Nearly all the syllables are represented by the combination of an initial and a final, a system which has been found to be well adapted to the Chinese language.

INITIALS

Chinese sounds are divided into upper and lower series. The initials to represent the Upper Series are—p, ’m, ’v, t, ts, s, ’l, ’n, ’ny, ’ng, k, ky, kw, i and ’w. These initials are pronounced in most cases much the same as in English, but without aspiration, higher in pitch and with very little vibration of the larynx. The apostrophe before a letter indicates that the letter belongs to the “higher series.” Pure vowel initials also belong to this series.

ny has a sound similar to that of ni in spaniel

ky = ch in chuk with all aspiration eliminated.

i as an initial has the sounds of i in dahlia.

The Aspirates are—ph, f, th, tsh, ky, ch, khw, h, hy, and hw (th as in Thomson—not as in thing).

ch = ch in church.

hy is nearly like ti in Portia.

The other aspirates are like the corresponding initials of the higher series with the addition of a strong aspiration (indicated by h).

The initials to represent the Lower Series are—b, m, v, d, dz, z, l, n, ny, ng, g, j, gw, y, and w. Their pronunciation is much the same as in English. They are lower in pitch than corresponding initials of the “higher series,” and have more “voice,” being pronounced with more decided vibration of the larynx. The lower vowel initials, indicated by an inverted comma (‘) and attended with a slight aspiration, belong to this series. It will be noted that this sign differs from that employed to indicate that a consonant initial belongs to the upper series, an apostrophe being used to denote the “upper initial.” This inverted comma is used only before vowels, and if, by mistake, this sign is used before a consonant instead of the apostrophe, this need not confuse the reader, for the sign of the upper series is properly used only before the initial consonants m, v, l, n, ny, ng, w, and r.

It should be noted well that the difference between the corresponding initials of the upper and lower series is not so much a difference in consonantal quality as a difference in pitch, but there is a real consonantal difference. The higher series may be classified as surd and the lower as sonant.

FINALS

1. The Vowel Endings are—a, e, i, au, o, oo, eu, u, ui, ia, iau, ieu, and ie.
2. The Nasal Endings are—(a) an, en, ien and oen, in which the n is not sounded, but lengthens out and imparts a nasal quality to the preceding vowel; (b) ang, aung, oong, ung and iang, in which ng has the value of ng in song; (c) uin, in which n is sonant and has a value varying between n and ng.
3. The Abrupt Vowel Endings are—ak, ah, eh, ih, auh, ok, oeh, uh, and iak, in which h and k are the signs of the zeh-sung (??), and the vowel is pronounced in a short, abrupt manner.

• The sounds of the vowels are—
• a as in far, except when followed by n or h, when it has the sound of a is man or mat.
• e as in prey; before h it has the sound of e as in met.
• i as in caprice; before h or ng it is shortened to i as in mit or sing.
• au as in August.
• o as in so.
• oo as in oo in too.
• oe as in oe Goethe (German Ö).
• eu as in French Monsieur.
• u as in oo in foot (always preceded by an s sound).
• ui as in fruit (or rather, French Ü).

In ia, iau, ieu and ie, we have short i followed closely by a, au, eu, and e, as described above.

Of course it is understood that the Chinese sounds in a majority of cases vary somewhat from the English sounds which are given as the nearest equivalent. The true pronunciation of Chinese sounds should be learned from a Chinese teacher, and the student should always bear it in mind that any Romanization used does not represent English sounds, but Chinese sounds. This fact can not be too strongly emphasized.

The Dok-yoong Z-moo—“Initials used alone,” i.e., without vowels, are—ts, tsh, dz, s, z, m, ng, and r. The first five are followed by the vowel sound in the second syllable of able—prolonged. Mateer and Baller use Ï for this sound and the new Mandarin Romanized uses i [C0]. It is not written, but understood in the Shanghai system. m has the sound of m in chasm and ng the sound of ng in hanger. r is a sound between final r and l.

TONES

The tones are four in number, each occurring in the upper and lower series. As has been stated, the upper and lower series can be distinguished by the initials. Sounds in the upper series are of higher pitch and those in the lower series of a lower pitch.

The names of the tones are:—

TONE SIGNS

° to the left of a word indicates the tone to be °zang-sung.

° to the right indicates the chui-sung. Final h or k indicate the zeh-sung. All other words are in the bing-sung.

SOUNDS OF THE TONES

The sounds of the tones of course can only be learnt from the Chinese teacher.

The Bing-sung is an even tone, the voice being level, with a slight falling inflection, as when we say “Come,” “Hear,” in our imperatives.

The Zang-sung in the upper series is a twanging sound, and sounds something like the vibration of a string of a musical instrument.

In the lower series it has a wave sound which can be symbolized to the eye by the curve [horizontal line with dip in middle]; the voice first falls and then rises.

The Chui-sung has the same sound in both the upper and lower series. The voice rises much as it does when we ask a question.

The students should practise with the teacher on the following table of sounds, and in time will be able to distinguish the tones clearly and to make the proper inflection himself. Foreigners are seldom able to perfect themselves in the use of tones, but this is due not so much to inability as to the lack of attention paid to the matter at the beginning of the study of the language.

It should be understood that the names of the tones are those of the original tones and often bear no relation to the inflection now used, which varies in different localities.

COMPLETE LIST OF INITIALS AND FINALS USED IN THE SHANGHAI DIALECT

ZAUNG-HE LOO-MO Z

The student should practise repeating after the teacher the pronunciation of the characters in which these sounds occur.

EXERCISE IN TONES

The student should practise upon the sounds illustrating the different tones. The columns should be read from the top down. The teacher can guide him by first pronouncing the Chinese characters.

LESSONS IN THE SHANGHAI DIALECT