, to be seen in the city of Canton, and is in excellent working order, the night-watches being determined by reference to its indicator in the lower jar. By its aid, coils of “joss-stick,” or pastille, are regulated to burn so many hours, and are sold to the poor, who use them both for the purpose of guiding their extremely vague notions of time, and for the oft-recurring tobacco-pipe. [71] “Paper men” are a source of great dread to the people at large. During the year 1876 whole provinces were convulsed by the belief that some such superstitious agency was at work to deprive innocent persons of their tails; and the so-called “Pope” of the Taoist religion even went so far as to publish a charm against the machinations of the unseen. It ran as follows:—“Ye who urge filthy devils to spy out the people!—the Master’s spirits are at hand and will soon discover you. With this charm anyone may travel by sunlight, moonlight, or starlight all over the earth.” At one time popular excitement ran so high that serious consequences were anticipated; and the mandarins in the affected districts found it quite as much as they could do to prevent lynch-law being carried out on harmless strangers who were unlucky enough to give rise to the slightest suspicion. Taoist priests are generally credited with the power of cutting out human, animal, or other figures, of infusing vitality into them on the spot, and of employing them for purposes of good or evil. [72] Watchmen in China, when on their nightly rounds, keep up an incessant beating on what, for want of a better term, we have called a wooden gong. The object is to let thieves know they are awake and on the look-out. [73] This is a characteristic touch. Only the most intimate of friends ever see each other’s wives. [74] Where the women of the family live, and into which no stranger ever penetrates. Among other names by which a Chinese husband speaks of his wife, a very common one is “the inner [wo]man.” [75] Until which he would be safe, by virtue of his degree, from the degrading penalty of the bamboo. [76] This is the instrument commonly used for flogging criminals in China, and consists of a strip of split bamboo planed down smooth. Strictly speaking there are two kinds, the heavy and the light; the former is now hardly if ever used. Until the reign of K‘ang Hsi all strokes were given across the back; but that humane Emperor removed the locus operandi lower down, “for fear of injuring the liver or the lungs.” [78] It is a principle of Chinese jurisprudence that no sentence can be passed until the prisoner has confessed his guilt—a principle, however, not unfrequently set aside in practice. [79] Wooden frames covered with a semi-transparent paper are used all over the northern provinces of China; in the south, oyster-shells, cut square and planed down thin, are inserted tile-fashion in the long narrow spaces of a wooden frame made to receive them, and used for the same purpose. But glass is gradually finding its way into the houses of the well-to-do, large quantities being made at Canton and exported to various parts of the empire. [80] Every Taoist priest has a magic sword, corresponding to our “magician’s wand.” [81] In China, a man has the right to slay his adulterous wife, but he must slay her paramour also; both or neither. Otherwise, he lays himself open to a prosecution for murder. The act completed, he is further bound to proceed at once to the magistrate of the district and report what he has done. [82] The importance of male offspring in Chinese social life is hardly to be expressed in words. To the son is confided the task of worshipping at the ancestral tombs, the care of the ancestral tablets, and the due performance of all rites and ceremonies connected with the departed dead. No Chinaman will die, if he can help it, without leaving a son behind him. If his wife is childless he will buy a concubine; and we are told on page 41, vol. xiii., of the Liao Chai, that a good wife, “who at thirty years of age has not borne a child should forthwith pawn her jewellery and purchase a concubine for her husband; for to be without a son is hard indeed!” Another and a common resource is to adopt a nephew; and sometimes a boy is bought from starving parents, or from a professional kidnapper. Should a little boy die, no matter how young, his parents do not permit even him to be without the good offices of a son. They adopt some other child on his behalf; and when the latter grows up it becomes his duty to perform the proper ceremonies at his baby father’s tomb. Girls do not enjoy the luxury of this sham posterity. They are quietly buried in a hole near the family vault, and their disembodied spirits are left to wander about in the realms below uncared for and unappeased. Every mother, however, shares in the ancestral worship, and her name is recorded on the tombstone, side by side with that of her husband. Hence it is that Chinese tombstones are always to the memory either of a father or of a mother, or of both, with occasionally the addition of the grandfather and grandmother, and sometimes even that of the generation preceding. [83] The belief that a knowledge of alchemy is obtainable by leading the life of a pure and perfect Taoist, is one of the numerous additions in later ages to this ancient form of religion. See No. IV., note 46. [84] The direct issue of the Emperors of the present dynasty and their descendants in the male line for ever are entitled to wear a yellow girdle in token of their relationship to the Imperial family, each generation becoming a degree lower in rank, but always retaining this distinctive badge. Members of the collateral branches wear a red girdle, and are commonly known as gioros. With the lapse of two hundred and fifty years, the wearers of these badges have become numerous, and in many cases disreputable; and they are now to be found even among the lowest dregs of Chinese social life. [85] Quail fighting is not so common now in China as it appears to have been formerly. Cricket-fighting is, however, a very favourite form of gambling, large quantities of these insects being caught every year for this purpose, and considerable sums frequently staked on the result of a contest between two champions. [86] Impeded, of course, by her small feet. This practice is said to have originated about A.D. 970, with Yao Niang, the concubine of the pretender Li YÜ, who wished to make her feet like the “new moon.” The Manchu or Tartar ladies have not adopted this custom, and therefore the empresses of modern times have feet of the natural size; neither is it in force among the Hakkas or hill-tribes of China and Formosa. The practice was forbidden in 1664 by the Manchu Emperor, K‘ang Hsi; but popular feeling was so strong on the subject that four years afterwards the prohibition was withdrawn. Protestant missionaries are now making a dead set at this shameful custom, but so far with very indifferent success; as parents who do not cramp the feet of their daughters would experience no small difficulty in finding husbands for them when they grow up. Besides, the gait of a young lady hobbling along, as we should say, seems to be much admired by the other sex. The following seven reasons why this custom still keeps its hold upon the Chinese mind emanate from a native convert:— “1st.—If a girl’s feet are not bound, people say she is not like a woman but like a man; they laugh at her, calling her names, and her parents are ashamed of her. “2nd.—Girls are like flowers, like the willow. It is very important that their feet should be bound short so that they can walk beautifully, with mincing steps, swaying gracefully, thus showing they are persons of respectability. People praise them. If not bound short, they say the mother has not trained her daughter carefully. She goes from house to house with noisy steps, and is called names. Therefore careful persons bind short. “3rd.—One of a good family does not wish to marry a woman with long feet. She is commiserated because her feet are not perfect. If betrothed, and the size of her feet is not discovered till after marriage, her husband and mother-in-law are displeased, her sisters-in-law laugh at her, and she herself is sad. “4th.—The large footed has to do rough work, does not sit in a sedan when she goes out, walks in the streets barefooted, has no red clothes, does not eat the best food. She is wetted by the rain, tanned by the sun, blown upon by the wind. If unwilling to do all the rough work of the house she is called ‘gormandizing and lazy.’ Perhaps she decides to go out as a servant. She has no fame and honour. To escape all this her parents bind her feet. “5th.—There are those with unbound feet who do no heavy work, wear gay clothing, ride in a sedan, call others to wait upon them. Although so fine they are low and mean. If a girl’s feet are unbound, she cannot be distinguished from one of these. “6th.—Girls are like gold, like gems. They ought to stay in their own house. If their feet are not bound they go here and go there with unfitting associates; they have no good name. They are like defective gems that are rejected. “7th.—Parents are covetous. They think small feet are pleasing and will command a high price for a bride.”—On Foot-Binding, by Miss S. Woolston. [87] The disembodied spirits of the Chinese Inferno are permitted, under certain conditions of time and good conduct, to appropriate to themselves the vitality of some human being, who, as it were, exchanges places with the so-called “devil.” The devil does not, however, reappear as the mortal whose life it has become possessed of, but is merely born again into the world; the idea being that the amount of life on earth is a constant quantity, and cannot be increased or diminished, reminding one in a way of the great modern doctrine of the conservation of energy. This curious belief has an important bearing that will be brought out in a subsequent story. [88] Here again is a Taoist priest quoting the Buddhist commandment, “Thou shalt not take life.” The Buddhist laity in China, who do not hesitate to take life for the purposes of food, salve their consciences from time to time by buying birds, fishes, &c., and letting them go, in the hope that such acts will be set down on the credit side of their record of good and evil. [89] This recalls the celebrated story of the fisherman in the Arabian Nights. [90] Hu is the sound of the character for “fox;” it is also the sound of quite a different character, which is used as a surname. [91] The name of the Chinese type was Ch‘Ên P‘ing. See Mayer’s Reader’s Manual, No. 102. [92] At the date at which we are writing skill in archery is still de rigueur for all Manchus, and for those who would rise in the Chinese army. Only the other day the progressive Governor-General of the Two Kiang, ShÊn Pao-chÊn, memorialised the Throne with a view to the abandonment of this effete and useless form of military drill, and received a direct snub for his pains. Two hundred odd years ago, when the Manchus were establishing their power, the dexterity of their bowmen doubtless stood them in good stead; though if we are to judge of their skill then by the ordinary practice of to-day, as seen on any Chinese parade-ground, they could never have been more than very third-rate archers after all. [93] Every Chinese man and woman inherits a family name or surname. A woman takes her husband’s surname, followed in official documents by her maiden name. Children usually have a pet name given to them soon after birth, which is dropped after a few years. Then there is the ming or name, which once given is unchangeable, and by which the various members of a family are distinguished. But only the father and mother and certain other relatives are allowed to use this. Friends call each other by their literary designations or “book-names,” which are given generally by the teacher to whom the boy’s education is first entrusted. Brothers and sisters and others have all kinds of nick-names as with us. Dogs and cats are called by such names as “Blackey,” “Whitey,” “Yellowy,” “Jewel,” “Pearly,” &c., &c. Junks are christened “Large Profits,” “Abounding Wealth,” “Favourite of Fortune,” &c., &c. Places are often named after some striking geographical feature; e.g., Hankow—“mouth of the Han river,” i.e., its point of junction with the Yang-tsze; or they have fancy names, such as Fuhkien—“happily established;” Tientsin—“Heaven’s ford;” or names implying a special distinction, such as Nanking—“southern capital;” Shan-tung—“east of the mountains,” &c. [94] The name given by foreigners in China to the imitation of the ten torture-chambers of purgatory, as seen in every Ch‘Êng-huang or municipal temple. The various figures of the devil-lictors and the tortured sinners are made either of clay or wood, and painted in very bright colours; and in each chamber is depicted some specimen of the horrible tortures that wicked people will undergo in the world to come. I have given in the Appendix a translation of the “YÜ-li-ch‘ao,” a celebrated Taoist work on this subject, which should at any rate be glanced at by persons who would understand the drift of some of these stories. [95] To heat the wine, which is almost invariably taken hot. [96] In token of their mutual good feeling. [97] The Chinese as a nation believe to this day that the heart is the seat of the intellect and the emotions. [98] The heart itself is supposed to be pierced by a number of “eyes,” which pass right through; and in physical and mental health these passages are believed to be clear. [100] The Hsi-yÜan-lu, a well-known work on Chinese medical jurisprudence, and an officially-authorised book, while giving an absurd antidote against a poison that never existed [see my Chinese Sketches, p. 190], gravely insists that it is to be prepared at certain dates only, “in some place quite away from women, fowls, and dogs.” [101] It was almost a wonder that she got a second fiancÉ, few people caring to affiance their sons in a family where such a catastrophe has once occurred. The death of an engaged girl is a matter of much less importance, but is productive of a very curious ceremony. Her betrothed goes to the house where she is lying dead and steps over the coffin containing her body, returning home with a pair of the girl’s shoes. He thus severs all connection with her, and her spirit cannot haunt him as it otherwise most certainly would. [102] Held annually on the 15th of the first Chinese month—i.e., at the first full moon of the year, when coloured lanterns are hung at every door. It was originally a ceremonial worship in the temple of the First Cause, and dates from about the time of the Han dynasty, or nearly two thousand years ago. [103] It was John Stuart Mill who pointed out that the fear of death is due to “the illusion of imagination, which makes one conceive oneself as if one were alive and feeling oneself dead” (The Utility of Religion). [104] “Boards of old age” and “Clothes of old age sold here” are common shop-signs in every Chinese city; death and burial being always, if possible, spoken of euphemistically in some such terms as these. A dutiful son provides, when he can afford it, decent coffins for his father and mother. They are generally stored in the house, sometimes in a neighbouring temple; and the old people take pleasure in seeing that their funeral obsequies are properly provided for, though the subject is never raised in conversation. Chinese coffins are beautifully made; and when the body has been in for a day or two, a candle is closely applied to the seams all round to make sure it is air-tight,—any crack, however fine, being easily detected by the flickering of the flame in the escaping gas. Thus bodies may be kept unburied for a long time, until the geomancer has selected an auspicious site for the grave. [105] Gongs, red umbrellas, men carrying boards on which the officer’s titles are inscribed in large characters, a huge wooden fan, &c., &c. [106] “Be like a cash” [see No. II., note 42] is a not uncommon saying among the Chinese, the explanation of which rests upon the fact that a cash is “round in shape and convenient for use,” which words are pronounced identically with a corresponding number of words meaning “round in disposition, square in action.” It is, in fact, a play on words. [107] Sickness being supposed to result from evil influences, witchcraft, &c., just as often as from more natural causes. [108] The rule which guides betrothals in China is that “the doors should be opposite”—i.e., that the families of the bride and bridegroom should be of equal position in the social scale. Any unpleasantness about the value of the marriage presents, and so on, is thereby avoided. [109] [110] A very unjustifiable proceeding in Chinese eyes, unless driven to it by actual poverty. [111] The Chinese years are distinguished by the names of twelve animals—namely, rat, ox, tiger, hare, dragon, serpent, horse, sheep, monkey, cock, dog, and boar. To the common question, “What is your honourable age?” the reply is frequently, “I was born under the ——;” and the hearer by a short mental calculation can tell at once how old the speaker is, granting, of course, the impossibility of making an error of so much as twelve years. [112] Parents in China like to get their sons married as early as possible, in the hope of seeing themselves surrounded by grandsons, and the family name in no danger of extinction. Girls are generally married at from fifteen to seventeen. [113] This scene should for ever disabuse people of the notion that there is no such thing as “making love” among the Chinese. That the passion is just as much a disease in China as it is with us will be abundantly evident from several subsequent stories; though by those who have lived and mixed with the Chinese people, no such confirmation will be needed. I have even heard it gravely asserted by an educated native that not a few of his countrymen had “died for love” of the beautiful Miss Lin, the charming but fictitious heroine of The Dream of the Red Chamber. Play-goers can here hardly fail to notice a very striking similarity to the close of the first act of Mr. W. S. Gilbert’s “Sweethearts.” [114] The semi-divine head of the Taoist religion, sometimes called the Master of Heaven. In his body is supposed to reside the soul of a celebrated Taoist, an ancestor of his, who actually discovered the elixir of life and became an immortal some eighteen hundred years ago. At death, the precious soul above-mentioned will take up its abode in the body of some youthful member of the family to be hereinafter revealed. Meanwhile, the present Pope makes a very respectable income from the sale of charms, by working miracles, and so forth; and only about two years ago he visited Shanghai, where he was interviewed by several foreigners. [115] Disembodied spirits are supposed to have no shadow, and but very little appetite. There are also certain occasions on which they cannot stand the smell of sulphur. Fiske, in his Myths and Myth-makers (page 230) says, “Almost universally, ghosts, however impervious to thrust of sword or shot of pistol, can eat and drink like Squire Westerns.” [117] The Mu-hsiang or Costus amarus. [118] Strictly in accordance with Chinese criminal law. [119] These disembodied spirits are unable to stand for any length of time the light and life of this upper world, darkness and death being as it were necessary to their existence and comfort. [120] The day before the annual spring festival. [122] Which, well cooked, are a very good substitute for asparagus. [124] Such as are from time to time bestowed upon virtuous widows and wives, filial sons and daughters, and others. These consist of some laudatory scroll or tablet, and are much prized by the family of the recipient. [126] Probably the Illicium religiosum is meant. [128] The common application of the term “same-year-men,” is to persons who have graduated at the same time. [129] This is by no means an uncommon form of charity. During the temporary distress at Canton, in the summer of 1877, large tubs of gruel were to be seen standing at convenient points, ready for any poor person who might wish to stay his hunger. It is thus, and by similar acts of benevolence, such as building bridges, repairing roads, etc., etc., that the wealthy Chinaman strives to maintain an advantageous balance in his record of good and evil. [130] It may be necessary here to remind the reader that Chan’s spirit is speaking from Chu’s body. [131] We shall come by and by to a story illustrative of this extraordinary belief. [132] The summum bonum of many a Chinese woman. [133] Chinese silver, called sycee (from the Cantonese sai see “fine silk;” because, if pure, it may be drawn out under the application of heat into fine silk threads), is cast in the form of “shoes,” weighing from one to one hundred ounces. Paper imitations of these are burnt for the use of the spirits in the world below. The sharp edges of a “shoe” of sycee are caused by the mould containing the molten silver being gently shaken until the metal has set, with a view to secure uniform fineness throughout the lump. [134] Death is regarded as a summons from the authorities of Purgatory; lictors are sent to arrest the doomed man, armed with a written warrant similar to those issued on earth from a magistrate’s yamÊn. [135] The Milky Way is known to the Chinese under this name—unquestionably a more poetical one than our own. [138] Predestination after the event is, luckily for China, the form of this superstition which really appeals to her all-practical children. Not a larger percentage than with ourselves allow belief in an irremediable destiny to divert their efforts one moment from the object in view; though thousands upon thousands are ready enough to acknowledge the “will of heaven” in any national or individual calamities that may befall. See No. IX., note 69. [139] Any disembodied spirit whose conduct for a certain term of years is quite satisfactory is competent to obtain this reward. Thus, instead of being born again on earth, perhaps as an animal, they become angels or good spirits, and live for ever in heaven in a state of supreme beatitude. [140] Our author occasionally ends up with a remark of this kind; and these have undoubtedly had their weight with his too credulous countrymen. [141] A.D. 1682. [142] The usual occupation of poor scholars who are ashamed to go into trade, and who have not enterprise enough to start as doctors or fortune-tellers. Besides painting pictures and fans, and illustrating books, these men write fancy scrolls in the various ornamental styles so much prized by the Chinese; they keep accounts for people, and write or read business and private letters for the illiterate masses. [143] Kuan Chung and Pao Shu are the Chinese types of friendship. They were two statesmen of considerable ability, who flourished in the seventh century B.C. [145] The term constantly employed by Confucius to denote the man of perfect probity, learning, and refinement. The nearest, if not an exact, translation would be “gentleman.” [146] Literally, “a young lady whose beauty would overthrow a kingdom,” in allusion to an old story which it is not necessary to reproduce here. [149] Miss Lien-hsiang was here speaking without book, as will be seen in a story later on. [150] The female principle. In a properly-constituted human being the male and female principles are harmoniously combined. Nothing short of a small volume would place this subject, the basis of Chinese metaphysics, in a clear light before the uninitiated reader. Broadly speaking, the yin and the yang are the two primeval forces from the interaction of which all things have been evolved. “Ber.—It was about to speak, when the cock crew. Hor.—And then it started like a guilty thing Upon a fearful summons. I have heard, The cock, that is the trumpet to the morn, Doth with his lofty and shrill-sounding throat Awake the God of Day; and, at his warning, Whether in sea or fire, in earth or air, The extravagant and erring spirit hies To his confine.” Hamlet. [152] “From time immemorial, the Chinese have employed a combination of two sets of characters, numbering ten and twelve respectively, to form a cycle of sixty terms for the purpose of chronological notation. The period at which this cycle was invented is a subject upon which complete uncertainty prevails, but there is little doubt that it first came into use as a method of reckoning years after the reform of the calendar in B.C. 104.”—Mayers’ Reader’s Manual. The birthday on which any person completes his cycle is considered a very auspicious occasion. The second emperor of the present dynasty, K‘ang Hsi, completed a cycle in his reign, with one year to spare; and his grandson, Ch‘ien Lung (or Kien Lung) fell short of this only by a single year, dying in the same cyclical period as that in which he had ascended the throne. [153] Bride and bridegroom drink wine together out of two cups joined by a red string, typical of that imaginary bond which is believed to unite the destinies of husband and wife long before they have set eyes on each other. Popular tradition assigns to an old man who lives in the moon the arrangement of all matches among mortals; hence the common Chinese expression, “Marriages are made in the moon.” [154] The bill of sale always handed to the purchaser of a child in China, as a proof that the child is his bon fide property and has not been kidnapped, is by a pleasant fiction called a “deed of gift,” the amount paid over to the seller being therein denominated “ginger and vinegar money,” or compensation for the expense of rearing and educating up to the date of sale. This phrase originates from the fact that a dose of ginger and vinegar is administered to every Chinese woman immediately after the delivery of her child. We may here add that the value of male children to those who have no heirs, and of female children to those who want servants, has fostered a regular kidnapping trade, which is carried on with great activity in some parts of China, albeit the penalty on discovery is instant decapitation. Some years ago I was present in the streets of Tientsin when a kidnapper was seized by the infuriated mob, and within two hours I heard that the man had been summarily executed. [155] The power of recalling events which have occurred in a previous life will be enlarged upon in several stories to come. [156] There is nothing in China like an aristocracy of birth. Any man may raise himself from the lowest level to the highest; and as long as he and his family keep themselves there, they may be considered aristocratic. Wealth has nothing to do with the question; official rank and literary tastes, separate or combined, these constitute a man’s title to the esteem of his fellows. Trade is looked upon as ignoble and debasing; and friendly intercourse between merchants and officials, the two great social divisions, is so rare as to be almost unknown. [157] The medium, without whose good offices no marriage can be arranged. Generally, but not always, a woman. This system of go-betweens is not confined to matrimonial engagements. No servant ever offers himself for a place; he invariably employs some one to introduce him. So also in mercantile transactions the broker almost invariably appears upon the scene. [159] The so-called “golden lilies” always come in for a large share of criticism. See No. XII., note 86. This term originated with an emperor who reigned in the fifth century, when, in ecstasies at the graceful dancing of a concubine upon a stage ornamented with lilies, he cried out, “Every footstep makes a lily grow.” [160] A common custom; e.g. in the case of a little child lying dangerously ill, its mother will go outside the door into the garden or field, and call out its name several times, in the hope of bringing back the wandering spirit. [161] This process must be regularly gone through night and morning, otherwise the bandages become loose, and the gait of the walker unsteady. [162] I have explained before that any great disparity of means is considered an obstacle to a matrimonial alliance between two families. [163] This is a not unusual arrangement in cases where there are other sons in the bridegroom’s family, but none in that of the bride’s, especially if the advantage of wealth is on the side of the latter. [164] Such is the Chinese rule, adopted simply with a view to the preservation of harmony. [165] They are supposed never to see each other before the wedding-day; but, after careful investigation of the subject, I have come to the conclusion that certainly in seven cases out of ten, the intended bridegroom secretly procures a sight of his future wife. I am now speaking of the higher classes; among the poor, both sexes mix almost as freely as with us. [166] This would still be considered a creditable act on the part of a Chinese widow. It is, however, of exceedingly rare occurrence. [167] Being nearly dead from hanging. [168] This is occasionally done, great influence or a heavy bribe being brought to bear upon the Examiners, of whom there are only two for the Master’s degree, and the second of these, or Assistant-Examiner, holds but a subordinate position. See Appendix A, and No. LXXV., note 71. [169] Admission to the Han-lin, or Chinese National Academy, is the highest honour obtainable by a scholar. Its members are employed in drawing up Government documents, histories, etc. [170] Besides the numerous secret societies so much dreaded by the Government, membership of which is punishable by death, very intimate friends are in the habit of adopting each other as sworn brothers, bound to stand by one another in cases of danger and difficulty, to the last drop of blood. The bond is cemented by an oath, accompanied by such ceremonies as fancy may at the moment dictate. The most curious of all, however, are the so-called “Golden Orchid” societies, the members of which are young girls, who have sworn never to enter into the matrimonial state. To such an extent have these sisterhoods spread in the Kuang-tung Province, that the authorities have been compelled to prohibit them under severe penalties. [171] A Chinaman loves to be buried alongside of his ancestors, and poor families are often put to great straits to pay this last tribute of respect and affection to the deceased. At all large cities are to be found temporary burial grounds, where the bodies of strangers are deposited until their relatives can come to carry them away. Large freights of dead bodies are annually brought back to China from California, Queensland, and other parts to which the Chinese are in the habit of emigrating, to the great profit of the steamer-companies concerned. Coffins are also used as a means of smuggling, respect for the dead being so great that they are only opened under the very strongest suspicion. [172] See No. XIV., note 104. The price of an elaborate Chinese coffin goes as high as £100 or £150. [173] The never-failing resource of an impecunious Chinaman who has any property whatever bearing an exchange value. The pawn-shop proper is a licensed institution, where three per cent. per month is charged on all loans, all pledges being redeemable within sixteen months. It is generally a very high brick structure, towering far above the surrounding houses, with the deposits neatly packed up in paper and arranged on the shelves of a huge wooden skeleton-like frame, that completely fills the interior of the building, on the top of which are ranged buckets of water in case of fire, and a quantity of huge stones to throw down on any thieves who may be daring enough to attempt to scale the wall. [In Peking, houses are not allowed to be built above a certain height, as during the long summer months ladies are in the habit of sitting to spin or sew in their courtyards, very lightly clad.] Pawning goods in China is not held to be so disgraceful as with us; in fact, most people, at the beginning of the hot weather, pawn their furs and winter clothes, these being so much more carefully looked after there than they might be at home. [174] Nominally of three years’—really of twenty-eight months’—duration. [175] These are entitled to receive from Government a small allowance of rice, besides being permitted to exercise certain petty functions, for which a certain charge is authorized. See Appendix A. [176] One of the strangers was the disembodied spirit of Hsiu’s father, helping his son to take vengeance on the wicked ShÊn. [177] An intermediate step between the first and second degrees, to which certain privileges are attached. [178] A.D. 1400 [179] The first of the sixteen maxims which form the so-called Sacred Edict, embodies these two all-important family ties. The doctrine of primogeniture is carried so far in China as to put every younger brother in a subordinate position to every elder brother. All property, however, of whatever kind, is equally divided among the sons. [The Sacred Edict was delivered by the great Emperor K‘ang Hsi, and should be publicly read and explained in every city of the Empire on the first and fifteenth of each month.] [180] Ordinary devils being unable to stand for any length of time the light and life of the upper world, the souls of certain persons are often temporarily employed in this work by the authorities of Purgatory, their bodies remaining meanwhile in a trance or cataleptic fit. [181] Their family name. [182] The Chinese corrupted form of Bodhisatva. Now widely employed to designate any deity of any kind. [183] The usual similitude for a Chinese tatterdemalion. [184] The surnames Chang, Wang, and Li, correspond in China to our Brown, Jones, and Robinson. [185] Slavery, under a modified form, exists in China at the present day. All parents, having absolute power over their children, are at liberty to sell them as servants or slaves to their wealthier neighbours. This is not an infrequent occurrence in times of distress, the children even going so far as to voluntarily sell themselves, and exposing themselves in some public thoroughfare, with a notice affixed to a kind of arrow on their backs, stating that they are for sale, and the amount required from the purchaser. This I have seen with my own eyes. The chief source, however, from which the supply of slaves is kept up is kidnapping. [See No. XXIII., note 154.] As to the condition of the slaves themselves, it is by no means an unhappy one. Their master has nominally the power of life and death over them, but no Chinaman would ever dream of availing himself of this dangerous prerogative. They are generally well fed, and fairly well clothed, being rarely beaten, for fear they should run away, and either be lost altogether or entail much expense to secure their capture. The girls do not have their feet compressed; hence they are infinitely more useful than small-footed women; and, on reaching a marriageable age, their masters are bound to provide them with husbands. They live on terms of easy familiarity with the whole household; and, ignorant of the meaning and value of liberty, seem quite contented with a lot which places them beyond the reach of hunger and cold. Slaves take the surnames of their masters, and the children of slaves are likewise slaves. Manumission is not uncommon; and Chinese history furnishes more than one example of a quondam slave attaining to the highest offices of State. [186] No Chinese wine-party is complete without more or less amusement of a literary character. Capping verses, composing impromptu odes on persons or places, giving historical and mythological allusions, are among the ordinary diversions of this kind. [187] The Chinese night lasts from 7 p.m. to 5 a.m., and is divided into five watches of two hours each, which are subdivided into five “beats” of the watchman’s wooden tom-tom. [188] The rÔles of women are always played in China by men, dressed up so perfectly, small feet and all, as to be quite undistinguishable from real women. [189] All underlings (and we might add overlings) in China being unpaid, it behoves them to make what they can out of the opportunities afforded. In most yamÊns, the various warrants and such documents are distributed to the runners in turn, who squeeze the victims thus handed over to them. For a small bribe they will go back and report “not at home;” for a larger one “has absconded,” and so on. Gatekeepers charge a fee on every petition that passes through their hands; gaolers, for a consideration and with proper security, allow their prisoners to be at large until wanted; clerks take bribes to use their influence, honestly or dishonestly, with the magistrate who is to try the case; and all the servants share equally in the gratuities given by anyone to whom their master may send presents. The amount, whatever it may be, is enclosed in a red envelope and addressed to the sender of the present, with the words “Instead of tea,” in large characters; the meaning being that the refreshments which should have been set before the servants who brought the gifts have been commuted by a money payment. This money is put into a general fund and equally divided at stated periods. All Government officers holding a post, from the highest to the lowest, are entitled to a nominal, and what would be a quite inadequate, salary; but no one ever sees this. It is customary to refuse acceptance of it on some such grounds as want of merit, and refund it to the Imperial Treasury. [190] Anybody is liable to be “impressed” at any moment for the service of the Government. Boat owners, sedan-chair and coolie proprietors, especially dread the frequent and heavy calls that are made upon them for assistance, the remuneration they receive being in all cases insufficient to defray mere working expenses. But inasmuch as Chinese officials may not seize any men, or boats, or carts, holding passes to show that they are in the employ of a foreign merchant, a lively trade in such documents has sprung up in certain parts of China between the dishonest of the native and foreign commercial circles. [191] Constables, detectives, and others, are liable to be bambooed at intervals, generally of three or five days, until the mission on which they are engaged has been successfully accomplished. In cases of theft and non-restoration of the stolen property within a given time, the detectives or constables employed may be required to make it good. [192] Extended by the Chinese to certain cases of simple man slaughter. [193] The Cantonese believe the following to be the usual process:—“Young children are bought or stolen at a tender age and placed in a ch‘ing, or vase with a narrow neck, and having in this case a moveable bottom. In this receptacle the unfortunate little wretches are kept for years in a sitting posture, their heads outside, being all the while carefully tended and fed.... When the child has reached the age of twenty or over, he or she is taken away to some distant place and ‘discovered’ in the woods as a wild man or woman.”—China Mail, 15th May, 1878. [194] Meaning that it would become known to the Arbiter of life and death in the world below, who would punish him by shortening his appointed term of years. See The Wei-ch‘i Devil, No. CXXXI. [195] One important preliminary consists in the exchange of the four pairs of characters which denote the year, month, day, and hour of the births of the contracting parties. It remains for a geomancer to determine whether these are in harmony or not; and a very simple expedient for backing out of a proposed alliance is to bribe him to declare that the nativities of the young couple could not be happily brought together. [196] The bridegroom invariably fetches the bride from her father’s house, conveying her to his home in a handsomely-gilt red sedan-chair, closed in on all sides, and accompanied by a band of music. [197] The Censorate is a body of fifty-six officials, whose duty it is to bring matters to the notice of the Emperor which might otherwise have escaped attention; to take exception to any acts, including those of His Majesty himself, calculated to interfere with the welfare of the people; and to impeach, as occasion may require, the high provincial authorities, whose position, but for this wholesome check, would be almost unassailable. Censors are popularly termed the “ears and eyes” of the monarch. [198] In the Book of Rites (I. Pt. i. v. 10), which dates, in its present form, only from the first century B.C., occurs this passage, “With the slayer of his father, a man may not live under the same heaven;” and in the Family Sayings (Bk. X. ab init.), a work which professes, though on quite insufficient authority, to record a number of the conversations and apophthegms of Confucius not given in the Lun-yÜ, or Confucian Gospels, we find the following course laid down for a man whose father has been murdered:—“He must sleep upon a grass mat, with his shield for his pillow; he must decline to take office; he must not live under the same heaven (with the murderer). When he meets him in the court or in the market-place, he must not return for a weapon, but engage him there and then;” being always careful, as the commentator observes, to carry a weapon about with him. Sir John Davis and Dr. Legge agree in stigmatizing this as “one of the objectionable principles of Confucius.” It must, however, be admitted that (1) a patched-up work which appeared as we have it now from two to three centuries after Confucius’s death, and (2) a confessedly apocryphal work such as the Family Sayings, are hardly sufficient grounds for affixing to the fair fame of China’s great Sage the positive inculcation of a dangerous principle of blood-vengeance like that I have just quoted. [199] The Chinese theory being that every official is responsible for the peace and well-being of the district committed to his charge, and even liable to punishment for occurrences over which he could not possibly have had any control. [202] No man being allowed to hold office within a radius of 500 li, or nearly 200 miles, from his native place. [203] This is a very common custom all over China. [204] Of all the Buddhist sutras, this is perhaps the favourite with the Chinese. [205] Contrary to the German notion that the spirit of the dead mother, coming back at night to suckle the child she has left behind, makes an impress on the bed alongside the baby. [206] Being, of course, invisible to all except himself. [207] A very ancient expression, signifying “the grave,” the word “wood” being used by synecdoche for “coffin.” [208] The supposed residence of Kuan-yin, the Chinese Goddess of Mercy, she who “hears prayers” and is the giver of children. [209] The great Supreme Ruler, who is supposed to have absolute sway over the various other deities of the Chinese Pantheon. [210] Generally spoken of as an inauspicious phenomenon. [211] This is the Buddhist patra, which modern writers have come to regard as an instrumental part of the Taoist religion. See No. IV., note 46. [212] To call attention to his presence. Beggars in China accomplish their purpose more effectually by beating a gong in the shop where they ask for alms so loudly as to prevent the shopkeeper from hearing his customers speak; or they vary the performance by swinging about some dead animal tied to the end of a stick. Mendicity not being prohibited in China, there results a system of black mail payable by every householder to a beggars’ guild, and this frees them from the visits of the beggars of their own particular district; many, however, do not subscribe, but take their chance in the struggle as to who will tire out the other first, the shopkeeper, who has all to lose, being careful to stop short of anything like manual violence, which would forthwith bring down upon him the myrmidons of the law, and subject him to innumerable “squeezes.” [213] Sc. a “sponge.” [214] Said to have been introduced into China from the west by a eunuch named San-pao during the Ming dynasty. [215] The women’s apartments being quite separate from the rest of a Chinese house, male visitors consequently know nothing about their inhabitants. [217] A very ancient custom in China, originating in a belief that these birds never mate a second time. The libation is made on the occasion of the bridegroom fetching his bride from her father’s house. [218] A Chinese trousseau, in addition to clothes and jewels, consists of tables and chairs, and all kinds of house furniture and ornaments. [219] Which ended some sixteen hundred years ago. [220] Corresponding with our five “senses,” the heart taking the place of the brain, and being regarded by Chinese doctors as the seat not only of intelligence and the passions, but also of all sensation. [221] These nunneries, of which there are plenty in China, are well worth visiting, and may be freely entered by both sexes. Sometimes there are as many as a hundred nuns living together in one temple, and to all appearances devoting their lives to religious exercises; report, however, tells many tales of broken vows, and makes sad havoc generally with the reputation of these fair vestals. [222] In corresponding English, this would be:—The young lady said her name was EloÏsa. “How funny!” cried ChÊn, “and mine is Abelard.” [223] That is, she was the last to take the vows. [224] The usual signal that a person does not wish to take any more wine. [225] This would carry him well on into the third of the years during which YÜn-ch‘i had promised to wait for him. [226] The celebrated lake in Hu-nan, round which has gathered so much of the folk-lore of China. [227] The instrument used by masons is here meant. [228] The guardian angel of crows. [229] In order to secure a favourable passage. The custom here mentioned was actually practised at more than one temple on the river Yang-tsze, and allusions to it will be found in more than one serious work. [230] Alluding to a legend of a young man meeting two young ladies at Hankow, each of whom wore a girdle adorned with a pearl as big as a hen’s egg. The young man begged them to give him these girdles, and they did so; but the next moment they had vanished, and the girdles too. [231] The text has nai-tung (“endure the winter”), for the identification of which I am indebted to Mr. L. C. Hopkins, of H.M.’s Consular service. [232] Women, of course, being excluded. [233] Although the Chinese do not “shake hands” in our sense of the term, it is a sign of affection to seize the hand of a parting or returning friend. “The Book of Rites,” however, lays down the rule that persons of opposite sexes should not, in passing things from one to the other, let their hands touch; and the question was gravely put to Mencius (Book IV.) as to whether a man might even pull his drowning sister-in-law out of the water. Mencius replied that it was indeed a general principle that a man should avoid touching a woman’s hand, but that he who could not make an exception in such a case would be no better than a wolf. Neither, according to the Chinese rule, should men and women hang their clothes on the same rack, which reminds one of the French prude who would not allow male and female authors to be ranged upon the same bookshelf. [234] The PÆonia albiflora. [235] The various subdivisions of the animal and vegetable kingdoms are each believed by the Chinese to be under the sway of a ruler holding his commission from and responsible to the one Supreme Power or God, fully in accordance with the general scheme of supernatural Government accepted in other and less civilized communities. [236] This is by no means uncommon. The debt of gratitude between pupil and teacher is second only to that existing between child and parent; and a successful student soon has it in his power to more than repay any such act of kindness as that here mentioned. [237] Which form the unvarying curriculum of a Chinese education. These are (1) the Four Books, consisting of the teachings of Confucius and Mencius; and (2) the Five Canons (in the ecclesiastical sense of the word) or the Canons of Changes, History, Poetry, the Record of Rites, and Spring and Autumn. The Four Books consist of:— (1) The Book of Wisdom, attributed by Chu Hi to Confucius. It is a disquisition upon virtue and the moral elevation of the people. (2) The Chung Yung, or Gospel of Tzu Ssu (the grandson of Confucius) wherein the ruling motives of human conduct are traced from their psychological source. (3) The Confucian Gospels, being discourses of the Sage with his disciples on miscellaneous topics. (4) The Gospels of Mencius. The Canon of Changes contains a fanciful system of philosophy based upon the combinations of eight diagrams said to have been copied from the lines on the back of a tortoise. Ascribed to B.C. 1150. The Canon of History embraces a period extending from the middle of the 24th century B.C. to B.C. 721. Was edited by Confucius from then existing documents. The Canon of Poetry is a collection of irregular lyrics in vogue among the people many centuries before the Christian era. Collected and arranged by Confucius. The Record of Rites contains a number of rules for the performance of ceremonies and guidance of individual conduct. Spring and Autumn consists of the annals of the petty kingdom of Lu from 722 to 484 B.C. Is the work of Confucius himself. [239] To be presented to the Emperor before taking up his post. [240] Hoping thus to interest Buddha in his behalf. [241] In accordance with Chinese usage, by which titles of nobility are often conferred upon the dead parents of a distinguished son. [242] In which Peking is situated. [243] A common form of revenge in China, and one which is easily carried through when the prosecutor is a man of wealth and influence. [244] Another favourite method of revenging oneself upon an enemy, who is in many cases held responsible for the death thus occasioned. Mr. Alabaster told me an amusing story of a Chinese woman who deliberately walked into a pond until the water reached her knees, and remained there alternately putting her lips below the surface and threatening in a loud voice to drown herself on the spot, as life had been made unbearable by the presence of foreign barbarians. This was during the Taiping rebellion. [245] Valuables of some kind or other are often placed in the coffins of wealthy Chinese; and women are almost always provided with a certain quantity of jewels with which to adorn themselves in the realms below. [246] One of the most heinous offences in the Chinese Penal Code. [247] Deference to elder brothers is held by the Chinese to be second only in importance to filial piety. [248] In a volume of Chinese Sketches, published by me in 1876, occur (p. 129) the following words:—“Occasionally a young wife is driven to commit suicide by the harshness of her mother-in-law, but this is of rare occurrence, as the consequences are terrible to the family of the guilty woman. The blood-relatives of the deceased repair to the chamber of death, and in the injured victim’s hand they place a broom. They then support the corpse round the room, making its dead arm move the broom from side to side, and thus sweep away wealth, happiness, and longevity, from the accursed place for ever.” [249] A wife being an infinitely less important personage than a mother in the Chinese social scale. [250] Literally, of hand and foot, to the mutual dependence of which that of brothers is frequently likened by the Chinese. [251] Any permanent change of residence must be notified to the District Magistrate, who keeps a running census of all persons within his jurisdiction. [252] To be thus beforehand with one’s adversary is regarded as prim facie evidence of being in the right. [253] By means of the status which a graduate of the second degree would necessarily have. [254] A sham entertainment given by the Fu-t‘ai, or governor, to all the successful candidates. I say sham, because the whole thing is merely nominal; a certain amount of food is contracted for, but there is never anything fit to eat, most of the money being embezzled by the underlings to whose management the banquet is entrusted. [255] Much more so than at present. [256] Thereby invoking the Gods as witnesses. A common method of making up a quarrel in China is to send the aggrieved party an olive and a piece of red paper in token that peace is restored. Why the olive should be specially employed I have in vain tried to ascertain. [257] Of course there is no such thing as spelling, in our sense of the term, in Chinese. But characters are frequently written with too many or too few strokes, and may thus be said to be incorrectly spelt. [258] A ceremonial visit made on the third day after marriage. [259] Contrary to all Chinese notions of modesty and etiquette. [260] Alluding to a well-known expression which occurs in the Historical Record, and is often used in the sense of deriving advantage from connection with some influential person. [261] Without any regard to precedence, which plays quite as important a part at a Chinese as at a western dinner-party. In China, however, the most honoured guest sits at (what may be called) the head of the table, the host at the foot. I say “what may be called,” as Chinese dining-tables are almost invariably square, and position alone determines which is the head and which the foot. They are usually made to accommodate eight persons; hence the fancy name “eight-angel table,” in allusion to the eight famous angels, or Immortals, of the Taoist religion. (See No. V., note 48.) Occasionally, round tables are used; especially in cases where the party consists of some such number as ten. [262] It is almost impossible to give in translation the true spirit of a Chinese antithetical couplet. There are so many points to be brought out, each word of the second line being in opposition both in tone and sense to a corresponding word in the first, that anything beyond a rough rendering of the idea conveyed would be superfluous in a work like this. Suffice it to say that Miao has here successfully capped the verse given; and the more so because he has introduced, through the medium of “sword” and “shattered vase,” an allusion to a classical story in which a certain Wang Tun, when drunk with wine, beat time on a vase with his sword, and smashed the lip. [263] This is the vel ego vel Cluvienus style of satire, his own verse having been particularly good. [264] Many candidates, successful or otherwise, have their verses and essays printed, and circulate them among an admiring circle of friends. [265] Accurately described in Tylor’s Primitive Culture, Vol. I., p. 75:—“Each player throws out a hand, and the sum of all the fingers shown has to be called, the successful caller scoring a point; practically each calls the total before he sees his adversary’s hand.” The insertion of the word “simultaneously” after “called” would improve this description. This game is so noisy that the Hong-kong authorities have forbidden it, except within certain authorised limits, between the hours of 11 p.m. and 6 a.m.—Ordinance No. 2 of 1872. [266] This delicate stroke is of itself sufficient to prove the truth of the oft-quoted Chinese saying, that all between the Four Seas are brothers. [267] The “substitution” theory by which disembodied spirits are enabled to find their way back to the world of mortals. A very interesting and important example of this belief occurs in a later story (No. CVII. [268] Such is the dominant belief regarding the due selection of an auspicious site, whether for a house or grave; and with this superstition deeply ingrained in the minds of the people, it is easy to understand the hold on the public mind possessed by the pseudo-scientific professors of FÊng-Shui, or the geomantic art. [269] The bridegroom leads off the procession, and the bride follows shortly afterwards in an elaborately-gilt sedan-chair, closed in on all sides so that the occupant cannot be seen. [270] Here again we have the common Chinese belief that fate is fate only within certain limits, and is always liable to be altered at the will of heaven. [271] This is another curious phase of Chinese superstition, namely, that each individual is so constituted by nature as to be able to absorb only a given quantity of good fortune and no more, any superfluity of luck doing actual harm to the person on whom it falls. [272] The word here used is fan, generally translated “barbarian.” [273] The disciples of ShÂkyamuni Buddha. Same as Arhans. [274] There is no limit as to age in the competitive examinations of China. The San-tzu-Ching records the case of a man who graduated at the mature age of eighty-two. [275] In 1665, that is between fourteen and fifteen years previous to the completion of the Liao Chai. [277] Religion and the drama work hand in hand in China. [278] Always the first step in the prosecution of a graduate. In this case, the accused was also an official. [279] Of what date, our author does not say, or it would be curious to try and hunt up the official record of this case as it appeared in the government organ of the day. The unfortunate man was in all probability insane. [280] A.D. 1675. His full name was Wu San-kuei. [281] Such is the literal translation of a term which I presume to be the name of some particular kind of jade, which is ordinarily distinguished from the imitation article by its comparative coldness. [282] A.D. 1682; that is, three years after the date of our author’s preface. See [283] A curious note here follows in the original, not however from the pen of the great commentator, I Shih-shih:—“In 1696 a severe earthquake occurred at P‘ing-yang, and out of seventeen or eighteen cities destroyed, only one room remained uninjured—a room inhabited by a certain filial son. And thus, when in the crash of a collapsing universe, filial piety is specially marked out for protection, who shall say that God Almighty does not know black from white?” [284] Or “Director of Studies.” [285] The Chinese distinguish five degrees of homicide, of which accidental homicide is one (see Penal Code, Book VI.) Thus, if a gun goes off of itself in a man’s hand and kills a bystander, the holder of the gun is guilty of homicide; but were the same gun lying on a table, it would be regarded as the will of Heaven. Similarly, a man is held responsible for any death caused by an animal belonging to him; though in such cases the affair can usually be hushed up by a money payment, no notice being taken of crimes in general unless at the instigation of a prosecutor, at whose will the case may be subsequently withdrawn. Where the circumstances are purely accidental, the law admits of a money compensation. [286] Women in China ride À califourchon. [287] Which, although tolerably stout and strong, is hardly capable of sustaining a man’s weight. [288] The Chinese acknowledge seven just causes for putting away a wife. (1) Bad behaviour towards the husband’s father and mother. (2) Adultery. (3) Jealousy. (4) Garrulity. (5) Theft. (6) Disease. (7) Barrenness. The right of divorce may not, however, be enforced if the husband’s father and mother have died since the marriage, as thus it would be inferred that the wife had served them well up to the time of their death; or if the husband has recently risen to wealth and power (hence the saying, “The wife of my poverty shall not go down from my hall”); or thirdly, if the wife’s parents and brothers are dead, and she has no home in which she can seek shelter. [289] This elegant simile is taken from a song ascribed to Pan Chieh-yÜ, a favourite of the Emperor Ch‘Êng Ti of the Han dynasty, written when her influence with the Son of Heaven began to wane. I venture to reproduce it here. “O fair white silk, fresh from the weaver’s loom; Clear as the frost, bright as the winter’s snow! See! friendship fashions out of thee a fan, Round as the round moon shines in heaven above. At home, abroad, a close companion thou, Stirring at every move the grateful gale. And yet I fear, ah, me! that autumn chills, Cooling the dying summer’s torrid rage, Will see thee laid neglected on the shelf, All thought of by-gone days, like them, by-gone.”
[290] Signifying that it would be impossible for him to enter. [291] The result of A-ch‘ien’s depredations as a rat. [292] I have already discussed the subject of drunkenness in China (Chinese Sketches, pp. 113, 114), and shall not return to it here, further than to quote a single sentence, to which I adhere as firmly now as when the book in question was published:—“Who ever sees in China a tipsy man reeling about a crowded thoroughfare, or lying with his head in a ditch by the side of some country road?” It is not, however, generally known that the Chinese, with their usual quaintness, distinguish between five kinds of drunkenness, different people being differently affected, according to the physical constitution of each. Wine may fly (1) to the heart, and produce maudlin emotions; or (2) to the liver, and incite to pugnacity; or (3) to the stomach, and cause drowsiness, accompanied by a flushing of the face; or (4) to the lungs, and induce hilarity; or (5) to the kidneys, and excite desire. [293] “The very name of Buddha, if pronounced with a devout heart 1,000 or 5,000 times, will effectually dispel all harassing thoughts, all fightings within and fears without.”—Eitel. [294] A religious and social offence of the deepest dye, sure to entail punishment in the world to come, even if the perpetrator escapes detection in this life. [295] The Buddhist rosary consists of 108 beads, which number is the same as that of the compartments in the Phrabat or sacred footprint of Buddha. [296] It here occurred to me that the word hitherto translated “well” should have been “shaft;” but the commentator refers expressly to the Tso Chuan, where the phrase for “a dry well,” as first used, is so explained. We must accordingly fall back on the supposition that our author has committed a trifling slip. [298] That is, as to whether or not there were extenuating circumstances, in which case no punishment would be inflicted. [299] Such is the invariable result of confinement in a Chinese prison, unless the prisoner has the wherewithal to purchase food. [300] The provincial examiner for the degree of bachelor. [301] To worship at his tomb. [304] Such is the Chinese idiom for what we should call “bitter” tears. This phrase is constantly employed in the notices of the death of a parent sent round to friends and relatives. [305] A disgraceful state of things, in the eyes of the Chinese. See the paraphrase of the Sacred Edict, Maxim 1. [306] An illegal form of punishment, under the present dynasty, which authorizes only bambooing of two kinds, each of five degrees of severity; banishment, of three degrees of duration; transportation for life, of three degrees of distance; and death, of two kinds, namely, by strangulation and decapitation. That torture is occasionally resorted to by the officers of the Chinese Empire is an indisputable fact; that it is commonly employed by the whole body of mandarins could only be averred by those who have not had the opportunities or the desire to discover the actual truth. [307] Lagerstroemia indica. [308] That is, old Mr. Jen’s body had been possessed by the disembodied spirit of Ta-ch‘Êng’s father. [309] Five is considered a large number for an ordinary Chinese woman. [310] In order to leave some one behind to look after their graves and perform the duties of ancestral worship. No one can well refuse to give a son to be adopted by a childless brother. [311] That is, of rising to the highest offices of State. [312] The Chinese term used throughout is “star-man.” [313] Chinese official life is divided into nine grades. [314] Prostrating himself three times, and knocking his head on the ground thrice at each prostration. [315] The retinue of a high mandarin is composed as follows:—First, gong-bearers, then bannermen, tablet-bearers (on which tablets are inscribed the titles of the official), a large red umbrella, mounted attendants, a box containing a change of clothes, bearers of regalia, a second gong, a small umbrella or sunshade, a large wooden fan, executioners, lictors from hell, who wear tall hats; a mace (called a “golden melon”), bamboos for “bambooing,” incense-bearers, more attendants, and now the great man himself, followed by a body-guard of soldiers and a few personal attendants, amounting in all to nearly one hundred persons, many of whom are mere street-rowdies or beggars, hired at a trifling outlay when required to join what might otherwise be an imposing procession. The scanty retinues of foreign officials in China still continue to excite the scorn of the populace, who love to compare the rag-tag and bob-tail magnificence of their own functionaries with the modest show even of H.B.M.’s Minister at Peking. [316] A land journey of about three months, ending in a region which the Chinese have always regarded as semi-barbarous. [317] This use of paper money in China is said to date from A.D. 1236; that is, during the reign of the Mongol Emperor, Ogdai Khan. [318] This contingency is much dreaded by the Chinese. [319] A yojana has been variously estimated at from five to nine English miles. [320] The patra and khakkharam of the bikshu or Buddhist mendicant. [321] It is not considered quite correct to take a concubine unless the wife is childless, in which case it is held that the proposition to do so, and thus secure the much-desired posterity, should emanate from the wife herself. On page 41 of Vol. XIII., of this author, we read, “and if at thirty years of age you have no children, then sell your hair-pins and other ornaments, and buy a concubine for your husband. For the childless state is a hard one to bear;” or, as Victor Hugo puts it in his LÉgende des SiÈcles, there is nothing so sad as “la maison sans enfants.” [322] This is the celebrated form of death, reserved for parricide and similar awful crimes, about which so much has been written. Strictly speaking, the malefactor should be literally chopped to pieces in order to prolong his agonies; but the sentence is now rarely, if ever, carried out in its extreme sense. A few gashes are made upon the wretched victim’s body, and he is soon put out of his misery by decapitation. As a matter of fact, this death is not enumerated among the Five Punishments authorized by the Penal Code of the present dynasty. See No. LV., note 306. [323] Alluding to a well-known Buddhist miracle in which a bikshu was to be thrown into a cauldron of boiling water in a fiery pit, when suddenly a lotus-flower came forth, the fire was extinguished, and the water became cold. [324] The Chinese term—here translated “Cannibals”—is a meaningless imitation by two Chinese characters of the Sanscrit yakcha, or certain demons who feed upon human flesh. [325] HuÉ, the capital of Cochin-China. [326] The island of Hainan, inhabited as it was in earlier times by a race of savages, is the most likely source of the following marvellous adventures. [327] To which sounds the languages of the west have been more than once likened by the Chinese. It is only fair, however, to the lettered classes to state that they have a similar contempt for their own local dialects; regarding Mandarin as the only form of speech worthy to be employed by men. [328] The occasional analogies to the story of the Cyclops must be evident to all readers. [329] The animal here mentioned is the plain brown deer, or Rusa Swinhoii, of Formosa, in which island I should prefer to believe, but for the great distance from HuÉ, that the scenes here narrated took place. [330] About one sixth of an acre. On old title-deeds of landed property in China may still be seen measurements calculated according to the amount of grain that could be sown thereon. [331] The king here uses the words “ku-t‘u-tzu,” which are probably intended by the author to be an imitation of a term in the savage tongue. [332] Fondness for children is specially a trait of Chinese character; and a single baby would do far more to ensure the safety of a foreign traveller in China than all the usual paraphernalia of pocket-pistols and revolvers. [333] Literally, “a million of taels,” the word used being the Buddhist term chao. [334] Here again we have 100 chÜn, one chÜn being equal to about 40 lbs. Chinese weights, measures, distances, numbers, &c., are often very loosely employed; and it is probable that not more than 100 catties, say 133 lbs., is here meant. [335] That is, until the change of the monsoon from S.W. to N.E. [337] Used for pounding rice. [339] The commentator declares himself unable to trace this allusion. [340] These are bound in between several sharp-pointed stakes and serve their purpose very well in the inland waters of China. [341] This deity is believed to be constantly on the look-out for wicked people, aided by the Goddess of Lightning, who flashes a mirror on to whomsoever the God wishes to strike. “The thief eats thunderbolts,” means that he will bring down vengeance from Heaven on himself. Tylor’s Primitive Culture, Vol. I., p. 88. [343] Gambling is the great Chinese vice, far exceeding in its ill effects all that opium has ever done to demoralize the country. Public gaming-houses are strictly forbidden by law, but their existence is winked at by a too venal executive. Fantan is the favourite game. It consists in staking on the remainder of an unknown number of cash, after the heap has been divided by four, namely whether it will be three, two, one, or nothing; with other variations of a more complicated nature. [346] The virtuous conduct of any individual will result not only in happiness and prosperity to himself, but a certain quantity of these will descend to his posterity, unless, as in the present case, there is one among them whose personal wickedness neutralizes any benefits that would otherwise accrue therefrom. Here we have an instance where the crimes of a descendant still left a balance of good fortune surviving from the accumulated virtue of generations. [347] One of the six departments of State administration. [348] This seems a curious charge to bring against a people who for a stolid and bigoted conservatism have rarely, if ever, been equalled. Mencius, however, uttered one golden sentence which might be brought to bear upon the occasionally foolish opposition of the Chinese to measures of proved advantage to the commonwealth. “Live,” said the Sage, “in harmony with the age in which you are born.” [349] Only slave-girls and women of the poorer classes, and old women, omit this very important part of a Chinese lady’s toilet. [350] Alluding probably to the shape of the “shoe” or ingot of silver. [352] Literally, “One who would make wild geese alight and fish dive down for shame;” or, as the next line from the same poem has it, “a beauty which would obscure the moon and put flowers to the blush.” [353] Slave-girls do not have their feet compressed. [354] Wherein resides an old gentleman who ties together with a red cord the feet of those destined to become man and wife. From this bond there is no escape, no matter what distance may separate the affianced pair. The first go-between, Ku Ts‘Ê, was originally seen, on ice, arranging matches with some one below:— “Marriage is not a trifling thing— The Book and the Vermilion String! On ice by moonlight may be seen The wedded couples’ go-between.” —A Thousand Character Essay for Girls. Hence the common phrase “to do the ice (business),” i.e., to arrange a marriage. [355] This proceeding is highly improper, but is winked at in a large majority of Chinese betrothals. |
|
