Methods of Cylinder Construction—Block Castings—Influence on Crank-Shaft Design—Combustion Chamber Design—Bore and Stroke Ratio—Meaning of Piston Speed—Advantage of Off-Set Cylinders—Valve Location of Vital Import—Valve Installation Practice—Valve Design and Construction—Valve Operation—Methods of Driving Cam-Shaft—Valve Springs—Valve Timing—Blowing Back—Lead Given Exhaust Valve—Exhaust Closing, Inlet Opening—Closing the Inlet Valve—Time of Ignition—How an Engine Is Timed—Gnome “Monosoupape” Valve Timing—Springless Valves—Four Valves per Cylinder. The improvements noted in the modern internal combustion motors have been due to many conditions. The continual experimenting by leading mechanical minds could have but one ultimate result. The parts of the engines have been lightened and strengthened, and greater power has been obtained without increasing piston displacement. A careful study has been made of the many conditions which make for efficient motor action, and that the main principles are well recognized by all engineers is well shown by the standardization of design noted in modern power plants. There are many different methods of applying the same principle, and it will be the purpose of this chapter to define the ways in which the construction may be changed and still achieve the same results. The various components may exist in many different forms, and all have their advantages and disadvantages. That all methods are practical is best shown by the large number of successful engines which use radically different designs. METHODS OF CYLINDER CONSTRUCTION One of the most important parts of the gasoline engine and one that has material bearing upon its efficiency is the cylinder unit. The cylinders may be cast individually, or in pairs, and it is possible to make all cylinders a unit or block casting. Some typical methods of cylinder construction are shown in accompanying illustrations. The appearance of individual cylinder castings may be ascertained by examination of the Hall-Scott airplane engine. Air-cooled engine cylinders are always of the individual pattern. Considered from a purely theoretical point of view, the individual cylinder casting has much in its favor. It is advanced that more uniform cooling is possible than where the cylinders are cast either in pairs or three or four in one casting. More uniform cooling insures that the expansion or change of form due to heating will be more equal. This is an important condition because the cylinder bore must remain true under all conditions of operation. If the heating effect is not uniform, which condition is liable to obtain if metal is not evenly distributed, the cylinder may become distorted by heat and the bore be out of truth. When separate cylinders are used it is possible to make a uniform water space and have the cooling liquid evenly distributed around the cylinder. In multiple cylinder castings this is not always the rule, as in many instances, especially in four-cylinder block motors where compactness is the main feature, there is but little space between the cylinders for the passage of water. Under such circumstances the cooling effect is not even, and the stresses which obtain because of unequal expansion may distort the cylinder to some extent. When steel cylinders are made from forgings, the water jackets are usually of copper or sheet steel attached to the forging by autogenous welding; in the case of the latter and, in some cases, the former may be electro-deposited on the cylinders. BLOCK CASTINGS The advantage of casting the cylinders in blocks is that a motor may be much shorter than it would be if individual castings were used. It is admitted that when the cylinders are cast together a more compact, rigid, and stronger power plant is obtained than when cast separately. There is a disadvantage, however, in that if one cylinder becomes damaged it will be necessary to replace the entire unit, which means scrapping three good cylinders because one of the four has failed. When the cylinders are cast separately one need only replace the one that has become damaged. The casting of four cylinders in one unit is made possible by improved foundry methods, and when proper provision is made for holding the cores when the metal is poured and the cylinder casts are good, the construction is one of distinct merit. It is sometimes the case that the proportion of sound castings is less when cylinders are cast in block, but if the proper precautions are observed in molding and the proper mixtures of cast iron used, the ratio of defective castings is no more than when cylinders are molded individually. As an example of the courage of engineers in departing from old-established rules, the cylinder casting shown at Fig. 86 may be considered typical. This is used on the Duesenberg four-cylinder sixteen-valve 43/4'' × 7'' engine which has a piston displacement of 496 cu. in. At a speed of 2,000 r.p.m., corresponding to a piston speed of 2,325 ft. per min., the engine is guaranteed to develop 125 horse-power. The weight of the model engine without gear reduction is 436 lbs., but a number of refinements have been made in the design whereby it is expected to get the weight down to 390 lbs. The four cylinders are cast from semi-steel in a single block, with integral heads. The cylinder construction is the same as that which has always been used by Mr. Duesenberg, inlet and exhaust valves being arranged horizontally opposite each other in the head. There are large openings in the water jacket at both sides and at the ends, which are closed by means of aluminum covers, water-tightness being secured by the use of gaskets. This results in a saving in weight because the aluminum covers can be made considerably lighter than it would be possible to cast the jacket walls, and, besides, it permits of obtaining a more nearly uniform thickness of cylinder wall, as the cores can be much better supported. The cooling water passes completely around each cylinder, and there is a very considerable space between the two central cylinders, this being made necessary in order to get the large bearing area desirable for the central bearing. Fig. 86 Fig. 86.—Views of Four-Cylinder Duesenberg Airplane Engine Cylinder Block. It is common practice to cast the water jackets integral with the cylinders, if cast iron or aluminum is used, and this is also the most economical method of applying it because it gives good results in practice. An important detail is that the water spaces must be proportioned so that they are equal around the cylinders whether these members are cast individually, in pairs, threes or fours. When cylinders are cast in block form it is good practice to leave a large opening in the jacket wall which will assist in supporting the core and make for uniform water space. It will be noticed that the casting shown at Fig. 86 has a large opening in the side of the cylinder block. These openings are closed after the interior of the casting is thoroughly cleaned of all sand, core wire, etc., by brass, cast iron or aluminum plates. These also have particular value in that they may be removed after the motor has been in use, thus permitting one to clean out the interior of the water jacket and dispose of the rust, sediment, and incrustation which are always present after the engine has been in active service for a time. Among the advantages claimed for the practice of casting cylinders in blocks may be mentioned compactness, lightness, rigidity, simplicity of water piping, as well as permitting the use of simple forms of inlet and exhaust manifolds. The light weight is not only due to the reduction of the cylinder mass but because the block construction permits one to lighten the entire motor. The fact that all cylinders are cast together decreases vibration, and as the construction is very rigid, disalignment of working parts is practically eliminated. When inlet and exhaust manifolds are cored in the block casting, as is sometimes the case, but one joint is needed on each of these instead of the multiplicity of joints which obtain when the cylinders are individual castings. The water piping is also simplified. In the case of a four-cylinder block motor but two pipes are used; one for the water to enter the cylinder jacket, the other for the cooling liquid to discharge through. INFLUENCE ON CRANK-SHAFT DESIGN The method of casting the cylinders has a material influence on the design of the crank-shaft as will be shown in proper sequence. When four cylinders are combined in one block it is possible to use a two-bearing crank-shaft. Where cylinders are cast in pairs a three-bearing crank-shaft is commonly supplied, and when cylinders are cast as individual units it is thought necessary to supply a five-bearing crank-shaft, though sometimes shafts having but three journals are used successfully. Obviously the shafts must be stronger and stiffer to withstand the stresses imposed if two supporting bearings are used than if a larger number are employed. In this connection it may be stated that there is less difficulty in securing alignment with a lesser number of bearings and there is also less friction. On the other hand, the greater the number of points of support a crank-shaft has the lighter the webs can be made and still have requisite strength. COMBUSTION CHAMBER DESIGN Fig. 87 Fig. 87.—Twin-Cylinder Block of Sturtevant Airplane Engine is Cast of Aluminum, and Has Removable Cylinder Head. Another point of importance in the design of the cylinder, and one which has considerable influence upon the power developed, is the shape of the combustion chamber. The endeavor of designers is to obtain maximum power from a cylinder of certain proportions, and the greater energy obtained without increasing piston displacement or fuel consumption the higher the efficiency of the motor. To prevent troubles due to pre-ignition it is necessary that the combustion chamber be made so that there will be no roughness, sharp corners, or edges of metal which may remain incandescent when heated or which will serve to collect carbon deposits by providing a point of anchorage. With the object of providing an absolutely clean combustion chamber some makers use a separable head unit to their twin cylinder castings, such as shown at Fig. 87 and Fig. 88. These permit one to machine the entire interior of the cylinder and combustion chamber. The relation of valve location and combustion chamber design will be considered in proper sequence. These cylinders are cast of aluminum, instead of cast iron, as is customary, and are provided with steel or cast iron cylinder liners forced in the soft metal casting bores. Fig. 88 Fig. 88.—Aluminum Cylinder Pair Casting of Thomas 150 Horse-Power Airplane Engine is of the L Head Type. BORE AND STROKE RATIO A question that has been a vexed one and which has been the subject of considerable controversy is the proper proportion of the bore to the stroke. The early gas engines had a certain well-defined bore to stroke ratio, as it was usual at that time to make the stroke twice as long as the bore was wide, but this cannot be done when high speed is desired. With the development of the present-day motor the stroke or piston travel has been gradually shortened so that the relative proportions of bore and stroke have become nearly equal. Of late there seems to be a tendency among designers to return to the proportions which formerly obtained, and the stroke is sometimes one and a half or one and three-quarter times the bore. Engines designed for high speed should have the stroke not much longer than the diameter of the bore. The disadvantage of short-stroke engines is that they will not pull well at low speeds, though they run with great regularity and smoothness at high velocity. The long-stroke engine is much superior for slow speed work, and it will pull steadily and with increasing power at low speed. It was formerly thought that such engines should never turn more than a moderate number of revolutions, in order not to exceed the safe piston speed of 1,000 feet per minute. This old theory or rule of practice has been discarded in designing high efficiency automobile racing and aviation engines, and piston speeds from 2,500 to 3,000 feet per minute are sometimes used, though the average is around 2,000 feet per minute. While both short- and long-stroke motors have their advantages, it would seem desirable to average between the two. That is why a proportion of four to five or six seems to be more general than that of four to seven or eight, which would be a long-stroke ratio. Careful analysis of a number of foreign aviation motors shows that the average stroke is about 1.2 times the bore dimensions, though some instances were noted where it was as high as 1.7 times the bore. MEANING OF PISTON SPEED The factor which limits the stroke and makes the speed of rotation so dependent upon the travel of the piston is piston speed. Lubrication is the main factor which determines piston speed, and the higher the rate of piston travel the greater care must be taken to insure proper oiling. Let us fully consider what is meant by piston speed. Assume that a motor has a piston travel or stroke of six inches, for the sake of illustration. It would take two strokes of the piston to cover one foot, or twelve inches, and as there are two strokes to a revolution it will be seen that this permits of a normal speed of 1,000 revolutions per minute for an engine with a six-inch stroke, if one does not exceed 1,000 feet per minute. If the stroke was only four inches, a normal speed of 1,500 revolutions per minute would be possible without exceeding the prescribed limit. The crank-shaft of a small engine, having three-inch stroke, could turn at a speed of 2,000 revolutions per minute without danger of exceeding the safe speed limit. It will be seen that the longer the stroke the slower the speed of the engine, if one desires to keep the piston speed within the bounds as recommended, but modern practice allows of greatly exceeding the speeds formerly thought best. ADVANTAGES OF OFF-SET CYLINDERS Another point upon which considerable difference of opinion exists relates to the method of placing the cylinder upon the crank-case—i.e., whether its center line should be placed directly over the center of the crank-shaft, or to one side of center. The motor shown at Fig. 90 is an off-set type, in that the center line of the cylinder is a little to one side of the center of the crank-shaft. Diagrams are presented at Fig. 91 which show the advantages of off-set crank-shaft construction. The view at A is a section through a simple motor with the conventional cylinder placing, the center line of both crank-shaft and cylinder coinciding. The view at B shows the cylinder placed to one side of center so that its center line is distinct from that of the crank-shaft and at some distance from it. The amount of off-set allowed is a point of contention, the usual amount being from fifteen to twenty-five per cent. of the stroke. The advantages of the off-set are shown at Fig. 91, C. If the crank turns in direction of the arrow there is a certain resistance to motion which is proportional to the amount of energy exerted by the engine and the resistance offered by the load. There are two thrusts acting against the cylinder wall to be considered, that due to explosion or expansion of the gas, and that which resists the motion of the piston. These thrusts may be represented by arrows, one which acts directly in a vertical direction on the piston top, the other along a straight line through the center of the connecting rod. Between these two thrusts one can draw a line representing a resultant force which serves to bring the piston in forcible contact with one side of the cylinder wall, this being known as side thrust. As shown at C, the crank-shaft is at 90 degrees, or about one-half stroke, and the connecting rod is at 20 degrees angle. The shorter connecting rod would increase the diagonal resultant and side thrusts, while a longer one would reduce the angle of the connecting rod and the side thrust of the piston would be less. With the off-set construction, as shown at D, it will be noticed that with the same connecting-rod length as shown at C and with the crank-shaft at 90 degrees of the circle that the connecting-rod angle is 14 degrees and the side thrust is reduced proportionately. Fig. 90 Fig. 90.—Cross Section of Austro-Daimler Engine, Showing Offset Cylinder Construction. Note Applied Water Jacket and Peculiar Valve Action. Another important advantage is that greater efficiency is obtained from the explosion with an off-set crank-shaft, because the crank is already inclined when the piston is at top center, and all the energy imparted to the piston by the burning mixture can be exerted directly into producing a useful turning effort. When a cylinder is placed directly on a line with the crank-shaft, as shown at A, it will be evident that some of the force produced by the expansion of the gas will be exerted in a direct line and until the crank moves the crank throw and connecting rod are practically a solid member. The pressure which might be employed in obtaining useful turning effort is wasted by causing a direct pressure upon the lower half of the main bearing and the upper half of the crank-pin bushing. Fig. 91 Fig. 91.—Diagrams Demonstrating Advantages of Offset Crank-Shaft Construction. Very good and easily understood illustrations showing advantages of the off-set construction are shown at E and F. This is a bicycle crank-hanger. It is advanced that the effort of the rider is not as well applied when the crank is at position E as when it is at position F. Position E corresponds to the position of the parts when the cylinder is placed directly over the crank-shaft center. Position F may be compared to the condition which is present when the off-set cylinder construction is used. VALVE LOCATION OF VITAL IMPORT It has often been said that a chain is no stronger than its weakest link, and this is as true of the explosive motor as it is of any other piece of mechanism. Many motors which appeared to be excellently designed and which were well constructed did not prove satisfactory because some minor detail or part had not been properly considered by the designer. A factor having material bearing upon the efficiency of the internal combustion motor is the location of the valves and the shape of the combustion chamber which is largely influenced by their placing. The fundamental consideration of valve design is that the gases be admitted and discharged from the cylinder as quickly as possible in order that the speed of gas flow will not be impeded and produce back pressure. This is imperative in obtaining satisfactory operation in any form of motor. If the inlet passages are constricted the cylinder will not fill with explosive mixture promptly, whereas if the exhaust gases are not fully expelled the parts of the inert products of combustion retained dilute the fresh charge, making it slow burning and causing lost power and overheating. When an engine employs water as a cooling medium this substance will absorb the surplus heat readily, and the effects of overheating are not noticed as quickly as when air-cooled cylinders are employed. Valve sizes have a decided bearing upon the speed of motors and some valve locations permit the use of larger members than do other positions. While piston velocity is an important factor in determinations of power output, it must be considered from the aspect of the wear produced upon the various parts of the motor. It is evident that engines which run very fast, especially of high power, must be under a greater strain than those operating at lower speeds. The valve-operating mechanism is especially susceptible to the influence of rapid movement, and the slower the engine the longer the parts will wear and the more reliable the valve action. Fig. 92.—Diagram Showing Forms of Cylinder Demanded by Different Valve Placings. A—T Head Type, Valves on Opposite Sides. B—L Head Cylinder, Valves Side by Side. C—L Head Cylinder, One Valve in Head, Other in Pocket. D—Inlet Valve Over Exhaust Member, Both in Side Pocket. E—Valve-in-the-Head Type with Vertical Valves. F—Inclined Valves Placed to Open Directly into Combustion Chamber. As will be seen by reference to the accompanying illustration, Fig. 92, there are many ways in which valves may be placed in the cylinder. Each method outlined possesses some point of advantage, because all of the types illustrated are used by reputable automobile manufacturers. The method outlined at Fig. 92, A, is widely used, and because of its shape the cylinder is known as the “T” form. It is approved for automobile use for several reasons, the most important being that large valves can be employed and a well-balanced and symmetrical cylinder casting obtained. Two independent cam-shafts are needed, one operating the inlet valves, the other the exhaust members. The valve-operating mechanism can be very simple in form, consisting of a plunger actuated by the cam which transmits the cam motion to the valve-stem, raising the valve as the cam follower rides on the point of the cam. Piping may be placed without crowding, and larger manifolds can be fitted than in some other constructions. This has special value, as it permits the use of an adequate discharge pipe on the exhaust side with its obvious advantages. This method of cylinder construction is never found on airplane engines because it does not permit of maximum power output.On the other hand, if considered from a viewpoint of actual heat efficiency, it is theoretically the worst form of combustion chamber. This disadvantage is probably compensated for by uniformity of expansion of the cylinder because of balanced design. The ignition spark-plug may be located directly over the inlet valve in the path of the incoming fresh gases, and both valves may be easily removed and inspected by unscrewing the valve caps without taking off the manifolds. The valve installation shown at C is somewhat unusual, though it provides for the use of valves of large diameter. Easy charging is insured because of the large inlet valve directly in the top of the cylinder. Conditions may be reversed if necessary, and the gases discharged through this large valve. Both methods are used, though it would seem that the free exhaust provided by allowing the gases to escape directly from the combustion chamber through the overhead valve to the exhaust manifold would make for more power. The method outlined at Fig. 92, F and at Fig. 90 is one that has been widely employed on large automobile racing motors where extreme power is required, as well as in engines constructed for aviation service. The inclination of the valves permits the use of large valves, and these open directly into the combustion chamber. There are no pockets to retain heat or dead gas, and free intake and outlet of gas is obtained. This form is quite satisfactory from a theoretical point of view because of the almost ideal combustion chamber form. Some difficulty is experienced, however, in properly water-jacketing the valve chamber which experience has shown to be necessary if the engine is to have high power. The motor shown at Fig. 92, B and Fig. 88 employs cylinders of the “L” type. Both valves are placed in a common extension from the combustion chamber, and being located side by side both are actuated from a common cam-shaft. The inlet and exhaust pipes may be placed on the same side of the engine and a very compact assemblage is obtained, though this is optional if passages are cored in the cylinder pairs to lead the gases to opposite sides. The valves may be easily removed if desired, and the construction is fairly good from the viewpoint of both foundry man and machinist. The chief disadvantage is the limited area of the valves and the loss of heat efficiency due to the pocket. This form of combustion chamber, however, is more efficient than the “T” head construction, though with the latter the use of larger valves probably compensates for the greater heat loss. It has been stated as an advantage of this construction that both manifolds can be placed at the same side of the engine and a compact assembly secured. On the other hand, the disadvantage may be cited that in order to put both pipes on the same side they must be of smaller size than can be used when the valves are oppositely placed. The “L” form cylinder is sometimes made more efficient if but one valve is placed in the pocket while the other is placed over it. This construction is well shown at Fig. 92, D and is found on Anzani motors. Fig. 93 Fig. 93.—Sectional View of Engine Cylinder Showing Valve and Cage Installation. The method of valve application shown at Fig. 87 is an ingenious method of overcoming some of the disadvantages inherent with valve-in-the-head motors. In the first place it is possible to water-jacket the valves thoroughly, which is difficult to accomplish when they are mounted in cages. The water circulates directly around the walls of the valve chambers, which is superior to a construction where separate cages are used, as there are two thicknesses of metal with the latter, that of the valve-cage proper and the wall of the cylinder. The cooling medium is in contact only with the outer wall, and as there is always a loss of heat conductivity at a joint it is practically impossible to keep the exhaust valves and their seats at a uniform temperature. The valves may be of larger size without the use of pockets when seating directly in the head. In fact, they could be equal in diameter to almost half the bore of the cylinder, which provides an ideal condition of charge placement and exhaust. When valve grinding is necessary the entire head is easily removed by taking off six nuts and loosening inlet manifold connections, which operation would be necessary even if cages were employed, as in the engine shown at Fig. 93. Fig. 94 Fig. 94.—Diagrams Showing How Gas Enters Cylinder Through Overhead Valves and Other Types. A—Tee Head Cylinder. B—L Head Cylinder. C—Overhead Valve. Fig. 95 Fig. 95.—Conventional Methods of Operating Internal Combustion Motor Valves. At Fig. 94, A and B, a section through a typical “L”-shaped cylinder is depicted. It will be evident that where a pocket construction is employed, in addition to its faculty for absorbing heat, the passage of gas would be impeded. For example, the inlet gas rushing in through the open valve would impinge sharply upon the valve-cap or combustion head directly over the valve and then must turn at a sharp angle to enter the combustion chamber and then at another sharp angle to fill the cylinders. The same conditions apply to the exhaust gases, though they are reversed. When the valve-in-the-head type of cylinder is employed, as at C, the only resistance offered the gas is in the manifold. As far as the passage of the gases in and out of the cylinder is concerned, ideal conditions obtain. It is claimed that valve-in-the-head motors are more flexible and responsive than other forms, but the construction has the disadvantage in that the valves must be opened through a rather complicated system of push rods and rocker arms instead of the simpler and direct plunger which can be used with either the “T” or “L” head cylinders. This is clearly outlined in the illustrations at Fig. 95, where A shows the valve in the head-operating mechanism necessary if the cam-shaft is carried at the cylinder base, while B shows the most direct push-rod action obtained with “T” or “L” head cylinder placing. Fig. 96 Fig. 96.—Examples of Direct Valve Actuation by Overhead Cam-Shaft. A—Mercedes. B—Hall-Scott. C—Wisconsin. Fig. 97. CENSORED Fig. 98. CENSORED The objection can be easily met by carrying the cam-shaft above the cylinders and driving it by means of gearing. The types of engine cylinders using this construction are shown at Fig. 96, and it will be evident that a positive and direct valve action is possible by following the construction originated by the Mercedes (German) aviation engine designers and outlined at A. The other forms at B and C are very clearly adaptations of this design. The Hall-Scott engine at Fig. 97 is depicted in part section and no trouble will be experienced in understanding the bevel pinion and gear drive from the crank-shaft to the overhead cam-shaft through a vertical counter-shaft. A very direct valve action is used in the Duesenberg engines, one of which is shown in part section at Fig. 98. The valves are parallel with the piston top and are actuated by rocker arms, one end of which bears against the valve stem, and the other rides the cam-shaft. Fig. 99 Fig. 99.—Sectional Views Showing Arrangement of Novel Concentric Valve Arrangement Devised by Panhard for Aerial Engines. The form shown at Fig. 99 shows an ingenious application of the valve-in-the-head idea which permits one to obtain large valves. It has been used on some of the Panhard aviation engines and on the American Aeromarine power plants. The inlet passage is controlled by the sliding sleeve which is hollow and slotted so as to permit the inlet gases to enter the cylinder through the regular type poppet valve which seats in the exhaust sleeve. When the exhaust valve is operated by the tappet rod and rocker arm the intake valve is also carried down with it. The intake gas passage is closed, however, and the burned gases are discharged through the large annular passage surrounding the sleeve. When the inlet valve leaves its seat in the sleeve the passage of cool gas around the sleeve keeps the temperature of both valves to a low point and the danger of warping is minimized. A dome-shaped combustion chamber may be used, which is an ideal form in conserving heat efficiency, and as large valves may be installed the flow of both fresh and exhaust gases may be obtained with minimum resistance. The intake valve is opened by a small auxiliary rocker arm which is lifted when the cam follower rides into the depression in the cam by the action of the strong spring around the push rod. When the cam follower rides on the high point the exhaust sleeve is depressed from its seat against the cylinder. By using a cam having both positive and negative profiles, a single rod suffices for both valves because of its push and pull action. VALVE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION Valve dimensions are an important detail to be considered and can be determined by several conditions, among which may be cited method of installation, operating mechanism, material employed, engine speed desired, manner of cylinder cooling and degree of lift desired. A review of various methods of valve location has shown that when the valves are placed directly in the head we can obtain the ideal cylinder form, though larger valves may be used if housed in a separate pocket, as afforded by the “T” head construction. The method of operation has much to do with the size of the valves. For example, if an automatic inlet valve is employed it is good practice to limit the lift and obtain the required area of port opening by augmenting the diameter. Because of this a valve of the automatic type is usually made twenty per cent. larger than one mechanically operated. When both are actuated by cam mechanism, as is now common practice, they are usually made the same size and are interchangeable, which greatly simplifies manufacture. The relation of valve diameter to cylinder bore is one that has been discussed for some time by engineers. The writer’s experience would indicate that they should be at least half the bore, if possible. While the mushroom type or poppet valve has become standard and is the most widely used form at the present time, there is some difference of opinion among designers as to the materials employed and the angle of the seat. Most valves have a bevel seat, though some have a flat seating. The flat seat valve has the distinctive advantage of providing a clear opening with lesser lift, this conducing to free gas flow. It also has value because it is silent in operation, but the disadvantage is present that best material and workmanship must be used in their construction to obtain satisfactory results. As it can be made very light it is particularly well adapted for use as an automatic inlet valve. Among other disadvantages cited is the claim that it is more susceptible to derangement, owing to the particles of foreign matter getting under the seat. With a bevel seat it is argued that the foreign matter would be more easily dislodged by the gas flow, and that the valve would close tighter because it is drawn positively against the bevel seat. Several methods of valve construction are the vogue, the most popular form being the one-piece type; those which are composed of a head of one material and stem of another are seldom used in airplane engines because they are not reliable. In the built-up construction the head is usually of high nickel steel or cast iron, which metals possess good heat-resisting qualities. Heads made of these materials are not likely to warp, scale, or pit, as is sometimes the case when ordinary grades of machinery steel are used. The cast-iron head construction is not popular because it is often difficult to keep the head tight on the stem. There is a slight difference in expansion ratio between the head and the stem, and as the stem is either screwed or riveted to the cast-iron head the constant hammering of the valve against its seat may loosen the joint. As soon as the head is loose on the stem the action of the valve becomes erratic. The best practice is to machine the valves from tungsten steel forgings. This material has splendid heat-resisting qualities and will not pit or become scored easily. Even the electrically welded head to stem types which are used in automobile engines are not looked upon with favor in the aviation engine. Valve stem guides and valve stems must be machined very accurately to insure correct action. The usual practice in automobile engines is shown at Fig. 100. Fig. 100 Fig. 100.—Showing Clearance Allowed Between Valve Stem and Valve Stem Guide to Secure Free Action. VALVE OPERATION The methods of valve operation commonly used vary according to the type of cylinder construction employed. In all cases the valves are lifted from their seats by cam-actuated mechanism. Various forms of valve-lifting cams are shown at Fig. 101. As will be seen, a cam consists of a circle to which a raised, approximately triangular member has been added at one point. When the cam follower rides on the circle, as shown at Fig. 102, there is no difference in height between the cam center and its periphery and there is no movement of the plunger. As soon as the raised portion of the cam strikes the plunger it will lift it, and this reciprocating movement is transmitted to the valve stem by suitable mechanical connections. Fig. 101 Fig. 101.—Forms of Valve-Lifting Cams Generally Employed. A—Cam Profile for Long Dwell and Quick Lift. B—Typical Inlet Cam Used with Mushroom Type Follower. C—Average Form of Cam. D—Designed to Give Quick Lift and Gradual Closing. The cam forms outlined at Fig. 101 are those commonly used. That at A is used on engines where it is desired to obtain a quick lift and to keep the valve fully opened as long as possible. It is a noisy form, however, and is not very widely employed. That at B is utilized more often as an inlet cam while the profile shown at C is generally depended on to operate exhaust valves. The cam shown at D is a composite form which has some of the features of the other three types. It will give the quick opening of form A, the gradual closing of form B, and the time of maximum valve opening provided by cam profile C. Fig. 102 Fig. 102.—Showing Principal Types of Cam Followers which Have Received General Application. The various types of valve plungers used are shown at Fig. 102. That shown at A is the simplest form, consisting of a simple cylindrical member having a rounded end which follows the cam profile. These are sometimes made of square stock or kept from rotating by means of a key or pin. A line contact is possible when the plunger is kept from turning, whereas but a single point bearing is obtained when the plunger is cylindrical and free to revolve. The plunger shown at A will follow only cam profiles which have gradual lifts. The plunger shown at B is left free to revolve in the guide bushing and is provided with a flat mushroom head which serves as a cam follower. The type shown at C carries a roller at its lower end and may follow very irregular cam profiles if abrupt lifts are desired. While forms A and B are the simplest, that outlined at C in its various forms is more widely used. Compound plungers are used on the Curtiss OX-2 motors, one inside the other. The small or inner one works on a cam of conventional design, the outer plunger follows a profile having a flat spot to permit of a pull rod action instead of a push rod action. All the methods in which levers are used to operate valves are more or less noisy because clearance must be left between the valve stem and the stop of the plunger. The space must be taken up before the valve will leave its seat, and when the engine is operated at high speeds the forcible contact between the plunger and valve stem produces a rattling sound until the valves become heated and expand and the stems lengthen out. Clearance must be left between the valve stems and actuating means. This clearance is clearly shown in Fig. 103 and should be .020'' (twenty thousandths) when engine is cold. The amount of clearance allowed depends entirely upon the design of the engine and length of valve stem. On the Curtiss OX-2 engines the clearance is but .010'' (ten thousandths) because the valve stems are shorter. Too little clearance will result in loss of power or misfiring when engine is hot. Too much clearance will not allow the valve to open its full amount and will disturb the timing. Fig. 103 Fig. 103.—Diagram Showing Proper Clearance to Allow Between Adjusting Screw and Valve Stems in Hall-Scott Aviation Engines. METHODS OF DRIVING CAM-SHAFT Two systems of cam-shaft operation are used. The most common of these is by means of gearing of some form. If the cam-shaft is at right angles to the crank-shaft it may be driven by worm, spiral, or bevel gearing. If the cam-shaft is parallel to the crank-shaft, simple spur gear or chain connection may be used to turn it. A typical cam-shaft for an eight-cylinder V engine is shown at Fig. 104. It will be seen that the sixteen cams are forged integrally with the shaft and that it is spur-gear driven. The cam-shaft drive of the Hall-Scott motor is shown at Fig. 97. Fig. 104 Fig. 104.—Cam-Shaft of Thomas Airplane Motor Has Cams Forged Integral. Note Split Cam-Shaft Bearings and Method of Gear Retention. While gearing is more commonly used, considerable attention has been directed of late to silent chains for cam-shaft operation. The ordinary forms of block or roller chain have not proven successful in this application, but the silent chain, which is in reality a link belt operating over toothed pulleys, has demonstrated its worth. The tendency to its use is more noted on foreign motors than those of American design. It first came to public notice when employed on the Daimler-Knight engine for driving the small auxiliary crank-shafts which reciprocated the sleeve valves. The advantages cited for the application of chains are, first, silent operation, which obtains even after the chains have worn considerably; second, in designing it is not necessary to figure on maintaining certain absolute center distances between the crank-shaft and cam-shaft sprockets, as would be the case if conventional forms of gearing were used. On some forms of motor employing gears, three and even four members are needed to turn the cam-shaft. With a chain drive but two sprockets are necessary, the chain forming a flexible connection which permits the driving and driven members to be placed at any distance apart that the exigencies of the design demand. When chains are used it is advised that some means for compensating chain slack be provided, or the valve timing will lag when chains are worn. Many combination drives may be worked out with chains that would not be possible with other forms of gearing. Direct gear drive is favored at the present time by airplane engine designers because they are the most certain and positive means, even when a number of gears must be used as intermediate drive members. With overhead cam-shafts, bevel gears work out very well in practice, as in the Hall-Scott motors and others of that type. VALVE SPRINGS Another consideration of importance is the use of proper valve-springs, and particular care should be taken with those, of automatic valves. The spring must be weak enough to allow the valve to open when the suction is light, and must be of sufficient strength to close it in time at high speeds. It should be made as large as possible in diameter and with a large number of convolutions, in order that fatigue of the metal be obviated, and it is imperative that all springs be of the same strength when used on a multiple-cylinder engine. Practically all valves used to control the gas flow in airplane engines are mechanically operated. On the exhaust valve the spring must be strong enough so that the valve will not be sucked in on the inlet stroke. It should be borne in mind that if the spring is too strong a strain will be imposed on the valve-operating mechanism, and a hammering action produced which may cause deformation of the valve-seat. Only pressure enough to insure that the operating mechanism will follow the cam is required. It is common practice to make the inlet and exhaust valve springs of the same tension when the valves are of the same size and both mechanically operated. This is done merely to simplify manufacture and not because it is necessary for the inlet valve-spring to be as strong as the other. Valve springs of the helical coil type are generally used, though torsion or “scissors” springs and laminated or single-leaf springs are also utilized in special applications. Two springs are used on each valve in some valve-in-the-head types; a spring of small pitch diameter inside the regular valve-spring and concentric with it. Its function is to keep the valve from falling into the cylinder in event of breakage of the main spring in some cases, and to provide a stronger return action in others. Fig. 105 Fig. 105.—Section Through Cylinder of Knight Motor, Showing Important Parts of Valve Motion. Fig. 106 Fig. 106.—Diagrams Showing Knight Sleeve Valve Action. KNIGHT SLIDE VALVE MOTOR The sectional view through the cylinder at Fig. 105 shows the Knight sliding sleeves and their actuating means very clearly. The diagrams at Fig. 106 show graphically the sleeve movements and their relation to the crank-shaft and piston travel. The action may be summed up as follows: The inlet port begins to open when the lower edge of the opening of the outside sleeve which is moving down passes the top of the slot in the inner member also moving downwardly. The inlet port is closed when the lower edge of the slot in the inner sleeve which is moving up passes the top edge of the port in the outer sleeve which is also moving toward the top of the cylinder. The inlet opening extends over two hundred degrees of crank motion. The exhaust port is uncovered slightly when the lower edge of the port in the inner sleeve which is moving down passes the lower edge of the portion of the cylinder head which protrudes in the cylinder. When the top of the port in the outer sleeve traveling toward the bottom of the cylinder passes the lower edge of the slot in the cylinder wall the exhaust passage is closed. The exhaust opening extends over a period corresponding to about two hundred and forty degrees of crank motion. The Knight motor has not been applied to aircraft to the writer’s knowledge, but an eight-cylinder Vee design that might be useful in that connection if lightened is shown at Fig. 107. The main object is to show that the Knight valve action is the only other besides the mushroom or poppet valve that has been applied successfully to high speed gasoline engines. Fig. 107 Fig. 107.—Cross Sectional View of Knight Type Eight Cylinder V Engine. VALVE TIMING It is in valve timing that the greatest difference of opinion prevails among engineers, and it is rare that one will see the same formula in different motors. It is true that the same timing could not be used with motors of different construction, as there are many factors which determine the amount of lead to be given to the valves. The most important of these is the relative size of the valve to the cylinder bore, the speed of rotation it is desired to obtain, the fuel efficiency, the location of the valves, and other factors too numerous to mention. Most of the readers should be familiar with the cycle of operation of the internal combustion motor of the four-stroke type, and it seems unnecessary to go into detail except to present a review. The first stroke of the piston is one in which a charge of gas is taken into the motor; the second stroke, which is in reverse direction to the first, is a compression stroke, at the end of which the spark takes place, exploding the charge and driving the piston down on the third or expansion stroke, which is in the same direction as the intake stroke, and finally, after the piston has nearly reached the end of this stroke, another valve opens to allow the burned gases to escape, and remains open until the piston has reached the end of the fourth stroke and is in a position to begin the series over again. The ends of the strokes are reached when the piston comes to a stop at either top or bottom of the cylinder and reverses its motion. That point is known as a center, and there are two for each cylinder, top and bottom centers, respectively. All circles may be divided into 360 parts, each of which is known as a degree, and, in turn, each of these degrees may be again divided into minutes and seconds, though we need not concern ourselves with anything less than the degree. Each stroke of the piston represents 180 degrees travel of the crank, because two strokes represent one complete revolution of three hundred and sixty degrees. The top and bottom centers are therefore separated by 180 degrees. Theoretically each phase of a four-cycle engine begins and ends at a center, though in actual practice the inertia or movement of the gases makes it necessary to allow a lead or lag to the valve, as the case may be. If a valve opens before a center, the distance is called “lead”; if it closes after a center, this distance is known as “lag.” The profile of the cams ordinarily used to open or close the valves represents a considerable time in relation to the 180 degrees of the crank-shaft travel, and the area of the passages through which the gases are admitted or exhausted is quite small owing to the necessity of having to open or close the valves at stated times; therefore, to open an adequately large passage for the gases it is necessary to open the valves earlier and close them later than at centers. That advancing the opening of the exhaust valve was of value was discovered on the early motors and is explained by the necessity of releasing a large amount of gas, the volume of which has been greatly raised by the heat of combustion. When the inlet valves were mechanically operated it was found that allowing them to lag at closing enabled the inspiration of a greater volume of gas. Disregarding the inertia or flow of the gases, opening the exhaust at center would enable one to obtain full value of the expanding gases the entire length of the piston stroke, and it would not be necessary to keep the valve open after the top center, as the reverse stroke would produce a suction effect which might draw some of the inert charge back into the cylinder. On the other hand, giving full consideration to the inertia of the gas, opening the valve before center is reached will provide for quick expulsion of the gases, which have sufficient velocity at the end of the stroke, so that if the valve is allowed to remain open a little longer, the amount of lag varying with the opinions of the designer, the cylinder is cleared in a more thorough manner. BLOWING BACK When the factor of retarded opening is considered without reckoning the inertia of the gases, it would appear that if the valve were allowed to remain open after center had passed, say, on the closing of the inlet, the piston, having reversed its motion, would have the effect of expelling part of the fresh charge through the still open valve as it passed inward at its compression stroke. This effect is called blowing back, and is often noted with motors where the valve settings are not absolutely correct, or where the valve-springs or seats are defective and prevent proper closing. This factor is not of as much import as might appear, as on closer consideration it will be seen that the movement of the piston as the crank reaches either end of the stroke is less per degree of angular movement than it is when the angle of the connecting rod is greater. Then, again, a certain length of time is required for the reversal of motion of the piston, during which time the crank is in motion but the piston practically at a standstill. If the valves are allowed to remain open during this period, the passage of the gas in or out of the cylinder will be by its own momentum. LEAD GIVEN EXHAUST VALVE The faster a motor turns, all other things being equal, the greater the amount of lead or advance it is necessary to give the opening of the exhaust valve. It is self-evident truth that if the speed of a motor is doubled it travels twice as many degrees in the time necessary to lower the pressure. As most designers are cognizant of this fact, the valves are proportioned accordingly. It is well to consider in this respect that the cam profile has much to do with the manner in which the valve is opened; that is, the lift may be abrupt and the gas allowed to escape in a body, or the opening may be gradual, the gas issuing from the cylinder in thin streams. An analogy may be made with the opening of any bottle which contains liquid highly carbonated. If the cork is removed suddenly the gas escapes with a loud pop, but, on the other hand, if the bottle is uncorked gradually, the gas escapes from the receptacle in thin streams around the cork, and passage of the gases to the air is accomplished without noise. While the second plan is not harsh, it is slower than the former, as must be evident. EXHAUST CLOSING, INLET OPENING A point which has been much discussed by engineers is the proper relation of the closing of the exhaust valve and the opening of the inlet. Theoretically they should succeed each other, the exhaust closing at upper dead center and the inlet opening immediately afterward. The reason why a certain amount of lag is given the exhaust closing in practice is that the piston cannot drive the gases out of the cylinder unless they are compressed to a degree in excess of that existing in the manifold or passages, and while toward the end of the stroke this pressure may be feeble, it is nevertheless indispensable. At the end of the piston’s stroke, as marked by the upper dead center, this compression still exists, no matter how little it may be, so that if the exhaust valve is closed and the inlet opened immediately afterward, the pressure which exists in the cylinder may retard the entrance of the fresh gas and a certain portion of the inert gas may penetrate into the manifold. As the piston immediately begins to aspirate, this may not be serious, but as these gases are drawn back into the cylinder the fresh charge will be diluted and weakened in value. If the spark-plug is in a pocket, the points may be surrounded by this weak gas, and the explosion will not be nearly as energetic as when the ignition spark takes place in pure mixture. It is a well-known fact that the exhaust valve should close after dead center and that a certain amount of lag should be given to opening of the inlet. The lag given the closing of the exhaust valve should not be as great as that given the closing of the inlet valve. Assuming that the excess pressure of the exhaust will equal the depression during aspiration, the time necessary to complete the emptying of the cylinder will be proportional to the volume of the gas within it. At the end of the suction stroke the volume of gas contained in the cylinder is equal to the cylindrical volume plus the space of the combustion chamber. At the end of the exhaust stroke the volume is but that of the dead space, and from one-third to one-fifth its volume before compression. While it is natural to assume that this excess of burned gas will escape faster than the fresh gas will enter the cylinder, it will be seen that if the inlet valve were allowed to lag twenty degrees, the exhaust valve lag need not be more than five degrees, providing that the capacity of the combustion chamber was such that the gases occupied one-quarter of their former volume.It is evident that no absolute rule can be given, as back pressure will vary with the design of the valve passages, the manifolds, and the construction of the muffler. The more direct the opening, the sooner the valve can be closed and the better the cylinder cleared. Ten degrees represent an appreciable angle of the crank, and the time required for the crank to cover this angular motion is not inconsiderable and an important quantity of the exhaust may escape, but the piston is very close to the dead center after the distance has been covered. Before the inlet valve opens there should be a certain depression in the cylinder, and considerable lag may be allowed before the depression is appreciable. So far as the volume of fresh gas introduced during the admission stroke is concerned, this is determined by the displacement of the piston between the point where the inlet valve opens and the point of closing, assuming that sufficient gas has been inspired so that an equilibrium of pressure has been established between the interior of the cylinder and the outer air. The point of inlet opening varies with different motors. It would appear that a fair amount of lag would be fifteen degrees past top center for the inlet opening, as a certain depression will exist in the cylinder, assuming that the exhaust valve has closed five or ten degrees after center, and at the same time the piston has not gone down far enough on its stroke to materially decrease the amount of gas which will be taken into the cylinder. CLOSING THE INLET VALVE As in the case with the other points of opening and closing, there is a wide diversity of practice as relates to closing the inlet valve. Some of the designers close this exactly at bottom center, but this practice cannot be commended, as there is a considerable portion of time, at least ten or fifteen degrees angular motion of the crank, before the piston will commence to travel to any extent on its compression stroke. The gases rushing into the cylinder have considerable velocity, and unless an equilibrium is obtained between the pressure inside and that of the atmosphere outside, they will continue to rush into the cylinder even after the piston ceases to exert any suction effect. For this reason, if the valve is closed exactly on center, a full charge may not be inspired into the cylinder, though if the time of closing is delayed, this momentum or inertia of the gas will be enough to insure that a maximum charge is taken into the cylinder. The writer considers that nothing will be gained if the valve is allowed to remain open longer than twenty degrees, and an analysis of practice in this respect would seem to confirm this opinion. From that point in the crank movement the piston travel increases and the compressive effect is appreciable, and it would appear that a considerable proportion of the charge might be exhausted into the manifold and carburetor if the valve were allowed to remain open beyond a point corresponding to twenty degrees angular movement of the crank. TIME OF IGNITION In this country engineers unite in providing a variable time of ignition, though abroad some difference of opinion is noted on this point. The practice of advancing the time of ignition, when affected electrically, was severely condemned by early makers, these maintaining that it was necessary because of insufficient heat and volume of the spark, and it was thought that advancing ignition was injurious. The engineers of to-day appreciate the fact that the heat of the electric spark, especially when from a mechanical generator of electrical energy, is the only means by which we can obtain practically instantaneous explosion, as required by the operation of motors at high speeds, and for the combustion of large volumes of gas. Fig. 108 Fig. 108.—Diagrams Explaining Valve and Ignition Timing of Hall-Scott Aviation Engine. It is apparent that a motor with a fixed point of ignition is not as desirable, in every way, as one in which the ignition can be advanced to best meet different requirements, and the writer does not readily perceive any advantage outside of simplicity of control in establishing a fixed point of ignition. In fact, there seems to be some difference of opinion among those designers who favor fixed ignition, and in one case this is located forty-three degrees ahead of center, and in another motor the point is fixed at twenty degrees, so that it may be said that this will vary as much as one hundred per cent. in various forms. This point will vary with different methods of ignition, as well as the location of the spark-plug or igniter. For the sake of simplicity, most airplane engines use set spark; if an advancing and retarding mechanism is fitted, it is only to facilitate starting, as the spark is kept advanced while in flight, and control is by throttle alone. Fig. 109 Fig. 109.—Timing Diagram of Typical Six-Cylinder Engine. It is obvious by consideration of the foregoing that there can be no arbitrary rules established for timing, because of the many conditions which determine the best times for opening and closing the valves. It is customary to try various settings when a new motor is designed until the most satisfactory points are determined, and the setting which will be very suitable for one motor is not always right for one of different design. The timing diagram shown at Fig. 108 applies to the Hall-Scott engine, and may be considered typical. It should be easily followed in view of the very complete explanation given in preceding pages. Another six-cylinder engine diagram is shown at Fig. 109, and an eight-cylinder timing diagram is shown at Fig. 110. In timing automobile engines no trouble is experienced, because timing marks are always indicated on the engine fly-wheel register with an indicating trammel on the crank-case. To time an airplane engine accurately, as is necessary to test for a suspected cam-shaft defect, a timing disc of aluminum is attached to the crank-shaft which has the timing marks indicated thereon. If the disc is made 10 or 12 inches in diameter, it may be divided into degrees without difficulty. Fig. 110 Fig. 110.—Timing Diagram of Typical Eight-Cylinder V Engine. HOW AN ENGINE IS TIMED In timing a motor from the marks on the timing disc rim it is necessary to regulate the valves of but one cylinder at a time. Assuming that the disc is revolving in the direction of engine rotation, and that the firing order of the cylinders is 1-3-4-2, the operation of timing would be carried on as follows: The crank-shaft would be revolved until the line marked “Exhaust opens 1 and 4” registered with the trammel on the motor bed. At this point the exhaust-valve of either cylinder No. 1 or No. 4 should begin to open. This can be easily determined by noting which of these cylinders holds the compressed charge ready for ignition. Assuming that the spark has occurred in cylinder No. 1, then when the fly-wheel is turned from the position to that in which the line marked “Exhaust opens 1 and 4” coincides with the trammel point, the valve-plunger under the exhaust-valve of cylinder No. 1 should be adjusted in such a way that there is no clearance between it and the valve stem. Further movement of the wheel in the same direction should produce a lift of the exhaust valve. The disc is turned about two hundred and twenty-five degrees, or a little less than three-quarters of a revolution; then the line marked “Exhaust closes 1 and 4” will register with the trammel point. At this period the valve-plunger and the valve-stem should separate and a certain amount of clearance obtain between them. The next cylinder to time would be No. 3. The crank-shaft is rotated until mark “Exhaust opens 2 and 3” comes in line with the trammel. At this point the exhaust valve of cylinder No. 3 should be just about opening. The closing is determined by rotating the shaft until the line “Exhaust closes 2 and 3” comes under the trammel. This operation is carried on with all the cylinders, it being well to remember that but one cylinder is working at a time and that a half-revolution of the fly-wheel corresponds to a full working stroke of all the cylinders, and that while one is exhausting the others are respectively taking in a new charge, compressing and exploding. For instance, if cylinder No. 1 has just completed its power-stroke, the piston in cylinder No. 3 has reached the point where the gas may be ignited to advantage. The piston of cylinder No. 4, which is next to fire, is at the bottom of its stroke and will have inspired a charge, while cylinder No. 2, which is the last to fire, will have just finished expelling a charge of burned gas, and will be starting the intake stroke. This timing relates to a four-cylinder engine in order to simplify the explanation. The timing instructions given apply only to the conventional motor types. Rotary cylinder engines, especially the Gnome “monosoupape,” have a distinctive valve timing on account of the peculiarities of design. GNOME “MONOSOUPAPE” VALVE TIMING In the present design of the Gnome motor, a cycle of operations somewhat different from that employed in the ordinary four-cycle engine is made use of, says a writer in “The Automobile,” in describing the action of this power-plant. This cycle does away with the need for the usual inlet valve and makes the engine operable with only a single valve, hence the name monosoupape, or “single-valve.” The cycle is as follows: A charge being compressed in the outer end of the cylinder or combustion chamber, it is ignited by a spark produced by the spark-plug located in the side of this chamber, and the burning charge expands as the piston moves down in the cylinder while the latter revolves around the crank-shaft. When the piston is about half-way down on the power stroke, the exhaust valve, which is located in the center of the cylinder-head, is mechanically opened, and during the following upstroke of the piston the burnt gases are expelled from the cylinder through the exhaust valve directly into the atmosphere. Instead of closing at the end of the exhaust stroke, or a few degrees thereafter, the exhaust valve is held open for about two-thirds of the following inlet stroke of the piston, with the result that fresh air is drawn through the exhaust valve into the cylinder. When the cylinder is still 65 degrees from the end of the inlet half-revolution, the exhaust valve closes. As no more air can get into the cylinder, and as the piston continues to move inwardly, it is obvious that a partial vacuum is formed. When the cylinder approaches within 20 degrees of the end of the inlet half-revolution a series of small inlet ports all around the circumference of the cylinder wall is uncovered by the top edge of the piston, whereby the combustion chamber is placed in communication with the crank chamber. As the pressure in the crank chamber is substantially atmospheric and that in the combustion chamber is below atmospheric, there results a suction effect which causes the air from the crank chamber to flow into the combustion chamber. The air in the crank chamber is heavily charged with gasoline vapor, which is due to the fact that a spray nozzle connected with the gasoline supply tank is located inside the chamber. The proportion of gasoline vapor in the air in the crank chamber is several times as great as in the ordinary combustible mixture drawn from a carburetor into the cylinder. This extra-rich mixture is diluted in the combustion chamber with the air which entered it through the exhaust valve during the first part of the inlet stroke, thus forming a mixture of the proper proportion for complete combustion. The inlet ports in the cylinder wall remain open until 20 degrees of the compression half-revolution has been completed, and from that moment to near the end of the compression stroke the gases are compressed in the cylinder. Near the end of the stroke ignition takes place and this completes the cycle. Fig. 111.—Timing Diagram Showing Peculiar Valve Timing of Gnome “Monosoupape” Rotary Motor. The exact timing of the different phases of the cycle is shown in the diagram at Fig. 111. It will be seen that ignition occurs substantially 20 degrees ahead of the outer dead center, and expansion of the burning gases continues until 85 degrees past the outer dead center, when the piston is a little past half-stroke. Then the exhaust-valve opens and remains open for somewhat more than a complete revolution of the cylinders, or, to be exact, for 390 degrees of cylinder travel, until 115 degrees past the top dead center on the second revolution. Then for 45 degrees of travel the charge within the cylinder is expanded, whereupon the inlet ports are uncovered and remain open for 40 degrees of cylinder travel, 20 degrees on each side of the inward dead center position. SPRINGLESS VALVES Springless valves are the latest development on French racing car engines, and it is possible that the positively-operated types will be introduced on aviation engines also. Two makes of positively-actuated valves are shown at Fig. 112. The positive-valve motor differs from the conventional form by having no necessity for valve-springs, as a cam not only assures the opening of the valve, but also causes it to return to the valve-seat. In this respect it is much like the sleeve-valve motor, where the uncovering of the ports is absolutely positive. The cars equipped with these valves were a success in long-distance auto races. Claims made for this type of valve mechanism include the possibility of a higher number of revolutions and consequently greater engine power. With the spring-controlled, single-cam operated valve a point is reached where the spring is not capable of returning the valve to its seat before the cam has again begun its opening movement. It is possible to extend the limits considerably by using a light valve on a strong spring, but the valve still remains a limiting factor in the speed of the motor. Fig. 112 Fig. 112.—Two Methods of Operating Valves by Positive Cam Mechanism Which Closes as Well as Opens Them. A part sectional view through a cylinder of an engine designed by G. Michaux is shown at Fig. 112, A. There are two valves per cylinder, inclined at about ten degrees from the vertical. The valve-stems are of large diameter, as owing to positive control, there is no necessity of lightening this part in an unusual degree. A single overhead cam-shaft has eight pairs of cams, which are shown in detail at B. For each valve there is a three-armed rocker, one arm of which is connected to the stem of the valve and the two others are in contact respectively with the opening and closing cams. The connection to the end of the valve-stem is made by a short connecting link, which is screwed on to the end of the valve-stem and locked in position. This allows some adjustment to be made between the valves and the actuating rocker. It will be evident that one cam and one rocker arm produce the opening of the valve and that the corresponding rocker arm and cam result in the closing of the valve. If the opening cam has the usual convex profile, the closing cam has a correspondingly concave profile. It will be noticed that a light valve-spring is shown in drawing. This is provided to give a final seating to its valve after it has been closed by the cam. This is not absolutely necessary, as an engine has been run successfully without these springs. The whole mechanism is contained within an overhead aluminum cover. The positive-valve system used on the De Lage motor is shown at D. In this the valves are actuated as shown in sectional views D and E. The valve system is unique in that four valves are provided per cylinder, two for exhaust and two for intake. The valves are mounted side by side, as shown at E, so the double actuator member may be operated by a single set of cams. The valve-operating member consists of a yoke having guide bars at the top and bottom. The actuating cam works inside of this yoke. The usual form of cam acts on the lower portion of the yoke to open the valve, while the concave cam acts on the upper part to close the valves. In this design provision is made for expansion of the valve-stems due to heat, and these are not positively connected to the actuating member. As shown at E, the valves are held against the seat by short coil springs at the upper end of the stem. These are very stiff and are only intended to provide for expansion. A slight space is left between the top of the valve-stem and the portion of the operating member that bears against them when the regular profile cam exerts its pressure on the bottom of the valve-operating mechanism. Another novelty in this motor design is that the cam-shafts and the valve-operating members are carried in casing attached above the motor by housing supports in the form of small steel pillars. The overhead cam-shafts are operated by means of bevel gearing. FOUR VALVES PER CYLINDER Fig. 113 Fig. 113.—Diagram Comparing Two Large Valves and Four Small Ones of Practically the Same Area. Note How Easily Small Valves are Installed to Open Directly Into the Cylinder. Mention has been previously made of the sixteen-valve four-cylinder Duesenberg motor and its great power output for the piston displacement. This is made possible by the superior volumetric efficiency of a motor provided with four valves in each cylinder instead of but two. This principle was thoroughly tried out in racing automobile motors, and is especially valuable in permitting of greater speed and power output from simple four- and six-cylinder engines. On eight- and twelve-cylinder types, it is doubtful if the resulting complication due to using a very large number of valves would be worth while. When extremely large valves are used, as shown in diagram at Fig. 113, it is difficult to have them open directly into the cylinder, and pockets are sometimes necessary. A large valve would weigh more than two smaller valves having an area slightly larger in the aggregate; it would require a stiffer valve spring on account of its greater weight. A certain amount of metal in the valve-head is necessary to prevent warping; therefore, the inertia forces will be greater in the large valve than in the two smaller valves. As a greater port area is obtained by the use of two valves, the gases will be drawn into the cylinder or expelled faster than with a lesser area. Even if the areas are practically the same as in the diagram at Fig. 113, the smaller valves may have a greater lift without imposing greater stresses on the valve-operating mechanism and quicker gas intake and exhaust obtained. The smaller valves are not affected by heat as much as larger ones are. The quicker gas movements made possible, as well as reduction of inertia forces, permits of higher rotative speed, and, consequently, greater power output for a given piston displacement. The drawings at Fig. 114 show a sixteen-valve motor of the four-cylinder type that has been designed for automobile racing purposes, and it is apparent that very slight modifications would make it suitable for aviation purposes. Part of the efficiency is due to the reduction of bearing friction by the use of ball bearings, but the multiple-valve feature is primarily responsible for the excellent performance. Fig. 114 Fig. 114.—Sectional Views of Sixteen-Valve Four-Cylinder Automobile Racing Engine That May Have Possibilities for Aviation Service. Fig. 115 Fig. 115.—Front View of Curtiss OX-3 Aviation Motor, Showing Unconventional Valve Action by Concentric Push Rod and Pull Tube.
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