It has been already stated that the force of cohesion binds the similar particles of substances together, whether they be amorphous or shapeless, crystalline or of a regular symmetrical and mathematical figure. The term crystal was originally applied by the ancients to silica in the form of what is usually termed rock crystal, or Brazilian pebble; and they supposed it to be water which had been solidified by a remarkable intensity of cold, and could not be thawed by any ordinary or summer heat. Indeed, this idea of the ancients has been embodied (to a certain extent) in the shape of artificial ice made by crystallizing large quantities of sulphate of soda, which was made as flat as possible, and upon Thousands of minerals are discovered in the crystallized state—such as cubes of iron pyrites (sulphuret of iron) and of fluor spar (fluoride of calcium), whilst numerous saline bodies called salts are sold only in the form of crystals. Of these salts we have excellent examples in Epsom salts (sulphate of magnesia), nitre (nitrate of potash), alum (sulphate of alumina), and potash; the term salt being applied specially to all substances composed of an acid and a base, as also to other combinations of elements which may or may not take a crystalline form. Thus, nitre is composed of nitric acid and potash; the first, even when much diluted, rapidly changes paper, dipped in tincture of litmus and stained blue, to a red colour, whilst potash shows its alkaline nature, by changing paper, stained yellow with tincture of turmeric, to a reddish-brown. The latter paper is restored to its original yellow by dipping it into the dilute nitric acid, whilst the litmus paper regains its delicate blue colour by being passed into the alkaline solution. An acid and an alkali combine and form a neutral salt, such as nitre, which has no action whatever on litmus or turmeric; whilst the element iodine, which is not an acid, unites with the metallic element potassium, and therefore not an alkali, and forms a salt that crystallizes in cubes called iodide of potassium. Again, cane sugar, which is composed of charcoal, oxygen, and hydrogen, crystallizes in hard transparent four-sided and irregular six-sided prisms, but is not called a salt. Silica or sand is found crystallized most perfectly in nature in six-sided pyramids, but is not a salt; it is an acid termed silicic-acid. Sand has no acid taste, because it is insoluble in water, but when melted in a crucible with an alkali, such as potash, it forms a salt called silicate of potash. Magnesia, from being insoluble, or nearly so, in water, is all but tasteless, and has barely any alkaline reaction, yet it is a very strong alkaline base; 20.7 parts of it neutralize as much sulphuric acid as 47 of potash. A salt is not always a crystallizable substance, and vice versa. The progress of our chemical knowledge has therefore demanded a wider extension and application of the term salt, and it is not now confined merely to a combination of an acid and an alkali, but is conferred even on compounds consisting only of sulphur and a metal, which are termed sulphur salts. So also in combinations of chlorine, iodine, bromine, and fluorine, with metallic bodies, neither of which are acid or alkaline, the term haloid salts has been applied by Berzelius, from the Greek ( a??, sea salt, and e?d?? form), because they are analogous in constitution to sea salt; and the mention of sea salt again reminds us of the wide signification of the term salt, originally confined to this substance, but now extended into four great orders, as defined by Turner:— Order I. The oxy-salts.—This order includes no salt the acid or base of which is not an oxidised body (ex., nitrate of potash). Order II. The hydro-salts.—This order includes no salt the acid or base of which does not contain hydrogen (ex., chloride of ammonium). Order III. The sulphur salts.—This order includes no salt the electro-positive or negative ingredient of which is not a sulphuret (ex., hydrosulphuret of potassium). Order IV. The haloid salts.—This order includes no salt the electro-positive or negative ingredient of which is not haloidal. (Exs., iodide of potassium and sea salt). To fix the idea of salt still better in the youthful mind, it should be remembered that alabaster, of which works of art are constructed, or marble, or lime-stone, or chalk, are all salts, because they consist of an acid and a base. In order to cause a substance to crystallize it is first necessary to endow the particles with freedom of motion. There are many methods of doing this chemically or by the application of heat, but we cannot by any mechanical process of concentration, compression, or division, persuade a substance to crystallize, unless perhaps we except that remarkable change in wrought or fibrous iron into crystalline or brittle iron, by constant vibration, as in the axles of a carriage, or by attaching a piece of fibrous iron to a tilt hammer. If we powder some alum crystals they will not again assume their crystalline form; if brought in contact there is no freedom of motion. It is like placing some globules of mercury on a plate. They have no power to create motion; their inertia keeps them separated by certain distances, and they do not coalesce; but incline the plate, give them motion, and bring them in contact, they soon unite and form one globule. The particles of alum are not in close contact, and they have no freedom of motion unless they are dissolved in water, when they become invisible; the water by its chemical power destroys the mechanical aggregation of the solid alum far beyond any operation of levigation. The solid alum has become liquid, like water; the particles are now free to move without let or hindrance from friction. A solution, (from the Latin solvo, to loosen) is obtained. The alum must indeed be reduced to minute particles, as they are alike invisible to the eye whether assisted by the microscope or not. No repose will cause the alum to separate; the solvent power of the water opposes gravitation; every part of the solution is equally impregnated with alum, and the particles are diffused at equal distances through the water; the heavy alum is actually drawn up against gravity by the water. How, then, is the alum to be brought back again to the solid state? The answer is simple enough. By evaporating away the excess of water, either by the application of heat or by long exposure to the atmosphere in a very shallow vessel, the minute atoms of the alum are brought closer together, and crystallization takes place. The assumption of the solid state is indicated by the formation of a thin film (called a pellicle) of crystals, and is further and still more satisfactorily proved by taking out a drop of the solution and placing it on a bit of glass, which rapidly becomes filled with crystals if the evaporation has been carried sufficiently far (Fig. 87). After evaporating away sufficient water, the dish is placed on one side and allowed to cool, when crystals of the utmost regularity of form are produced, and, denoted by a geometrical term, are called octohedral or eight-sided crystals, when in the utmost state of perfection (Fig. 88). Fig. 87. Fig. 87. r r. Ring-stand. s s. Spirit-lamps. a. Flask containing boiling solution of alum.—Solution. b. Funnel, with a bit of lamp-cotton stuffed in the bottom.—Filtration. c. Evaporating dish.—Evaporation. d. Drop on glass.—Crystallization. Fig. 88. Fig. 88. The science of crystallography is too elaborate to be discussed at length in a work of this kind; the various terms connected with crystals will therefore only be explained, and experiments given in illustration of the formation of various crystals. When the apices—i.e., the tips or points of crystals—are cut off, they are said to be truncated; and the same change occurs on the edges of numerous crystals. If some of the salt called chloride of calcium in the dry and amorphous state is exposed to the air, it soon absorbs water, or what is termed deliquesces: the same thing occurs with the crystals of carbonate of potash, and if four ounces are weighed out in an evaporating dish, and then exposed for about half an hour to the air, a very perceptible increase in weight is observed by the assistance of the scales and grain weights. Deliquescence is a term from the Latin deliqueo, to melt, and is in fact a gradual melting, caused by the absorption of water from the atmosphere. The reverse of this is illustrated with various crystals, such as Glauber's salt (sulphate of soda), or common washing soda (carbonate of soda); if a fine clear crystal is taken out of the solution, called the mother liquor, in which it has been crystallized, wiped dry, and placed under a glass shade, this salt may remain for a long period Deliquescent crystals may be preserved by placing them, when dry, in naphtha, or any liquor in which they are perfectly insoluble. Some salts, like Glauber's salts, contain so much water of crystallization that when subjected to heat they melt and dissolve in it, and this liquefaction of the solid crystal is called "watery fusion." Other salts, such as bay salt, chlorate of potash, &c., when heated, fly to pieces, with a sharp crackling noise, which is due sometimes, to the unequal expansion of the crystalline surface, or the sudden conversion of the water (retained in the crystal by capillary attraction) into steam; thus nitre behaves in this manner, and frequently retains water in capillary fissures, although it is an anhydrous salt, or salt perfectly free from combined water. The crackling sound is called decrepitation, and is well illustrated by throwing a handful of bay salt on a clear fire; but this property is destroyed by powdering the crystals. Many substances when melted and slowly cooled concrete into the most perfect crystals; in these cases heat alone, the antagonist to cohesion, is the solvent power. Thus, if bismuth be melted in a crucible, and when cooling, and just as the pellicle (from pellis, a skin or crust) is forming on the surface, if two small holes are instantly made by a rod of iron and the liquid metal poured out from the inside (one of the holes being the entrance for the air, the other the exit for the metal); on carefully breaking the crucible, the bismuth is found to be crystallized in the most lovely cubes. Sulphur, again, may be crystallized in prismatic crystals by pursuing a similar plan; and the great blocks of spermaceti exhibited by wax chandlers in their windows, are crystallized in the interior and prepared on the same principle. There are other modes of conferring the crystalline state upon substances—viz., by elevating them into a state of vapour by the process called sublimation (from sublimis, high or exalted), the lifting up and condensation of the vapour in the upper part of a vessel; a process perfectly distinct from that of distillation, which means to separate drop by drop. Both of these processes are very ancient, and were invented by the Arabian alchemists long antecedent to the seventh century. Examples of sublimation are shown by heating iodine, and especially a. Gas-jar, with stopper open at first, to be shut when the lamp is withdrawn. b. Wooden stand, with hole to carry the cup c, containing the benzoic acid, heated below by the spirit-lamp, s. f. Flowers or sprigs arranged on pieces of rock or mineral. All electro deposits on metals are more or less crystalline; and copper or silver may be deposited in a crystalline form by placing a scraped stick of phosphorus in a solution of sulphate of copper or of nitrate of silver. The phosphorus takes away the oxygen from the metal, or deoxidizes the solution, and the copper or silver reappears in the metallic form. The surface of the phosphorus must not be scraped in the air, but under water, when the operation is perfectly safe. A singular and almost instantaneous crystallization can be produced by saturating boiling water with Glauber's salt, of which one ounce and a half of water will usually dissolve about two ounces; having done this, pour the solution, whilst boiling hot, into clean oil flasks, or vials of any kind, previously warmed in the oven, and immediately cork them, or tie strips of wetted bladder, over the orifices of the flasks or vials, or pour into the neck a small quantity of olive oil, or close the neck with a cork through which a thermometer tube has been passed. When cold, no crystallization occurs until atmospheric air is admitted; and it was formerly believed that the pressure of the air effected this object, until some one thought of the oil, and now the theory is modified, and crystallization is supposed to occur in consequence of the water dissolving some air which causes the deposit of a minute crystal, and this being the turning point, the whole becomes solid. However the fact may be explained, it is certain that when the liquid refuses to crystallize on the admission of air, the solidification occurs directly a minute crystal of sulphate of soda, or Glauber's salt, is dropped into the vessel. When the crystallization is accomplished, the whole mass is usually so completely solidified, that on inverting the vessel, not a drop of liquid falls out. It may be observed that the same mass of salt will answer any number of times the same purpose. All that is necessary to be done, is to place the vial or flask, in a saucepan of warm water, and gradually raise it to the boiling point till the salt is completely liquefied, when the vessel must be corked and secured from the air as before. When the solidification is produced much heat is generated, which is rendered apparent by means of a thermometer, or by the insertion of a copper wire into the pasty mass of crystal in the flask, and then touching an extremely thin shaving or cutting of phosphorus, dried and placed on cotton wool. Solidification in all cases produces heat. Liquefaction produces cold. Fig. 90. Fig. 90. a. The inner cylinder which contains the freezing mixture. b b. The outer one containing spring water. c c. The ice slipping away from the inner cylinder. In Masters's freezing apparatus certain measured quantities of crystallized sal-ammoniac, nitre, and nitrate of ammonia, are placed in a metallic cylinder, surrounded with a small quantity of spring water contained in an outer vessel. Directly the crystals are liquefied by the addition of water, intense cold is produced, which freezes the water and forms an exact cast of the inner cylinder in ice, and this may afterwards be removed, by pouring away the liquefied salts, and filling the inner cylinder, with water of the same temperature as the air, which rapidly thaws the surrounding ice, and allows it to slip off into any convenient vessel ready to receive it. (Fig. 90.) For an ingenious method of obtaining large and perfect crystals of almost any size, experimentalists are indebted to Le Blanc. His method consists in first procuring small and perfect crystals—say, octohedra of alum—and then placing them in a broad flat-bottomed pan, he pours over the crystals a quantity of saturated solution of alum, obtained by evaporating a solution of alum until a drop taken out crystallizes on cooling. The positions of the crystals are altered at least once a day with a glass rod, so that all the faces may be alternately exposed to the action of the solution, for the side on which the crystal rests, or is in contact with the vessel, never receives any increment. The crystals will thus gradually grow or increase in size, and when they have done so for some time, the best and most symmetrical, may be removed and placed separately, in vessels containing some of the same saturated Unless the crystals are removed to fresh solutions, a reaction takes place, in consequence of the exhaustion of the alum from the water, and the crystal is attacked and dissolved. This action is first perceptible on the edges and angles of the crystal; they become blunted and gradually lose their shape altogether. By this method crystals may be made to grow in length or breadth—the former when they are placed upon their sides, the latter if they be made to stand upon their bases. On Le Blanc's principle, beautiful crystal baskets are made with alum, sulphate of copper, and bichromate of potash. The baskets are usually made of covered copper wire, and when the salts crystallize on them as a nucleus or centre, they are constantly removed to fresh solutions, so that the whole is completely covered, and red, white, and blue sparkling crystal baskets formed. They will retain their brilliancy for any time, by placing them under a glass shade, with a cup containing a little water. The sketch below affords an excellent illustration of some of Nature's remarkable concretions in the peculiar columnar structure of basalt. Fig. 91. Fig. 91. The Giant's Causeway. |