1. The Teutonic System

Measures of capacity are always either—

(a) based on a certain cubed linear measure;

(b) made to hold a certain weight of water or of corn.

A measure of capacity for wine or other fluids may be increased in water-wheat, or pound-pint, ratio to make a corn-measure.

In England they were originally based on the measure of 1000 ounces of water, which became a cubic foot. Many foreign measures are either a cubic foot, sometimes increased in water-wheat ratio, or a cubed cubit.

In Germany, amid a great diversity of measures, a chaos to anyone who has not the key to the principle of unity underlying variety, apparently aberrant measures often show by their names that, while their value has changed, they were originally of a standard that can be traced. And it will generally be found that they are related to a cubic foot, perhaps increased in water-wheat ratio. Sometimes there is one measure for wine and corn, and sometimes the increased corn-measure may have come to be used for fluids while the corn-measure actually in use has been imported.

Taking three representative German feet, and evolving from them their cubic measure, we have:

(a) In Holland there seems to be no measure of capacity corresponding to the cubic foot, but this, increased in w.w. ratio, gives the Schepel = 6·12 gallons, the Skipple of New England.

(b) In Hamburg the cubic-foot measure is also absent, but the w.w. increased measure appears as the Eimer = 6·375 gallons, now used for wine, and this measure, again increased, appears as the Anker = 7·97 gallons, both being now fluid measures.

In Bremen and Lubeck, the Eimer = 6·4 gallons, and the Anker = 8 gallons, the one of 4 and the other of 5 viertels, are both wine-measures; while the corn-measure, the Scheffel, = 7·6 gallons, is very nearly the old English corn-bushel.

(c) Prussia and Hanover both had the Rhineland foot, but Prussia, while recognising the cubic foot of water as 66 lb. weight, Cologne standard, had no corresponding measure of capacity. In Hanover and in Brunswick the Rhineland cubic foot of water, = 6·78 gallons, was represented, not by a wine-measure, but by a corn-measure, the Himt = 6·852 gallons. And the increased measure, 6·85 × 1·25 = 8·56 gallons, which should properly have been the corn-bushel, appears in Hanover as the Anker, a second wine-measure.

And yet a wine-measure corresponding to the Rhineland cubic foot did exist, in the Viertel = 1·713 gallons, exactly one-fourth of the capacity of the Himt. Five viertels make an Anker, which shows that the Himt, presumably at first a wine-measure of 4 viertels or quarters, was increased in water-wheat ratio to the Anker of 5 viertels. But their original positions were reversed: the Himt became a corn-measure and the Anker a wine-measure.

The original wine-measure of 4 viertels, now the Himt corn-measure (represented in Scotland by the Firlot), is important in this story.

The existence of the Himt supports my hypothesis of the origin of the Rhineland foot. The side of a Himt of quadrantal, or exactly cubical, shape measures 12·385 inches, not 3/100 of an inch above the 12·356 inches of the Rhineland standard foot.

The Himt is then the Troy talent of 1000 ounces, 2/3 of the Arabic kantar, which was 1500 Troy ounces, in just the same way that the English wine-bushel = a cubic foot, the measure of 1000 old averdepois ounces of water, was 2/3 of the Alexandrian talent of 1500 Egypto-Roman ounces.

The Himt being the Troy talent-measure, 2/3 of the Arabic cubic foot, it should have to the Arabic cubic cubit a proportion 2/3 of the normal proportion 1/3·375 of any cubic foot to its cubic cubit. So the Himt = 6·852 gallons × 3/2 × 3·375 = 34·688 gallons, almost exactly the Arabic cubic cubit, which became the Cargo of Marseilles, or the Setier of Paris. Now this standard of 34·73 gallons or thereabouts is not uncommon in Germany. In Hanover and Hesse-Cassel the Ohm = 34·26 gallons is a wine-measure, in Saxony the Malter = 34·7 gallons is a corn-measure, divided into 12 scheffels. Corresponding to this in England was an ancient measure, the Amber (Hamberboune, Hamberbarrel). In other parts of Germany where the cubic foot is smaller, being derived, as in Hamburg, from a foot = 11·24 inches (or at least corresponding to this foot), the cubic foot there gives a measure = 5·12 gallons, and when increased in w.w. ratio = 6·4 gallons. This latter measure × 5 gives 32 gallons, and this number of gallons, either as an Ohm, wine-measure, or × 8 = 32 bushels as a Malter, or corn-measure, is common throughout Germany. There seems in many places to have been a double standard, the smaller derived from a cubic foot, and the larger derived from the Arabic cubic cubit and somewhat cut down to become a multiple of the smaller measure.

The Viertel, = 1·713 gallons, the quarter of the Himt, is also an important measure, not only as giving the clue to the Troy talent, but also as a very widespread wine-measure.

It passed to France, there becoming the Velte = 1·62 gallons at Bordeaux, 1·76 gallons at Paris, where its introduction into the series of wine-measures broke the regular division of the Muid. At Bordeaux this velte was probably the cause of the English wine-gallon increasing from its original 216 cubic inches (1/8 of the cubic foot, or wine-bushel of 1000 ounces) to 231 cubic inches. At the latter capacity it became just half of the Bordeaux velte.

The shrinkage of the Bordeaux velte to 1·62 gallons may have been the effect of adaptation to an English double wine-gallon, or it may have been from the velte, when passing to Holland, having to adapt itself to the other wine-measures of that country. The Dutch Velt or Welt took a place between the Stoop, = 0·5337 gallons, and the Steekan, of 8 stoopen; and it thus became a measure of 3 stoopen = 1·601 gallon.

It gave rise to the Legger, of 80 velts. This passed to English trade as the Leaguer, but failed to establish itself, being soon only known as a long cask of about 150 wine-gallons used for the lower tier of water-casks in ships. Above the ‘leaguers’ came the ‘riders.’

The Velt and the Leggar are still used in colonies now or formerly Dutch. The Leggar in Java = 127·34 gallons.

But the Viertel maintained, even increased, its standard of 1·713 gallons when entering the Marseilles-Paris systems of wine-measures as the Velte; rising to 1·77 gallons in order to become half of the Escandau of Marseilles, and taking a place at = 1·76 gallons in the Paris series of wine-measures (see Chapter XXI). Coming from the North, it was yet an evolution of the Arabic foot, while the Escandau was 1/8 of the Marseilles Cargo reduced in wheat-water ratio, and this cargo was the Arabic cubic cubit.

2. The Mediterranean System

The Moslem conquest of the greater part of the Mediterranean countries, with the influence of Arab trade and of Moorish civilisation, displaced the Roman system of weights and measures, already modified by the influence of PtolemaÏc Egypt, and caused changes even in the weights and measures of Italy. Not only the North of Africa, but Spain, Provence (and the other Occitanian lands), the dominions of the three republics of Venice, Genoa and Arles, with the countries forming the Turkish Empire, all these took more or less the Arab system of weights and measures, and this system penetrated deep into Western Europe.

The principal Arab measures which form the basis of the Mediterranean measures of capacity were:

1. The cubed Persian cubit = 8 Persian cubic feet (the Persian foot being half the cubit of 25·26 inches). The Persian cubic foot of water being the Persian or Greek-Asiatic talent, at its calculated value of 72·61 lb., the cubed cubit is 8 × 72·61 = 580·88 lb. = 58·088 gallons.

This was the Arab (and Hebrew) Den = 58·2 gallons, divided into

The Artaba was thus = 2 cubic feet, and the Saa was the qirÁt, 1/24 of the Artaba.

The modern Persian Artaba = 14·47 gallons.

2. The cubed Black cubit of Al-Mamun = 34·73 gallons.

3. The cubed Black foot of Al-Mamun = 10·29 gallons, the weight of which was the Kantar = 102·92 lb.

4. The Ardeb = 4 cubed Black feet; 4 × 10·29 = 41·168 gallons.

The measures derived from these cubed linear measures are as follows:

1. The first of these measures, the cubed Persian cubit, has been accurately preserved in the Cafiz of Tunis, which is the Den, doubled, 2 × 58·088 = 116·4 gallons. Its present standard is 116·34 gallons, and it is divided into

While the Cafiz of Tunis is of 8 Artaba, the Cahiz of Spain is of 10 Artaba, 10 × 14·55 = 145·5 gallons. It is divided into

The present standard in Spain of the Cahiz = 144·7 gallons, the Fanega being = 12·06 gallons, and the Celemin = 1·005 gallon. The Tomolo of Naples is = 12·22 gallons.

2. The second measure, the cubed Black cubit = 34·73 gallons, is the basis of the fluid (oil and wine) measures of Tunis, and also of Spain, Provence and Paris.

Reduced in inverse water-wheat ratio, it gives 34·73/1·22 = 28·46 gallons.

This fluid measure, apparently not extant at the present time, is yet found in its double, the Moyo of Spain = 56·79 gallons, and its half, the Mezzaruola of Italy, the Mieirolo of Marseilles.

The Mieirolo is the basis of other important measures; its standard, = 28·46/2 = 14·19 gallons, is found—

A quarter of this measure is the Arroba mayor of Spain (arroba = al-rubÁ, the fourth), the Escandau of Marseilles = 3·54 gallons.

The half of the Arroba, or of the Escandau, corresponds to the Velte, 1·76 gallon at Paris, 1·73 gallon in Hanover, &c. It is the meeting point of Northern and Southern measures, which are derived quite separately from Al-Mamun’s cubit, the former by weight, the latter by measure.

The measures of Portugal differ little from those of Spain. The corn-unit is the Fanga (Sp. fanega, Ar. fanÍqa, sack) = 12·17 gallons. There appears to have been a larger unit of 6 fangas, as the name of the Alqueire, 1/4 fanga, implies that this smaller unit was a qirÁt, 1/24 of a large measure = 6 fangas.

The alqueire varies in capacity. In Brazil it is our Imperial bushel.

In Spain the fanega is the usual seed-measure of land; it is = 1·6 acre (exactly the saumado seed-measure of Provence), though probably that amount of land requires fully 2 fanegas of seed-corn.

The cubed Black cubit appears also as a corn-measure, its original purpose.

3. The cubed Black foot, = 10·292 gallons, passed with the Moors to Spain; it was the standard of the old Burgos fanega until the fifteenth century, when the present Avila standard prevailed.

4. The Ardeb of 4 cubed Black feet, 4 × 10·292 = 41·168 gallons, is represented by the Cairo Ardeb of the present time, = 40 gallons or 5 bushels, generally somewhat more. It is divided into 6 Wuebe, each of 4 Ruba or quarters, which are qirÁts, 1/24 of the Ardeb. The standard of the Cairo Ardeb varies. It is sometimes put at as much as 5·44 bushels = 43·52 gallons. The official standard of the Ardeb of wheat is 297 lb., = 38·5 gallons at 60 lb. to the bushel.

Turkey

The weights and measures of capacity seem a maze of confusion, until the clue is found. There is a double series of weights based on the dirhem and on the ounce. This ounce is not mentioned in the series of weights, but once discovered, it gives the clue to the maze, and the system is then seen to be really simple.

It has already been seen that the weights are in a double series giving the Oka of 400 dirhems, and the Cantar of 2000 Egypto-Roman ounces, = 124·7 lb., divided into 100 rottoli. The weight of the dirhem, = 49·5 grains in the chekÉ goldsmith’s weight, becomes = 49·6 in the Oka, 1/44 of the Cantar.

Fluid-measure.—A double cantar, 2 × 124·7 lb. = 249·4 lb., was increased in water-wheat ratio, 249·4 × 1·25 = 311·75 lb. = 31·175 gallons. The actual capacity of this water-Cantar is 31·412 gallons. This measure is divided into 100 rottoli-measure (= 3·14 lb. of water), each of 2-1/2 rottoli weight = 50 ounces.

Corn-measure.—The Cantar measure becomes, for corn, the Fortin, at a standard of 31·1 gallons. This measure being 2 × 1·25 = 2-1/2 times the Cantar weight of 2000 ounces, contains 5000 ounces of water or 4000 ounces of wheat. It is divided into 4 Killows of 7·775 gallons. This measure is evidently named from the Greek chilioi (Fr. kilo) as holding 1000 ounces of wheat. It is divided again into 4 Saa.

The Fortin is also divided into 88 rottoli, the rottolo containing 500 dirhems of water or 400 dirhems of corn.

In fluid-measure there is an oka-measure; 8 oka, = 3-2/3 rottoli-measure, make an Almud = 1·15 gallon. I only mention this intrusive measure to confer it with the Spanish Almuda or Celemin = 1·01 gallon.

These Turkish measures, fluid and corn, afford another instance of the practice of increasing a fluid measure in water-wheat ratio, and then of using this increased measure for fluids as well as corn. Instances of this practice have been seen in German measures (for instance the Himt). And our own gallon affords a somewhat similar instance. Increased from the cubic foot to make a corn-gallon, this was again increased by 3 per cent. to make the Imperial gallon, both for fluids and for corn.

Italy

The system of measures left from ancient Rome, themselves of Oriental origin, has been to a great extent overlaid by Arabic measures.

In Bologne the Corba, = 17·3 gallons, is half the cubed Black cubit, to which the Neapolitan oil-Salma, = 35·5 gallons, is closely approximate.

In Rome the principal corn-measure, the Rubbio = 64·77 gallons, bears an Arabic name; it is doubled in the Tuscan Moggio, and investigation would probably discover a measure of 4 rubbii = 259 gallons = 32-1/3 bushels or about the old English chaldron of 4 quarters.

The Starello of Sardinia, = 10·8 gallons, is approximately a quarter of the Ardeb.

3. Hebrew Weights and Measures of Capacity

The Hebrews used the measures of Egypt and Phoenicia. The common Egyptian cubit, very near ‘the cubit of a man,’ was the usual measure of length. They brought back from the Captivity some Persian measures:

1. The Great Assyrian cubit, which is ‘the cubit and an hand-breadth.’

2. A measuring Reed of six cubits long, by the cubit and an hand-breadth = the modern qasÁb of Egypt.

3. The Cubit of the Talmud = 21·914 inches, the 1/3000 of the Bereh, which was 1/1000 of an hour on the equator (see page 27).

For weights they used the Alexandrian talent or Kikkar divided in the Phoenician manner into 50 minÁs of 60 shekels = 218-1/2 grains. This shekel was sometimes called the Shekel of the Sanctuary and was then divided, not into 8 Gerahs of 27·31 grains (our dram, 1/16 of the Egypto-Roman ounce) but into 2 Bekah or 4 Reba or 20 Gerah = 10·9 grains. The Reba, 1/4 Shekel, was the drachma of the Phoenician weights, = 54·62 grains.

When, as recorded in Exodus xxvii, 603,550 men contribute each a Bekah or half-shekel of silver, the amount of 301,775 shekels is stated to be = 100 talents and 1775 shekels, after the shekel of the Sanctuary. In this statement the talent is of 3000 shekels, according to the Phoenician reckoning.

In Ezekiel xlvi, the shekel is given as of 20 gerahs and the minÁ is stated to be 20 + 25 + 15 = 60 shekels, confirming the Phoenician mode of dividing the Alexandrian talent as that used by the Hebrews, viz. 50 minÁs of 60 shekels.

The measures of capacity had for principal unit the Olympic talent, the weight of water of the common Egyptian foot cubed, = 6·48 gallons. It was called the Bath for fluid measure, the Epha for corn and other dry measure. The Bath was divided into 6 Hin = 1·08 gallon (this being about the same capacity as the Spanish and Turkish almuda) and into 72 Log, = 2/3 pint. The Epha was likewise of 72 log, and 4 log made a Cab.

The Cor or Homer was a measure of 10 Epha or Bath, = 64·8 gallons or 8·1 bushels. It coincided approximately with 2 great Artaba, this measure being the cubed Royal cubit = 31·695 gallons; × 2 = 63·39 gallons.

The Hebrew field-units were at first seed-measures, afterwards fixed geometrically.

The unit was the Bathsea, sown with a Bath of grain; it was 8 qasÁb, or 48 great cubits, square, = a rood.

The Betheoron, sown with a Cor, 10 Bath, of grain, was 10 of the lesser unit and therefore = 2-1/2 acres.

In these three chapters on foreign measures and weights I have tried to show the principles of unity underlying the variety of measures. To describe them fully would require a series of monographs which, however interesting, would lack the more important general view. I shall therefore confine myself to the full description, in Chapters XXI and XXII, of the measures and weights of France which, both in the old system and in the metric system, are of special interest to us. Before proceeding to these I must treat, in a somewhat discursive chapter, of the meanings of some names of measures.