William Dana Orcutt

CORRECTNESS is the primary requisite of spoken or written discourse. Language must not be only understood, but it must convey all the meaning which the writer intends to express. As a guide to those who are bewildered by the many cases of divided usage, the following adaptation of certain canons, framed by Dr. Campbell over a century ago and used as a basis by every later writer on Rhetoric, are here given:

Canon I. — When, of two words or phrases in equally good use, one is susceptible of two significations and the other of but one, preference should be given to the latter: e.g., admittance is better than admission, as the latter word also means “confession”; relative is to be preferred to relation, as the latter also means the telling of a story.

Canon II. — In doubtful cases regard should be given to the analogy of the language: might better should be preferred to had better, and would rather is better than had rather.

Canon III. — The simpler and briefer form should be preferred, other things being equal: {100} e.g., omit the bracketed words in expressions such as, open [up], meet [together], follow [after], examine [into], trace [out], bridge [over], crave [for], etc.

Canon IV. — Between two forms of expression in equally good use, prefer the one which is more euphonious: e.g., most beautiful is better than beautifullest, and more free is to be preferred to freer.

Canon V. — In cases not covered by the four preceding canons, prefer that which conforms to the older usage: e.g., begin is better than commence.

Familiarity with the writings of those authors whose style is accepted as conforming to the standards of good usage is an essential to all those who seek accuracy in correct expression, and the following authors may be studied with this in mind: Addison, Matthew Arnold, Burke, DeQuincey, George Eliot, Emerson, Hawthorne, Holmes, Irving, Macaulay, John Stuart Mill, Newman, Poe, Ruskin, Stevenson, and Thackeray.

The various standard dictionaries may be consulted regarding words which are questionable when measured by good usage. The function of the dictionary is to record all words in general use, but a careful record is made as to the classes to which the various words belong. Good usage, for instance, does not recognize the word vim, yet it will be found in the Century Dictionary; but at {101} the end of the definition an entry [Colloq.] is placed, showing that it is authorized only by colloquial use.

The following list of words and phrases which are most commonly misused will be found useful. The correct words are added in brackets:

• Accept, see Except
• Admire, should not be used to express delight: e.g., I should admire [be delighted] to go to California
• Admit, see Confess
• ADVERBS: should usually be placed next to the words they modify. (See also Infinitive)
• Affable, means “easy to speak to,” and should not be used for agreeable
• Affect, should not be confused with effect: e.g., She was deeply affected by the news; or The news had a serious effect upon her; or The effect of the news was serious
• Aggravate, should not be used for annoy or vex. It means “to make worse”: e.g., His cold was aggravated by the exposure
• Ain’t, is a contraction of am not. It is inelegant though grammatically correct to say, I ain’t, but it is absolutely wrong to say, He ain’t, etc.
• All right, should never be written alright
• Alternative, should not be used in speaking of one of more than two things
• And, should not be placed before a relative pronoun in such a position as to interfere with the construction: e.g., I acknowledge the receipt of your letter, (and) for which I send you my cordial thanks. Omit the conjunction
• Any place, should be written anywhere
• Apparently, is used of what seems to be real, but may not be so; evidently of that which both seems and is real {102}
• Apt, means skilful and should not be used for likely. He is apt to be here soon should be He is likely to be here soon; He is an apt pupil is correct
• ARTICLES: when superfluous, are misleading and should be omitted; but it is more frequently the case that necessary articles are omitted: e.g., The army and navy signifies a single organization. Insert a before navy
• As, should not be used as a causal conjunction: e.g., Do not expect me (as) I am too uncertain of my time. The word as stands here as a contraction of inasmuch as. Substitute a semicolon: e.g., Do not expect me; I am too uncertain of my time.
• As ... as, see So ... as
• At, is often incorrectly used for in: e.g., They are living at [in] Florence
• At length, does not mean the same as at last. Say At length he showed signs of relenting, and At last he relented
• Aught, is frequently confused with naught. It means “anything,” whereas the symbol 0 means “nothing”
• Avail, should be used with of only with some form of be; otherwise to is the proper word: e.g., He called lustily, but of [to] no avail; or He called lustily, but [it was] of no avail
• Aware, is used in relation to things outside of ourselves; conscious in relation to sensations or things within ourselves
• Awful, should not be used loosely. It means “inspiring with awe.” To say I had an awfully good time is as ridiculous as it is meaningless
• Badly, should not be used for very much or a great deal. The expression, If you don’t care to do a thing very badly, do it very badly, shows the absurdity. Do not confuse the adjective with the adverb. He looks badly means “He makes a bad use of his eyes.” He looks bad is correct
• Bank on, a slang expression not recognized by good usage. Say rely on or trust in {103}
• Beg, should never be used without the word leave, when asking permission. In correspondence one often sees the expressions, I beg to state, I beg to differ. One should say, I beg leave to state, I beg leave to differ
• Bring, see Take
• But, is sometimes used as a preposition, and when so used takes the objective case: e.g., The invitation included all but him is correct
• Can, denotes power, and should not be used for may, which denotes permission. The following sentence shows the correct use of both words: He may do it if he can
• Cannot but, should not be used interchangeably with can but, as the two expressions differ in meaning: e.g., I can but try means “All I can do is to try”; I cannot but try means “I cannot help trying”
• Can’t seem, should not be used for seem unable: e.g., I can’t seem [seem unable] to find it
• CASE: the nominative is sometimes wrongly used for the objective case: e.g., Let He [Him] who made thee answer that
• Childlike, means that belonging to the child; childish, means the weakness of the child
• Come, see Go
• Common, see Mutual
• Confess, should not be used in the sense of admit, in cases in which no idea of confession enters
• Conscious, see Aware
• Continual, meaning “frequently repeated acts,” should not be confused with continuous meaning “uninterrupted action”: e.g., Continual nagging spoils the disposition, and The continuous flowing of a stream
• Deadly, which means “that which inflicts death,” should not be confused with deathly, which means “that which resembles death”: e.g., A deadly poison, and A deathly pallor {104}
• Decided, means “strong,” decisive means “final.” A decided opinion does not mean the same as a decisive opinion
• Definite, means “well-defined”; definitive means “final”
• Demean, which signifies “to behave” oneself, should not be used for degrade or debase
• Different, should never be followed by the word than. Say, Different from
• Directly, should not be used for as soon as: e.g., Directly [as soon as] he arrived
• Discover, is to find something which previously existed; invent is to produce something for the first time
• Don’t, is a contraction of do not. One may say, I don’t, but not He don’t. Say, He doesn’t
• Each other, should not be misused for one another. One may say, The two cousins were devoted to each other; or Many suggestions were made, following one another in rapid succession
• Effect, see Affect
• Egoists, are those who made the ego the basis of their philosophy; egotists are those who worship themselves
• Either, should not be used to designate more than two persons or things. To designate one of three or more, say Any one
• Enormity, describes deeds of unusual horror; enormousness describes things of unusual size
• Enthuse (verb), is not recognized by good usage. I became enthused should be written I became enthusiastic
• Every place, should be written everywhere
• Excellent, should never be qualified as it is a superlative: e.g., most excellent, very excellent, and the like are impossible. (See also Superlatives)
• Except (verb), signifies “to exclude”: e.g., Present company excepted. As a preposition it means “with the exception.” It should not be confused with accept, which signifies “to receive” {105}
• Exceptional, describes a case outside the operation of a rule; exceptionable is that which is open to criticism: e.g., Exceptionable conduct is that to which exception can be taken
• Expect, should not be used as a synonym for think or suppose
• Falseness (of a person) is the opposite of truthfulness; falsity (of a thing) is the opposite of truth
• Fix, should not be used in the sense of repair. It means “to attach”
• Former, should not be used to designate one of more than two persons or things. If reference is made to one of three or more, say The first
• Gentleman, should be used to designate only a person of refinement, and never as a mere designation of sex. The use of the word man is never out of place
• Gentleman friend, is an expression which should be avoided, owing to the use which has been made of it. Say man friend or man friends, or gentleman of my acquaintance
• Go, should not be confused with come: e.g., I will come [go] to you when you need me
• Got, is said to be the most misused word in the language. I have got to go should be I am obliged to go. Have you got time? should be Have you time? etc. The verb means “to secure,” so it must be used only with this meaning: e.g., I have got the contract
• Gotten, is an obsolete form. Say got
• Guess, is loosely used for suppose, expect, or intend, but is avoided by the best writers
• Hanged, see Hung
• Hardly, should never be preceded by the negative: e.g., That is not hardly enough. Omit not
• He, see Him
• Healthful, means “health-giving,” as applied to articles of food; healthy is the condition of the person {106}
• Her, is often misused for she: e.g., It is her [she]; Such a woman as her [she]
• Him, is often misused for he: e.g., It is him [he]; Let He [Him] who made thee answer that; A style that belongs to no other than he [him]
• Hoi polloi, should not be written the hoi polloi. Hoi is Greek for “the”
• Honorable, should always be preceded by the: e.g., The Honorable James Brown Smith
• How, should not be used for what: e.g., How [what] did you say?
• Hung, should be distinguished from hanged: e.g., The man was hanged, but The flag was hung across the street
• I, see Me
• If, should never be used in the sense of whether or that: e.g., He is not sure if he remembers should be He is not sure whether [or that] he remembers
• In, should not be used for into, when motion is implied: e.g., He stepped in [into] the boat. See also At
• INFINITIVE: the verb should never be separated from to, the sign of the infinitive word, by an adverb: e.g., It is not possible for me to absolutely promise should be to promise absolutely
• -ING: when using verbal nouns ending in -ing be careful to distinguish them from participles having the same ending. A verbal noun must never be preceded by an adverb: e.g., That proved of as little use as his afterward trying to explain his presence there should be as his trying afterward to explain
• Inside of, is a vulgarism when used in the sense of within: e.g., The snow will be gone inside of [within] a week
• Invent, see Discover
• Kind, is singular. The common expression those kind is absolutely wrong. Say this kind or these kinds, that kind or those kinds
• Kind of, should not be followed by the article a or an. Say What kind of man is he? not What kind of a man is he? {107}
• Lady, see Gentleman
• Lady friend, see Gentleman friend
• Last, should not be used for latest. “Have you read my last book?” asked the author. “I hope so,” was the frank reply
• Latter, signifies one of two persons or things. In making reference to one of three or more, say The last
• Lay, should not be confused with lie. Hens lay, men lie
• Less, is a vulgarism when used for fewer: e.g., There were less [fewer] accidents in football this season
• Liable, should not be used for likely: e.g., It is liable [likely] to rain today. Its proper sense is shown in the sentence, He is liable to arrest
• Like, is a vulgarism when used for as or as if: e.g., I wish I could sing like [as] you do. See also Love
• Likely, means “any probability”; liable means an “unpleasant probability”
• Loan, is not in accord with good usage when used as a verb: Say, He lent me a dollar, and The loan was of real assistance
• Locate, is a vulgarism when used for settle. Say, He settled in Boston, and He located his business in Cambridge
• Love, describes that which appeals to our affections; like, that which appeals to our taste, appetite or fancy
• Luxuriant, means “superabundant”; luxurious means “consequent upon luxury”
• Mad, means “insane,” and is not a synonym for angry
• Man, see Gentleman
• May, see Can
• Me, is often wrongly used for I: e.g., Between you and I [me]; It is me [I]; You know as well as me [I]
• Means, may be either singular or plural. Say, No other means was at hand, or Various means were suggested
• Most, should not be used for almost
• Must, should not be used for had to or was obliged: e.g., The hour arrived when he must [had to] decide. In its proper use it refers to the present or future: e.g., The hour will arrive when he must decide {108}
• Mutual, should not be used in the sense of “shared in common,” as it means “reciprocal.” It can refer to but two persons or things. Mutual friendship is that which exists between two friends; common friendship that which is shared by two friends for a third
• Negligence, implies failure to conform to an established custom; neglect means “a failure to act”
• Neither, signifies one of two. In designating one of three or more, say No one
• News, is singular in construction
• Nice, should not be used loosely; as, She was nice to us. It means keenness in discrimination; as, It was a fine point, nicely considered. The incorrect use of this word is an Americanism especially offensive to the English. Oscar Wilde, when in America, remarked, “I think nice is a nasty word,” to which his hearer retorted, “I don’t think nasty is a nice word”
• No place, should be written nowhere
• Nor, see Or
• Not ... but, forms a double negative: e.g., I have not asked you but once should be I have asked you but once
• Notorious, is not a synonym for celebrated or famous. It means “of bad repute”
• Nowhere near, is a vulgarism for not nearly
• NUMBER: pronouns are often used which differ in number from their antecedents: e.g., Nobody should feel that their [his] interests have been neglected; Each of the ladies, like two excellent actresses, were [was] perfect in their [her] parts [part]. Singular nouns are sometimes used with plural verbs, or the reverse: e.g., None but the brave deserve [deserves] the fair; There’s [there are] the boys
• Of, is sometimes wrongly used for have: e.g., I shouldn’t of [have] come if I had known
• Or, should not be used with neither. Use nor {109}
• Ought, should never be combined with had: e.g., You hadn’t ought to do that should be You ought not to do that
• Out loud, should never be used for aloud
• Partake of, should not be used in the sense of eat. It means “to share with others”
• Party, should not be used for person
• Per, should not be used with English words. Say One dollar a year, or One dollar per annum
• Perception, means the inlet of all the materials of knowledge; apperception means the knowledge that one possesses these materials. A man with perception knows; a man with apperception knows that he knows
• PLURALS: of foreign words should be carefully ascertained: e.g., cherubim is the plural of cherub; memoranda, of memorandum; data, of datum; donne, of donna; strata, of stratum; addenda, of addendum; rubaiyat, of rubai. Do not say, A memoranda
• Pretty, should not be used in a modifying sense, nor as a synonym for very: e.g., It is not as good as yours, but it is pretty [fairly] good; I didn’t hit it, but I came pretty [very] close
• Propose, meaning “to offer,” should not be confused with purpose, meaning “to intend.” Say, He proposed an amendment, and I have told you what I purpose
• Quite, should not be used in a modifying sense as if meaning “rather.” It is not what I expected, but it is quite good is wrong. The word means “wholly”: e.g., Not quite = not wholly; quite satisfactory = wholly satisfactory
• Raise, should not be used as a noun
• Rarely ever, is a vulgarism for rarely or hardly ever
• Reference, should be used with with rather than in. Say, With reference to rather than In reference to {110}
• Regard, see Reference
• Respect, see Reference
• Reverend, should always be preceded by the: e.g., The Reverend James Brown Smith
• Same, should not be used as a pronoun: e.g., Your letter received, and in reply [to same] would say. Omit bracketed words
• Same as, should not be used for just as or in the same way: e.g., Treat him the same [just] as you would wish to be treated
• Scarcely, see Hardly
• Seldom ever, see Rarely ever
• Sensible of, means “having perception”; sensitive to means “affected by”
• Set, should not be confused with sit. To set means “to cause to sit”: e.g., The bird sits upon the tree, and The waiter set two chairs for us
• Sewage, means the contents of sewers; sewerage means the system
• Shall, signifies simple expectancy in the first person, and will represents determination. This reverses with the second and third persons: e.g., EXPECTANCY, I shall (should), thou wilt (wouldst), he will (would), we shall (should), you will (would), they will (would). DETERMINATION, I will (would), thou shalt (shouldst), he shall (should), we will (would), you shall (should), they shall (should). This time-honored illustration of the misuse of these words is easily remembered: I will drown, nobody shall save me. In interrogative sentences, the forms of the future are the same as in a declarative sentence, and their proper use may be easily remembered by noting that the same auxiliary is used as is expected in the reply: e.g., Shall you go? suggests merely future action, anticipating the reply, I shall or I shall not; Will you go? shows that the speaker expects a reply of determination, I will or I will not
• She, see Her {111}
• Should, ought not to be used for to: e.g., I want you should [to] do this. (See also Want.) As between should and would, see Shall. The same usage obtains, except that sometimes should is used in the sense of ought: e.g., He should be here now; and would sometimes signifies habitual action: e.g., Whenever the name was mentioned he would speak slightingly of him
• Show, should not be used for play: e.g., I went to a show last evening; nor in the sense of chance: e.g., He has an excellent show of winning
• Show up, is a vulgarism when used for expose
• Since, should not be used for ago. Say, How long ago rather than How long since
• Size up, is a vulgarism when used for estimate
• So, should be used sparingly to modify an adjective: e.g., I feel so unhappy. It should not be used for so that: e.g., I wrote him so [that] he understood
• So ... as, is required, rather than the correlatives as ... as in negative statements: e.g., James is not as [so] clever as John
• Some, should not be used for somewhat: e.g., The patient is some[what] better
• Some place, should be written somewhere
• Sort, see Kind
• Sort of, should not be used for rather: e.g., I feel sort of tired is incorrect. See also Kind of
• Splendid, should not be used for fine or skilful. It implies “splendor”
• Start, should not be used for begin: e.g., He started [began] to speak
• Stop, should not be used for stay: e.g., I am stopping [staying] with my uncle while in San Francisco
• Take, is superfluous in connection with other verbs: e.g., Suppose we [take and] use the drawings we have. It should not be confused with bring: e.g., I will bring [take] it home with me; I will take [bring] the book to you tomorrow {112}
• Take stock in, is a slang expression not recognized by good usage. Say rely on or trust in
• TENSE: errors are often made by neglecting the principle that the time of the recorded action in the subordinate portion of a sentence is relative to the time of the principal clause. The tense of the dependent verb, therefore, is determined by its relation to the verb on which it depends: e.g., I meant to have done it should be I meant to do it; He expected to have told him should be He expected to tell him. A common mistake is made in replying to formal invitations: e.g., Mr. Robert Gorham regrets that a previous engagement will prevent [prevents] him from accepting; Mr. Gorham will be [is] happy to accept
• That, see Which
• Them, is often misused for they: e.g., It is them [they]
• They, see Them
• This, should not be used as an adverb. Say, Thus much is clear rather than This much is clear, and Having said thus much [or as much as this] ... rather than Having said this much ...
• Through, should not be used for finished. Say, He has finished speaking rather than He is through speaking
• Too, alone should not modify a past participle: e.g., He was too [much] excited to reply
• Treat, should be followed by of rather than on: e.g., This volume treats of conditions in China
• Try, should be followed by to rather than and: e.g., I will try and [to] get the information you desire
• Ugly, should not be used in the sense of vicious or malicious. It means “repulsive to the eye.” A color may be ugly, but an ill-tempered dog is vicious
• VERBS: should not be omitted: e.g., He could do it if he wished to [do it]
• Very, should be used sparingly. Foreigners say that America is a country of superlatives, — if anything is good, it is very good, and if bad, it is very bad. Too {113} much emphasis weakens conversation or writing and defeats its object
• Visitor, is a human caller; visitant, a s upernatural one
• Vocation, means “calling” or “profession”; avocation, means an interest outside one’s profession
• Want, should not be used in the sense of wish: e.g., I want it really means “I feel the want of it,” or “I lack it.” An example of the correct use of both words is, China wishes the coÖperation of the United States,?—?a coÖperation which is at present wanting
• Way, should not be used for away
• What, is often misused for that: e.g., He has no doubt but what [that] he will succeed
• Whence, means “from where.” Do not say from whence
• Which, should not be used with a clause as its antecedent: e.g., He replied hotly, which was a mistake should be He replied hotly; this was a mistake. Do not use which (a neuter pronoun) to represent a masculine or feminine noun. Say whom. Between which and that, let euphony decide
• Who, is often misused for whom or whose: e.g., Who [whom] did you wish to see? Washington, than whom [whose] no greater name is recorded in American history. Impersonal objects should be referred to by which rather than who
• Whom, see Who and Which
• Will, see Shall
• Woman, see Gentleman
• Womanly, means “belonging to woman as woman”; womanish means “effeminate”
• Would, see Should