As in every country there ate two classes, viz., the aristocracy and the people, so in Turkey, there are the Kibars and the Nass.

Aristocracy may everywhere be sub-divided into the aristocracies of birth, of letters, wealth and position.

In Turkey, all hereditary rank is vested solely in the person of the sultan; titles are conferred at his sovereign will and pleasure, and they do not descend from father to son.

There is not, therefore, a regular or systematic aristocracy, and the spirit of democracy is there very evident.

Although the Osmanlis hold all learning in great respect, yet Turkish literature having hitherto been confined to the Koran and its commentaries, the aristocracy of letters has consequently been constituted by the expounders of the faith, who arrogate to themselves the modest appellative of Ulema, or savans. Nevertheless, the people have the greatest reverence and consideration for ZadÉs, or those who are the descendants of illustrious and enlightened parents.

L’argent fait tout is known and acknowledged by all the world; and wealth is everywhere the great highway to power and distinction; elevating its possessor above the common herd. But the love of riches usually begets the love of power; for, N’est on que riche, on veut Être grand, this is most evident in a country where the great tenure by which individual wealth is preserved and personal respect commanded, is official authority. Hence no Osmanli is contented, however great his wealth, without some civil function by which he can avert the overbearing disposition of his rivals. Indeed, so great is their ambition for supremacy, that wealth and everything else is but secondary in their estimation.

Therefore the only aristocracy in Turkey is that of wealth combined with position.

It is not generally merit that raises a man to power in any part of the world, but still less in Turkey. No matter what his previous avocations, or utter ignorance, it is supposed that when Allah, or his proxy, the Padishah, gives the office, that within the turban of distinction lie all the sense and wit needed for the post! Hence, what if the cobbler become the pasha, or the shop-boy Grand Vezir, Allah Kerim!

This a country where versatility of talent is very remarkable, if not great depth of genius; for one day a man may be head cook to his majesty, the next a captain pasha, or minister of finance! Thus are often realized the tales of the Arabian Nights, and the humblest subject may dream of greatness, and wake to find himself a Redjal, or grandee of the realm.

Indeed the only real statesmen and true patriots may be reduced to few individuals, all told, viz., Reshid, Aali, Fuad, Riza, Rifaat, and Omer Pashas.

Besides, those who have been long employed as servants of the palace, or have proved themselves cunning buffoons, or able intriguers, are rewarded by some official post instead of a royal pension, provided they are of the Faithful. For elevation to office is the privilege of the Mussulmans only, who, considering themselves lords of the soil, as they are the proprietors, are unwilling to consign their rights to their rayas, on the principle that “to the victors belong the spoils.”

The very existence of the rayas has rendered the Osmanlis proud and arrogant in their peculiar right as Mussulmans; and, though holding all high places themselves, they have been willing to call in the assistance of their subjects in secondary employments. The rayas thus employed, are, of course, but a small proportion of the whole; to all the rest life dwindles into a tinkering, jobbing affair.

This mushroom aristocracy, which was formerly ephemeral, like Jonas’ gourd, springing suddenly into existence, coming to maturity in an incredibly short space of time, then perishing ere the sun of its glory arrived at meridian height, has now, by virtue of the Tanzimat, which secures the enjoyment of life and property, attained a sort of permanency.

These officials being originally of the people, it may be supposed, would feel some sympathy for them; but the moment they come into power, they become an exclusive class. Because in Turkey the patriarchal idea that everything belongs to the sovereign, has led them to regard the government as not made for the people, but the people for the government; they think, therefore, that all advantages should accrue not to the governed but to the governing, thus reducing the mass into the state of individual nonentities, or mere conduits for the resources of the empire. The persons in authority seek, therefore, only the prosperity of the government, and constitute, as it were, a sort of fiscal administration, rather than one mindful of the good of the commonwealth. Hence, whenever a project of public utility is proposed, the first idea that crosses the mind of a Turkish functionary, is what direct advantage may accrue to the government? With such perverted ideas, the aristocracy, who are termed par excellence the Kibars, though few in numbers, are like leaven to the whole mass; domineering, exciting, and often corrupting the best materials; and as men are creatures of circumstances, their moral and temporal conditions are but the results of the good or bad government under which they live. The evils, corruptions, and miseries existing in a community, are not therefore to be attributed to the mass indiscriminately, but rather to the influences that surround them.

Baluk bashdan Kokar is a common proverb with the Osmanlis, or as is the fountain so will be the streams which flow from it; therefore a government which exercises its prerogatives to revenge, not to punish; to remove the offender, not to benefit others by making an example of him; to deal death-blows to all who stand in the way; to encourage self-aggrandizement rather than study the wants of the community; to prefer the intriguant before the patriot; to patronize the buffoon rather than the statesman; such a government cannot fail to stamp its sanguinary and arbitrary character upon its subjects.

A country where the insidious poison is ever at hand, and where the innocent and new-born infant who may endanger the heirs to the throne is forced to yield the life it has but just received; in such a land the same scenes will be enacted in its darkest corners, and the peasant will mimic the lord as far as he dares.

The selfish and corrupt principles of the government have naturally had their pernicious effects upon all its agents, and through them, upon the people.

The sultan is the great sun of the system—around whom the many lesser orbs revolve. While the pashas and dignitaries are themselves planets of no small lustre, attended by innumerable satellites of their own.

The grandee holds the cable of power upon which tremblingly cling a numerous train, from its summit to its lowest extremity—all sustained, as long as the rope is firm; all crushed, when it slips from the hand of its supporter.

Indiscriminate patronage being a principle, favoritism and corruption become of necessity a natural consequence. Indifferent men are therefore raised to places of trust, to perform duties which can never occupy their minds or engross their intellect, but the want of money is their first and their keenest necessity; for “N’est on que grand? On veut Être riche. Est on et grand et riche? On veut Être plus grand et plus riche.”

Thus all patriotism is subverted—and individual interest and position are made the sine qu non of existence.

Before they were enervated by conquest and the possession of vast tributary states, which intoxicated them with sudden wealth, the Turks were brave in battle, faithful to their friends, and generous to their enemies. But being inured to war and excitement, peace and tranquillity only reduced them to a state of sloth and idleness, and inspired them with conceit and arrogance to all around them. Content with being the lords of the realm, ignorant and unfitted for the arts of peace, all their affairs were consigned to their rayas.

The titles of Vali, Pasha, Mussellim, etc., were enjoyed by them while their provinces and Pashaliks were either farmed out to subordinates or managed by their Armenian sarafs or bankers—who received and disbursed their incomes; so that the Osmanli grandee had nothing to do but lounge listlessly in his Keosk and puff his long chibouk—varying his life by occasional official visits to the Porte, or in the softer seclusion of his harem.

The enviable condition of indolence, and the desire to be surrounded with the trappings of wealth, created a rivalry among them, not to attain high and honorable posts as the champions of their country’s welfare, but to ensure the means of luxury and display—and to excel each other in supremacy.

Hence they have arrived at the acme of perfection in the arts of adulation, servility, deceit, and intrigue. Real virtue is of no avail, where successful vice only is admired, and the most insidious and faithless ever the favorites of fortune. Indeed, ingratitude is stamped upon their character, for an Osmanli raised to power, would turn the enemy even of his patron, should he dare to cross his schemes. This is so proverbial that they have a saying—Bir Osmanli bir pirÉ itchin koss kodja yorgani yakar! an Osmanli would burn up an entire coverlet to rid himself of a single flea! or in other words, no consideration would deter him from any sacrifice that would promote his own interests—examples of which are of daily occurrence in their political machinations.

In such a malarious atmosphere, it would be supposed that every moral virtue would perish, and only noisome weeds choke the soil—but such is by no means the case. As the richest fruits and most fragrant flowers often grow from the very putrefactions that lie on the surface of the earth, so the people in Turkey, surrounded by such a depraved and corrupted court, are themselves often specimens of nature’s best handiwork.

The native honesty of the Turks is proverbial, and in illustration thereof the following story has been widely circulated.

An Englishman having landed a cargo of goods at one of the custom-houses in the East, was unwilling to leave them at the wharf unguarded; when he was told by the officer, that there was no need for apprehension, as there was not another Englishman within fifty miles!

Whatever may be the truth of this statement, it may be observed, that some of the Osmanlis of the present day have so far advanced in civilization as to even excel in this respect their present honorable Allies! For, the idea that to rob the treasury of the sultan is not defrauding the people, has led the officials into all the wiles of corruption and systematic cheating—so that cheating and bribery may be considered as the corner stones of this vast edifice.

In the purchase of government supplies there is a display of honesty on the part of the officials, and also of the European merchants, who endeavor to underbid each other in prices, which may be considered by an outsider as ruinous, but on the contrary, always proves profitable to the co-partners in the speculation.

On a certain occasion 780 pieces of cotton cloth were palmed off upon the government by a European merchant for 78,000 pieces! for which amount the Treasury gave a note.

Such instances are not of rare occurrence, nor confined only to officials—they pervade all classes. Hence the scullion cheats the cook; the cook the steward; the steward the master; the master the efendy; the efendy the pasha; and the pasha the sultan; and why not? Where the strife for aggrandizement and power is so great, and the battle not to the brave and good, but to the wealthy and intriguing, there is little or no inducement to honesty and good faith.

Russia seems to understand our people better than any other Europeans, owing perhaps to her natural proximity; also since “a fellow feeling makes us wond’rous kind,” she knew where to touch the sensitive Osmanlis, when she provided Prince Menschikoff, on his late mission to Constantinople, with a surplus fund of 300,000 Paul Imperials, or over a million of dollars!

It is not, however, only in Turkey that bribery and corruption prevail—even Europe, France and England, the very centres of civilization, have furnished sad examples of personal aggrandizement, under the garb of patriotism.

Nevertheless, it is eminently true, that those of the people who have retained their primitive simplicity are truly honest and confiding; while others have become contaminated by the corruption of the court, and the grasping spirit of European adventurers.

Many of the peasants remove to the metropolis, with the hope of bettering their condition. Some of them become hamals, or porters, Tellaks, or attendants of the baths; cayikjys, or boatmen, common laborers, venders in general, and others, domestics in private houses.

A certain Armenian, native of Van, immediately upon his arrival in Constantinople, was engaged as a scullion.

In course of time, he complained to his companions that he was not doing a good business on such a salary as he received, and he wondered at their apparent prosperity.

His simplicity was, of course, ridiculed at first, and through compassion, he was initiated into the tricks of the trade. He was told that he must always add to his account the customary Khamin of 20 or 30 per cent., a technical term, expressing overcharge, or cheating, not understood by novices.

So the next day, when this simple son of Armenia presented his account to his master, at the foot of the bill there was an item, which seemed not quite intelligible to him. He therefore called for an explanation; when the servant, in all his native simplicity, informed him that, that item was the Khamin, or the sum total of his cheating, which his companions assured him was customary, and allowed to all servants in their daily purchases! How fortunate and consoling it would be, if, instead of being drugged in small doses, we could thus be informed of the sum total of all the cheatings to which we are subjected!

The most unlimited confidence is stamped upon all their reciprocal transactions, and they intrust each other with any amount of goods, without demanding a receipt, check, or counter check. In the exercise of their avocation as hamals, they are often intrusted with bags of money untold; they are generally the watchmen or guardians to the stores and mercantile houses of the Franks, and in any deficiency or robbery, their character and integrity are never questioned or suspected.

The Osmanlis possess the domestic virtues of kindness and affection in a remarkable degree; their love of offspring is very great, and their patient endurance of the whims and caprices of their women quite exemplary.

Merhamet, or compassion, is an essential component in their character, and induces them to extend a most unlimited patronage even to the lower orders of creation. Hence the streets in Turkey swarm with dogs, the roofs of the houses with cats, and the domes of the mosques with venerated pigeons, which, one and all, are objects of special charity.

The thousands of cayiks that ply up and down the Bosphorus, acting as aquatic omnibuses, besides their designated load of passengers, make a point to carry one or more boys gratuitously, as an act of charity; and how astonished would they be at the cry of “cut behind,” which so often greets the ears of beggars in more eminent Christian lands, who mistaking wishes for horses might otherwise chance to ride.

Yet a Turk is a singular being, apparently composed of contrarieties, of savage traits, as well as domestic virtues, and this contrariety is to be attributed solely to his fanaticism. Social and humane until you touch his religious prejudices, when he becomes implacable.

It has been the interest of the clergy to nurture a fanatical conceit, by which the great principle of human nature, self-glorification, has well sustained, and the Mussulmans been led to consider themselves the very salt of the earth, and the rest of the human family as contemptible Giavours.

Hence they will not honor a Christian with the Mohammedan salutation, Selamin AlekÜm, “Pax vobiscum,” nor will they observe any one in the company, until they have looked for a true believer, to whom, however humble he may be, is offered the Arabic, or orthodox salutation; and on the Christians present, however great in their own estimation, will afterwards be bestowed as their due, a simple Sabahlar-Hayr Olsoon, or good morning, in plain Turkish.

Though they have been subdued into a certain degree of external deference by the progress of civilization, yet in the exchange of social etiquettes, there is always a meaning slight cast upon their unbelieving friends, which is well understood and appreciated among themselves.

Even the humblest Mohammedan will appropriate to himself the best position in a public conveyance, or in any promiscuous assembly, considering himself as fully entitled to such privileges, by the simple guarantee of his faith, which elevates him above all humanity.

In the medical school, where some of the scholars belong to the families of the rayas, this Mussulman conceit is most evident, and even tolerated and encouraged by the government at the present day; for regardless of actual merit, it has hitherto been a principle with the faculty always to place a Mussulman boy at the head of the class!

It may be a matter of wonder to see such bigoted characters adopting the very garb of the contemptible giavours. But the change of costume was effected by the invincible Mahmoud, who, to liberate his people from the thraldom of the janissaries, and the superstitions of darker ages, feared neither priest or Koran, and at all hazards resolved to make a daring stride towards civilization and reform.

Therefore this change of costume was not effected through any relaxation of religious bigotry, but by the force of the supreme power of the sultan; and the Ulema themselves were obliged to compromise, by wearing a fez, with a simple turban around it, with some other slight modification of their flowing robes.

Reform in dress having become an essential principle of the government, those connected with the court and all public officers, were obliged to conform to the established style, and the young ÉlÉgans of Stamboul now vie with the Parisian exquisites in their recherchÉes toilettes.

But beyond the circle of court etiquette and fashion, the artisans and peasants still preserve all the varieties of costumes identified with Orientalism.

Religious fanaticism in the East, is not confined to the Mussulmans alone. It seems to have a universal sway in this climate, pervading every community.

The Mussulman would feel callous at the sight of the decapitation of a Christian, and a Christian would experience a secret exultation at the death of a Mussulman.

Some years ago, I had the misfortune to meet with an accident; my carriage was lost in the Bosphorus, and my horse and hostler were drowned. Near the spot of this occurrence, there was a Greek coaster lying at anchor, and the sailors soon came to my call for assistance; but perceiving that the drowning man was dressed in Turkish costume, and taking him for a Mussulman, they instinctively exclaimed, ??????? e??e, ??????? e??e, he is a Turk, he is a Turk, left him to his sad fate. It was in vain that I proclaimed that he was a Greek and co-religionist of their own.

The Mussulman is fanatical, because he has thereby been goaded on to victory, and attributes all his successes to the banner of the Prophet—and the Christian is bigoted, because his religion is the only thing left him—his church is the cradle of his superstitions, and the badge of his nationality.

Even a Turk designates his nationality by his religion; for if you ask him, Of what nation are you? his answer will invariably be, El-hamd-ullah Mussulmanem, or Thank God I am a Mussulman.

Indeed, religion in the East is so pre-eminent, that a declaration of faith is equal to an allegiance of fealty, and the Mohammedan formula of La-Illah-Illallah, etc., is the only oath of naturalization, which, if once pronounced, fully entitles the individual to all the privileges and immunities of Turkish citizenship.

Neither is there a community of sentiment among the Christians themselves—who, all abhorring Islamism, hate none the less each other through their religious differences.

An Armenian, native of Angora—whose inhabitants are reputed for their religious bigotry—and a Roman Catholic by persuasion, had occasion to visit Trieste on some commercial business. On his arrival there, he was asked by the officer of the quarantine what nation he belonged to! His unsophistical and prompt answer was “Catholic.” The officer, somewhat puzzled at this novel nationality, reminded him that they were also all Catholics there, but called themselves Austrians or Italians—now, what is your nation? thereupon our worthy friend unflinchingly reiterated that he was a Catholic; nothing else but a Catholic; for they now had, through the interference of the French Ambassador, a Patriarch of their own, and were recognized as a nation! meaning a community.

If a Greek mendicant happen to call at your door, and you ask his co-religionist who it is, his answer will surely be Christianos or a Christian; but if the applicant for charity should chance to be of any other creed, his only title would be ztiyanos, or beggar.

Apart from the religious fanaticism, which is universal, the people, uncontaminated by a depraved and corrupted court—unlike the enervated and luxurious Osmanlis of the metropolis, are simple-minded, brave, robust, temperate, intelligent, active and industrious.

The Mussulmans formerly taught that apostasy should be punished with death; but now a new system of instruction, on this and other points, proceeding from supreme authority, is as readily received by the credulous multitude.

Their bravery has been attested by the late massacre of Sinope, when one and all preferred death to an ignominious surrender. The events of the recent war have established the fact, that there are no better soldiers than the Turks.

We have the testimony of a distinguished American who

He says that “we had an agreeable conversation with General Omar Pasha’s staff surgeon …. Among other things, he said the Turks had long been extremely anxious to unite with their Allies in a direct assault upon Sebastopol. I was somewhat surprised at this intimation, knowing their considerate nature, and general inclination to conservative views.” Yet, notwithstanding, they have been accused of cowardice for the desertion of the batteries daring the battle of Balaklava, which could not well have been avoided under the circumstances. The triumphs of Silistria, Tchetate and Kars, afford ample refutation of such calumnies.

The Orientals are strong and athletic men, capable of enduring the greatest bodily fatigue.

The hamals or porters, both Mussulman and Armenian, have been known to carry on their backs immense weights; and one of these Oriental Hercules has been seen carrying, on a wager, a load of no less than a thousand pounds to a distance of a quarter of a mile!

The heavier hardens are suspended from long poles, the number of which increases in proportion to the weight. And when the contents are of glassware, instead of being marked Fragile, a full size representation of a bottle is painted upon the package. The ends of these poles rest on the shoulders of the hamals, and they walk in a steady and measured soldier-like step. One of them once accidentally slipped and fell, and the end of the pole striking him on the chest, he became senseless. His companions raised him up, whilst one of their number stood back to back with the injured man, and locking his arms within those of his comrade, repeatedly raised him from the ground, thus expanding the chest, until he recovered his breath, when, to the astonishment of the bystanders, the man, after taking one or two long inspirations, smiling at the funny incident, shouldered his pole and marched on as if nothing had happened!

These very men live habitually on the simplest diet, consisting of the coarsest brown bread, in the middle of which they make a cavity, and fill it with equal proportions of olive oil and molasses, and it is really a pleasure to see them enjoy their simple meals with a relish that would kill all dyspepsia doctors from sheer envy.

The native intelligence of the people is evinced by their aptitude in acquiring the arts of civilized life; for after a residence of a couple of years in the metropolis, the rudest peasants become accomplished soldiers and skillful artisans.

The facility with which they have adapted themselves to the European style of music is very remarkable, and certainly implies much talent or cleverness.

Indeed, many of those who have risen to the higher ranks of society, evince no signs, in their general deportment, of plebeian origin, save the peculiar brogue of local rusticity.

Nothing is more erroneous and unjust than the idea that the Orientals are indolent or inactive.

The tabys or garÇons of the KahvÉs even excel their Parisian competitors in alertness and general ubiquity—serving scores of customers at once with coffee, chibouk, and narghillÉs.

The boatmen, who transport the pashas and others to their homes, after the adjourning of the Porte, and closing of the Bazaars, delight to compete with each other in speed, and linger on their course until they meet with an antagonist, when the race sometimes extends the whole length of the Bosphorus.

Their sports and national games, consisting of horsemanship, wrestling, chasing, cricket, etc, all tend to show their love of activity.

There is none of the bustle, or American go-a-headism, in the Oriental character and habits; none of that nervous excitement which has so much the air of great progress, too often, like the whirlwind among the natural elements, creating prodigies of human noise and commotion, which subside and leave no sign; or it may be, only havoc and destruction. In all the machineries of Eastern life, public or domestic, steady and quiet perseverance rules the motion, the oil of gentleness falling drop by drop upon the rolling wheels, suffices for the friction; while in the land of modern adventure, by increasing the pressure to a tremendous degree, the whole structure is often crushed to atoms. This giddy rushing to a certain point is too apt to wear out human energy, and most surely annihilates self-possession, which is the keystone to success. Leave then, we say, the Oriental sometimes to sit amid the fumes of his favorite chibouk; for while external things are beclouded, often a mighty scheme is in conception, and the sunshine of matured judgment suddenly bursts upon the dim atmosphere, in full power and glory, ready to fructify and yield all manner of increase.

The apparent idleness which some persons have attributed to the natives of this country, is more the effect of a spirit of resignation to external circumstances, than of a desire to be unemployed.

Taking for a basis the idea that the interest of the people is but secondary, and under the pretence of increasing the revenue of the country, and thus benefiting the state as it were, but with the secret hope of self-aggrandizement, all advantageous projects are seized upon by the officials; thus an effectual check is thrown upon all private and public enterprise.

The writer was the first to propose to the Turkish government the establishment of a railroad from the capital to Adrianople. Not succeeding in this, a line of post coaches was suggested, for which, after great exertion, a Firman was granted. But no sooner were the advantages of the project understood, than several persons in authority began to intrigue, until they succeeded in appropriating the Firman to themselves, which had been obtained at so much expense and toil by another.

But as usual, it proved to them more ruinous than profitable, because of the numerous contenders for the spoils.

No internal improvements are dreamt of, and no motive left for speculation, and as there is no mutual confidence between the government and the people, the formation of corporate companies, which require united action, is out of the question, or, if attempted, they are sure to fall through by official exactions. Thus, a country teeming with mines and minerals, is left unexplored, and all other internal resources lie dormant.

Some attempts have of late been made by the government at internal improvements, such as the post-road from Trebizond to Erzuroum; but the over-exertions of those intrusted with the work soon exhausted the appropriations, and the road was but half completed.

The coal mines at Heraclea have shared a similar fate. Indeed, no undertaking can be prosperous in the lands of the officials—and if any such privilege be granted to private individuals, it is invariably under the patronage of some grandee.

A permission was obtained from government by an individual to light the streets of Pera. In the course of six months the lamps were demolished by the citizens, because they were heavily taxed to fill the pockets of the speculator, without any advantage to themselves—the streets for the most part, being as dark as before.

All innovations are, therefore, in disrepute, not that they are not appreciated, but because they invariably prove to be mere schemes for individual advantage, and never pro bono publico.

Hence it is also that the streets, even in the metropolis, are ill paved, filthy, and not lighted—each person carrying his own lantern, and getting along as best he can.

Public enterprise being at so low an ebb, a spirit of indifference pervades the country and if you once pass the aristocracy, the actual necessities of the community are but few. They have no idea therefore of bettering their condition. If you offer them any new invention, they admire its ingenuity, and dryly tell you they have no need of it—consequently there is no need of patent rights for new inventions.

This indifference is not to be construed into a love of inactivity—but is rather the result of selfishness—each man’s interests being circumscribed by the sphere in which he moves. In case of any emergency they are most indefatigable and persevering. It needs only to cite the fact that Pera, one of the suburbs of the city, has, in the course of twenty years, been destroyed by fire four times, and entirely rebuilt by native industry. Indeed, inactivity is against the spirit of the country, for there, there are no Rentiers—but every one must have a calling—even the sultan is traditionally supposed to belong to the tooth-pick trade!

Since the abolition of capital and summary punishments and the monopolies, by the promulgation of of the Tanzimat, which was an attempt at reformation, not without some beneficial results, a new impulse has been given to the activity of the population. In a word, give but the necessary impetus, and as much genuine go-a-headism may be found in Turkey, as in Yankee-land itself.

With such a population, and so many internal resources, it may be deemed a matter of wonder that this empire should be in so ruinous a condition.