No one of the various punctuation marks should ever be used exclusively or to excess, for each one has some specific duty which it can perform better than any other. It is always wise to question why, in a given case, a punctuation mark should be put in rather than why it should be left out, for of the two evils an over-punctuated book is the more objectionable. “Close punctuation,” {4} characterized by the use of many commas, prevailed in the English of the eighteenth century and is today the best French usage, but “open punctuation,” which avoids the use of any point not clearly required by the construction, is now favored by the best English writers.

2. Between adjectives and adverbs when not connected by a conjunction: He possessed a calm, exasperating manner; but the comma may be omitted between two adjectives when the idea is close: e.g., A clear cold day. {5}

3. After adjectives and adverbs where three or more are used in succession: e.g., The man possessed a calm, cynical, exasperating manner.

4. In a succession of three or more words where the conjunctive and is used before the last one: e.g., He was tall, thin, and pale.

5. When the word after the conjunction is followed by an expression which qualifies that word alone: e.g.,

6. After inverted phrases and clauses: e.g., Discouraged by constant opposition, he resigned his position. Short phrases of similar nature do not require the comma: e.g., Of his intentions there could be no doubt.

7. To separate the adverbs however, now, then, too, perhaps, and indeed from the context when they are used as conjunctions: e.g., This idea, however, had not occurred to him. When these words are used as adverbs, the comma is not required: e.g., It must be done, however contrary it may be to our present advantage.

8. To separate parenthetical or intermediate expressions from the context: e.g., His intentions, though at first concealed, became obvious.

9. After the last word of a series composed of several words not connected by conjunctions: e.g., The men, the women, the children even, were up in arms. {6}

10. Between words or phrases in apposition with each other: e.g., I refer to Mr. Taylor, the father of Scientific Management. But when used as a single phrase or a compound name, no comma is required: e.g., The poet Tennyson was born in 1809.

11. Between the name of a person and his title or degree: e.g., Charles W. Eliot, President Emeritus; Woodrow Wilson, LL.D.

12. Between two independent clauses connected by a conjunction: e.g., The door was barricaded, but we managed to open it.

13. Between relative clauses which are explanatory of an antecedent, or which present an additional thought: e.g., Her voice, which was charming in her own drawing-room, was not powerful enough for a public auditorium. But relative clauses which limit the meaning of the antecedent (called restrictive) do not require the comma: e.g., He did that which he was obliged to do.

14. Between two clauses, one of which depends on the other, and usually introduced by if, when, unless, though, where, wherever, etc.: e.g., If we stand together, success is assured. If the clauses are closely connected both in sense and construction, the comma is not required: e.g., William was ten years old when his father moved to Boston.

15. In compound sentences, to separate the co-ordinate clause when closely related and simple in construction: e.g., He was {7} courteous, not cringing, to superiors; affable, not familiar, to equals; and kind, but not condescending, to inferiors.

16. To indicate an ellipsis: e.g., Price, seventy-five cents.

17. To separate vocative words or expressions from the context: e.g., I leave it, gentlemen, to your sense of right and wrong.

18. Before not, when introducing an antithetical clause: e.g., He devoted his attention to the matter before him, not because he was interested, but because he could not avoid the issue.

19. To separate similar or identical words, even though not required by the sense or grammatical construction: e.g., I tell you, you are wrong.

20. To separate two numbers: e.g., March 1, 1912; In 1911, 869 cases were reported.

21. To separate a quotation or similar brief expression from the preceding part of the sentence: e.g., To quote the proverb, “Look before you leap.”

22. Before the word of, connecting a proper name with residence or position: e.g., Senator Lodge, of Massachusetts.

23. After the salutatory phrase at the beginning of a letter, when informal: e.g., My dear Mother, but, when formal, Gentlemen:

2. Before or after conjunctions when they are employed to connect two expressions in the same construction used as if belonging to the same part of speech: e.g., The new system of management guarantees accuracy in getting orders under way and promptness in completing them.

3. Before the conjunction too when placed at the end of a sentence: e.g., I hope that you will come too.

4. Where there are two or more words or phrases having a conjunction between each two: e.g., Lest he should be tempted and yield and thus be false.

5. After an adjective that describes or limits another adjective together with the noun following: e.g., He had on a pair of torn gray corduroy breeches.

6. When a pronoun is used with a noun for emphasis: e.g., Lafcadio Hearn himself could not have described the scene more vividly.

2. To connect successive sentences: e.g., His face never showed an emotion other than that which he wished to have seen there; the mouth was protected by his heavy mustache; his eyes penetrated the object on which they fixed themselves. Shorter sentences should be divided by commas.

3. Between expressions in a series which have a common dependence upon words at the beginning or end of a sentence: e.g., The half-sick man is a nuisance to his entire household: he is not ill enough to accept restraint; he is too ill to be reasonable.

4. To separate passages containing chapters in scriptural references: e.g., Matt. 1 : 4–8, 12, 16; chap. 3; 8 : 16. {10}

2. Between two members of a sentence when one or both are made up of two or more clauses divided by semicolons: e.g., Vallie was nervous in his temperment; the Captain was calm and self-contained: Vallie was the product of the city; the Captain was the product of the world.

3. Between a complete sentence and an additional clause enlarging upon the same idea without a conjunction: e.g., Imagination {11} is essential to business success: without imagination, plans for future development cannot intelligently be made.

4. Before particulars definitely stated: e.g., These new duties of the management are grouped under four heads: first, they develop a science for each element of a man’s work, etc.

5. Before formal quotations: e.g., In a recent speech attributed to you by the daily press, you are reported to have used these words: “Good principles follow good habits.”

6. After the formal salutatory phrase at the beginning of a letter: e.g., Gentlemen:1 When less formality is desired, the comma may be used: e.g., My dear Mother,

7. Between the hours and minutes in indicating time: e.g., 11 : 30 A.M.

8. Between the chapter and verse in scriptural references: e.g., Matt. 1 : 4–8, 12, 16; chap. 3; 8 : 16.

9. Between the city of publication and the name of publisher in literary references: e.g., “The Adventures of Tom Sawyer” (New York: Harpers).

2. To set off decimal numbers from whole numbers.

3. After every complete sentence unless the sentence is interrogative or exclamatory.

4. To indicate an ellipsis, repeating the mark three or more times separated by spaces: e.g.,...

2. After cut-in side-notes.

3. After centered head-lines.

4. After box-heads in tables.

5. After legends beneath illustrations.

6. After subheads set in separate lines.

7. After date-lines at the top of letters.

8. After signatures at the end of letters.

9. At end of lines in display composition, such as titles,2 blocked headings, etc.

10. After roman numerals, even though they possess the value of ordinals: e.g., Vol. VIII; George V is king of England.

2. To connect extreme dates in specifying periods of time: e.g., 1912–1918.

3. When the sentence is abruptly terminated: e.g., “If he is alive, I can make him one from this time; and if — if —”

4. To secure rhetorical emphasis: e.g., We are ready — we are more than ready to meet the issue.

5. To define verse references in the Bible: e.g., Matt. 1 : 4–8; or to indicate page references in a book: e.g., See pp. 21–42.

6. Between short, snappy sentences to increase the speed of the discourse: e.g., Hullo! ho! the whole world’s asleep! — bring out the horses, — grease the wheels, — tie on the mail!

7. Between the subject-matter and its authority.

8. To indicate the omission of letters: e.g., Mrs. B——.

9. At the end of a series of phrases which depend upon a concluding clause: e.g., Courtesy and attention, patience and judgment, accuracy and carefulness — these are but a few of the elements which constitute successful business relations. {14}

10. To precede expressions which are added to an apparently completed sentence, but which refer to some previous part of the sentence: e.g., The question of hearing was seriously troubling the minister — they probably had heard too much.

¶ Dashes may be substituted for commas or marks of parenthesis before and after expressions having closer connection with the main sentence than could be indicated by marks of parenthesis: e.g., They might have been talking for a quarter of an hour or more, when Monks — by which name the Jew had designated the strange man — said, etc.

¶ Use the dash preceded by the colon before a long quotation forming a new paragraph. The dash is not otherwise used with other punctuation marks unless demanded by clearness.

¶ In France, printers use the dash as a frequent substitute for quotation-marks in dialogue, placing quotation-marks only at the beginning and the end, even though extended over several pages.

2. To indicate sarcasm or doubt on the part of the writer regarding the authenticity of a statement: e.g., “For Brutus is an honorable man!”

3. After exclamatory words. If the same interjection is repeated use the comma to separate the words, placing the exclamation-point only at the end, unless the intention is to make each of the repeated words emphatic: e.g., “Oh! dear, dear, dear!” he exclaimed; “what an unfortunate memory you have!”

¶ Use great care in distinguishing between Oh!, an interjection expressing pain or surprise, and the vocative O, expressing a wish or an imprecation, which does not call for the exclamation-point: e.g., “Oh! what damned minutes tells he o’er!” and “O that I had wings like a dove!”

1. Every sentence containing a direct question should close with an interrogation-point: e.g., When can this order be shipped? We have received a letter which asks, “What date can you give us for shipping these goods?”

2. The interrogation-point is used to express doubt: e.g., This volume is said to be bound in real ( ?) morocco.

3. Indirect questions do not take the interrogation-point: e.g., He inquired when it would be ready.

2. When a quotation of a passage from an author in his own words is run into the text it should be placed between quotation-marks.

3. Selections from different works by the same author, or from different authors, following each other without intervening original matter, or by reference to their sources, should be quoted.

4. When setting poetry the quotation-marks should overhang the beginning of the line. This should also be done when prose display matter is “blocked.”

5. Single quotes are used for quotations {17} within quotations; double quotes for quotations within single quotations.

6. Quotations should always include the phrase etc., and other ellipses whenever necessary to secure perfect clearness.

7. When a long quotation is made, including several paragraphs or verses, the quotation-mark should appear at the beginning of each paragraph, but at the end of the last one only.

2. Words or phrases in the text which are intended by the writer to possess an unusual, technical, or ironical meaning: e.g., Her literary “salon” will long be remembered; This so-called “captain of industry.”

3. Titles of poems, books, etc.: e.g., Longfellow’s “Belfry of Bruges.”

4. Serial titles: e.g., the “Oriental Series,” “Stories of Nations.”

5. Words to which the writer desires to attract attention: e.g., The name of “Florence” immediately causes one to think of humanism.

6. The names of ships, unless directed to italicize them.

7. The titles of works of art: e.g., Raphael’s “Sistine Madonna.” {18}

2. Figures or letters used to mark divisions in enumerations should be placed between parentheses: e.g., There is a double reason for doing this: (a) it is the simplest form; (b) it is clearer for the reader.

2. Rather than parentheses, to enclose drop-folios (folios placed at foot of page).

3. For enclosing parenthetical statements within parentheses.

1. To form the possessive case of common and proper nouns: e.g., The nation’s {19} hope; For Jesus’ sake; James’s apple; For appearance’ sake; The boys’ camp.

2. To form the plural of numerals, but the apostrophe alone for the plural of polysyllabic proper nouns ending in a sibilant: e.g., They passed by in two’s and four’s; She is one of those W.C.T.U.’s; That came from Perkins’. Add es or s for monosyllabic proper nouns: e.g., The Fosses. In general, the pronunciation may be taken as a guide: if it is necessary to add a syllable to pronounce the possessive, use the double s: e.g., Sickles’ corps, not Sickles’s.

3. Use the apostrophe to indicate the omission of one or more letters in a contracted word, or the omission of figures in a number: e.g., That’s ’ow ’twas; The spirit of ’76; High o’er our heads; I’ll for I will; Don’t for do not, sha’n’t, etc.

4. The custom of substituting the apostrophe for the letter e in poetry, at one time common, is now obsolete: e.g., At ev’ry word a reputation dies. This rule is disregarded when the letter is omitted for metrical reasons.