  On the 20th of July, 1860, M. G. de Mortillet wrote a letter to Sig. Cornalia, president of the Italian Society of the Natural Sciences, at Milan, About the same time that these discoveries at Mercurago were being made the existence of a palafitte in Lake Garda was surmised from the finding, at various times, of bronze In addition to these ordinary lake-dwellings, whether in water or in peat, there are, in the valley of the Po, other ancient remains known as "Terremare," which are now shown to be so closely analogous to the former that they fall to be described as land palafittes. They are found only in the eastern part of the valley, and as some of their relics, in common with those of the adjacent palafittes, present some characteristics which are not found in western Lombardy, I fasten on this distinction as a convenient principle of classifying the lake and peat dwellings into a western and an eastern group, reserving the "terremare" for separate treatment. Accordingly we begin with Lake Varese, whose settlements appear to have been the most important and the most central in the western group. LAKE OF VARESE.Lake Varese is irregularly shaped, about 5½ miles in length, and less than half that in breadth. It occupies a somewhat shallow basin, its greatest depth being 85 feet, and, although bounded on the north by high hills, its banks are generally flat or shelving. Its surface is 770 feet above sea-level, and 134 feet above that of Lake Maggiore, to which its surplus water is carried by the Bardello, a stream which has its outlet at the north end of the lake. The district around is rich and well cultivated, except on the south side, where the lake becomes contiguous with an extensive peat-bog called "torbiera della Brabbia." When Stoppani and his illustrious friends, along with Desor's experienced fisher, Benz, commenced their lacustrine explorations in Lombardy, they selected Lake Varese to start with, on account of the suitability of its shores for such structures. On the very first day (21st April, 1863) their Professor Stoppani continued his researches after the departure of his friends, and made further discoveries, not only in Lake Varese, but in some of the other lakes of Lombardy. In November of the same year Captain Angelo Angelucci, of Turin, was attracted to the scene of these discoveries in Lake Varese, and henceforth took an active part in the investigation of its palafittes. (B. 63.) Nor must I omit to mention the Abate Ranchet among the list of the early explorers. He discovered in the same year not only a new station on the south side of the outlet, but also, in the following year, two others in the adjoining lake of Monate. (B. 85.) At the end of the first year's explorations we find, from the reports of Stoppani and Angelucci, that no less than six stations were determined in Lake Varese, all situated on its south-western shore. In 1868, when Dr. Camillo Marinoni published a report on "Le abitazioni lacustri e gli avanzi di umana industria in Lombardia" (B. 159), the number had increased to seven. Although no addition has since been made to their number, much attention has been given, especially in these later years, to their investigation. The Sketch Map of Lake Varese (page 189) shows the names and the respective positions of these settlements, which I shall now shortly describe. Isola Virginia.—This is a small egg-shaped island lying along the west shore, from which it is distant about 80 yards. It is 240 yards long, with a maximum breadth of 100 yards, and contains besides some fine trees, a house with two storeys, the upper of which is converted into an archÆological museum, and at a little distance there is a cafÉ for the convenience of the numerous visitors that frequent the locality. Its area is nearly 3 acres, and its highest point is barely 8 feet above the average level of the lake. Piles were discovered in the lake at the south-east side of the island, in a space extending along its margin for about 100 yards, and about half that distance in breadth. Two years ago, when I visited the locality, the heads of piles were readily seen through the water, just cropping above the sandy bottom. In some cases it was difficult to distinguish them from stones; but a poke with the oar or a long stick at once determined which they were. Professor Stoppani, in his first report (B. 67), describes this as a steinberg, but the idea of the whole island being artificial—an idea first suggested by Desor, who found analogous instances in the Rosen Insel, Lake Starnberg, in the little island at Inkwyl, and in the Irish Crannogs—gained strength by the discovery of similar stumps of piles on its north-west side. Although the local antiquaries—Ranchet, Regazzoni, Quaglia, Castelfranco, and others—occasionally visited these lacustrine stations and made considerable investigations, with the result of adding to their private collections, it was not till 1878 that any systematic researches were made with the view of testing Desor's suggestion that the island was a gigantic crannog. This was first attempted by an
The most noteworthy objects collected in these operations were as follows:—In the first layer a Roman coin of Marcus Aurelius, and a portion of a mould for a socketed lance-head (Fig. 48, No. 19). In the second, two fragments of bronze. In the third, two polished stone celts, with a portion of a third, and two clay weights. In the fourth, a flint saw with a wooden handle, two bone pins, and some sharpening-stones. The piles were evidently in their natural position, and the conclusion that the entire island had been a pile-dwelling was irresistible; but the questions when and by what means was the transformation accomplished, were as obscure as before. Mainly for the purpose of clearing this matter, Sig. Ettore Ponti, in September of the following year, gave instructions to have further excavations made in different parts of the island. On this occasion 12 trenches were dug, covering an area of about 230 square yards with an average depth of 3 to 4 feet. The stratification and composition of the stuff were very similar to those experienced in the former excavations. In this space 440 piles were counted, and Regazzoni calculates that at this rate the original number of piles requisite for the construction of the entire lake-village would be from 35,000 to 40,000. Some horizontal beams were also found among the dÉbris. Among the relics the following are noteworthy:—A tyne of deer's horn, with a flint implement inserted into the end of it (No. 3); a small clay weight shaped like a pear; several objects of worked bone, as needles (Nos. 7 to 9), pointers, chisels (No. 25), handles, etc. A knife (No. 5) and a dagger of bronze (No. 6), and two oblong beads of coloured glass with transverse grooves, were found in the stratum immediately below the surface soil. Fig. 48—Isola Virginia. No. 25 = 1/4, and the rest = 1/2 real size. The relics of humanity collected on the Isola Virginia in the course of these various excavations are so numerous that one of the two rooms set apart by Sig. Ponti as an archÆological museum for the lacustrine remains of Lake Varese is entirely devoted to their exhibition and preservation, where they have been carefully and neatly arranged under the skilful care of Professor Regazzoni. Pottery.—As in the other lacustrine stations in this lake, there are two kinds of pottery—one black, and made of fine paste, of which most of the smaller vessels were made; the other is of a greyish colour, but sometimes it has a reddish tinge, and contains a mixture of fine gravel or coarse sand, which gives it a rough appearance. The fragments and entire dishes in the Ponti Museum decidedly testify to considerable skill in the ceramic art. Besides The diversity of ornamentation is also worthy of notice—raised dots, nail-marks, perforated rims, lines, corrugated grooves, and cord-markings, forming a variety of combinations (Nos. 13, 15, 22, 23, 26, and 27). One bit shows the impression of plaited reed-work (No. 29). Another, an entire dish made of fine black paste, is a curiosity in its way; it consists of three cups united, and having a communication with each other by a small hole in the dividing septa (No. 24). The coarse pottery indicates vessels of large dimensions. There are also loom-weights, spindle-whorls (No. 21), some conical objects pierced vertically (No. 10), and casts of wicker-work, supposed to be the remains of the cottage walls. Bone and Horn.—Objects of this class are numerous, as polished daggers, pointers, chisels (No. 25), needles (Nos. 7 to 9); also a few perforated teeth. Stone.—Celts and chisels are fairly abundant, and among them are one or two of jade. Though I noted only one fragment of a perforated axe-head, the art of boring stone was known and skilfully practised, as there are several spindle-whorls and other implements with neat perforations (No. 18). There are also hammer-stones (some with finger-marks), corn-grinders, and polishers. Among the latter are large flat polishing slabs, and a few hand-polishers made like a stone celt (No. 11), which are peculiar to North Italy, if not, indeed, to the Varese lake-dwellers, as I have seen only one other out of the district, viz. at Viadana. Among the flint objects are knives, scrapers, saws, arrow-points, chisels (like those in Fig. 68, Nos. 8, 14, and 15), cores, and a large quantity of flakes (Nos. 1 to 3). For small cutting implements flint was not the only substance used by these lake-dwellers, as there are 36 fine flakes of obsidian (No. 4), and some arrow-heads of rock crystal. Bronze.—The bronze objects in the museum, including fragments, amount only to 15, and represent knives, fish-hooks, etc. (Nos. 5, 6, and 12). Amber.—There is also a bit of amber which appears to have been an ornament. Small square or oblong pieces of wood perforated (No. 20) are supposed to have been floats for nets. The organic remains collected in the fourth stratum, which was considered to be the true relic-bed of the palafitte, were submitted to Professor Sordelli, who recognised, among other seeds and fruits, the following:—Millet (Panicum miliaceum), wheat (Trit. vulgare), bramble (R. fruticosus), and the vine (Vitis vinifera). Among the bones of animals identified were those of the bear, wolf, badger, beaver, wild boar, stag, roe, etc. The ordinary domestic animals were also represented, and in addition to them I have to mention portions of two human jaws which were found a few inches below the tops of the piles. (B. 324, 326, 341, 343a, 359, and 437.) Professor Castelfranco (B. 456), who has carefully studied the phenomena presented by these repeated excavations, formulates the following theory as to the succession of events which have brought about the evolution, so to speak, of the Isola Virginia:— (1) The original palafitte had been destroyed by a conflagration towards the close of the Bronze Age or the beginning of the Iron Age. (2) Its inhabitants were hunters, fishers, rearers of domestic animals, and agriculturists. (3) Shortly after the destruction of the pile-village, its subsequent occupiers converted the larger portion of its site—which had already, in parts at least, reached the surface by the gradual accumulation of dÉbris—into a veritable island, by heaping over it stuff dug from the margin and especially from the landward side, where there is now a channel separating the island from the mainland. Thus the upper layers contain the dÉbris of the earlier people, mixed with sand, gravel, and mud. This view is rendered probable by the fact that in one place, towards the north of the island, the second layer was displaced by an artificially constructed bed of large pebbles. (4) The newcomers, to whom Castelfranco assigns the transformation of the palafitte into an island, were the Ligurians, whose "sÉpultures À cineration" are so numerously found in the neighbourhood. Bodio.—The bay opposite this village contains the remains of three stations, the most southerly of which is known as "Keller" or "Del Gaggio," the next as "Bodio Centrale" or "Delle Monete," and the third as "Desor" or "Del Moresco." All these are comparatively near the shore, being only about 30 yards distant, and the central one is about equidistant—some 800 yards—from the other two. (B. 327, p. 47.) The central station appears to have been a true steinberg, as its area was covered with stones; regarding which Stoppani remarks that formerly they were more numerous, because within recent times some were known to have been removed for building purposes. At first more bronze objects were found on Keller, and more pottery on Desor, while the Centrale was characterised by the discovery on it of a hoard of Roman coins. Subsequent investigations have not borne out these early distinctions based on the character of their relics, and they are now generally acknowledged to belong to the same age. The coins found on the Centrale were mostly small silver pieces, much decomposed, belonging to the last half-century of the Republic. Stoppani collected about 70, and Angelucci, who explored shortly after him, no less than 128. One found by Regazzoni in 1876 (B. 327, p. 52) has on it, along with the head of Mark Antony, the following legend:—M. ANT. IMP. AUG. III. VIR. R.P.C. M. BARBAT. Q.P., etc., which would make the date about 40 B.C. The hoard is supposed to have been lost or deposited here long after the lake-dwelling ceased to be inhabited—a supposition that is borne out by the fact that the coins were confined to one limited spot, only a couple of yards square. In 1876-7 Sig. Ponti made researches on Desor which greatly enriched his museum both in stone and bronze objects. (B. 327.) A selection of objects from these stations is given on Fig. 49. Cazzago-Brabbia.—This station is situated opposite the village of the same name, and at first it gave such poor results that Stoppani called it a trial station, or an attempt to found a settlement. From the researches made in 1877 it was found to be rich in remains, and exactly similar to those at Bodio. It was, however, farther from the shore, and extended parallel to it for about 150 yards. Its breadth was somewhat irregular, and, judging from the disposition of its piles, it would appear to have been two quadrangularly-shaped stations nearly in contact with each other. Among the bronze objects collected on this station are four lance-heads, a chisel, an awl, 10 fish-hooks, four hair-pins, a fibula, etc. (B. 456.) There are also some fine arrow-points of flint. Fig. 49.—Bodio, Cazzago, and Bardello. Nos. 24, 31, 39, 43, and 44 = 1/4, and the rest = 1/2 real size. Marinoni (B. 159) mentions another station opposite Gavirate, but neither Regazzoni nor Ranchet could find any traces of it. (B. 327, p. 66.) Torbiera di Biandrono.—Lake Biandrono, which formerly occupied a larger area than at present, has on its north-west side an extensive peat-bog, in which Dr. B. Quaglia has discovered the remains of a true palafitte lying under a deposit of about 6 feet of moss. The station is some 200 yards distant from the lake, and of a quadrangular shape, with massive piles scattered over its area. It is remarkable as having supplied objects which might be considered characteristic of all periods—from the earliest polished Stone Age down to that in which knives, spears, hooks, and spurs of iron were manufactured. (B. 327, p. 89.) Other objects recorded from this station are polished stone hatchets; arrow and lance-heads of yellow and dark flint; fragments of pottery, some of Torbiera della Brabbia.—Some forty years ago the peasants commenced to cut peats in the extensive turbary which lies on both sides of the canal Brabbia, and it is recorded that objects of antiquity were from time to time found, to which, however, little attention was paid. As early as 1856, Angelo Quaglia directed attention to worked beams in the peat, and since 1863, when such objects began to be more inquired after, other piles were detected in one or two places. The most important of these stations is near the mouth of the Brabbia, on its east bank. Here, during the last few years, many interesting relics have been found. While the usual flint and stone objects (Nos. 2 to 8) are abundant, several others of a more novel character have to be added to the list. Especially noteworthy are some peculiarly-shaped fibulÆ (Nos. 9 to 15), one being of iron (No. 12); and a curious object made of bronze rings (No. 18), supposed to be an epaulette, is also from this station. Other objects of bronze are some hair-pins (Nos. 22 to 28), an ornamental pendant (No. 17), a winged celt (No. 21), and a ring (No. 19). There is also one flat celt of copper (No. 20). Among the stone celts and chisels some are now recognised to be of jade. (B. 423, p. 80.) No. 33 represents a hatchet of chloromelanite. Quaglia figures a curious flat stone like a wheel, with a wide circular perforation, and brought to a sharp edge along its outer margin. There were also spindle-whorls of terra-cotta (No. 29) and a quantity of pottery (Nos. 34 and 35); also two small pendants of amber. Of staghorn there are two magnificent harpoons, one of which is here figured (No. 32). Square bits of wood with central perforations (No. 36) are supposed to have been used as floats for fishing-nets. Among the osseous remains is the skull of a deer with part of the horns attached. Fig. 50.—Torbiera di Cazzago-Brabbia (except No. 1). Nos. 18 and 35 = 1/3, 32 = 1/4, and all the rest = 1/2 real size. LAKE MONATE.In the month of April, 1863, Stoppani, Desor, and De Mortillet searched this lake unsuccessfully, and consequently came to the conclusion that it was unsuitable for lake-dwellings ("non potesse offrire piaggia opportuna per le palafitte"). Notwithstanding this opinion, the Abate Ranchet, with the assistance of two local fishermen, succeeded shortly afterwards in discovering the sites of two settlements on the east shore of the lake, near the village of Cadrezzate. (B. 159.) The stations were in water from 6 to 9 feet deep, and about 200 yards apart, and their sites were marked by large mounds of stones ("enormi cumuli di grossi ciottoli"). Fragments of pottery were found in abundance, which in quality of paste and form corresponded with those of the palafittes in Lake Varese. One dish had also a quantity of black stuff, which was supposed to have been the remains of some kind of porridge. A saw, two arrow-points, and a few chips, of flint, and bits of charcoal, were the only objects, in addition to the pottery, collected. Little was done by way of exploring these stations till the year 1875, when the brothers Borghi, the proprietors of the lake, became interested in its submerged antiquities, and proposed to make further researches. To the experienced archÆologist Castelfranco they entrusted the conduct of these researches, and it is to his report I am indebted for the following facts. (B. 321.) Sabione.—The most northerly and largest of the two stations at Cadrezzate is about 60 yards from the shore, and occupies a quadrangular space of about 100 yards in length, and rather more than the half of this in breadth. This area was overspread with stony mounds having intervals of from two to four yards between, and for this reason it was difficult to operate with the drag. Piles were found in the intervals between, as well as on, these steinbergs; but Castelfranco thinks the former were the roadways between the huts, which were built on the piles supported by the stones. The relics collected were similar to those from Varese, of which the following are the principal objects:— A bronze hatchet (coltello-ascia) 5 inches long, and 1 to 2¼ inches broad. Pottery, including fragments with handles of various forms. Dishes containing a black crust ("simile al residuo che la polenta lascia in fondo al painolo dopo la cottura") were frequent. Some of this stuff was submitted to Professor Sordelli for analysis, and he thinks, from detecting in it the halves of acorns, that it was a kind of porridge made from this fruit. One thin spindle-whorl 2 inches in diameter had a few punctured dots on its surface, intended as an ornamentation. One flint arrow-point, and a stone hatchet converted into a polisher, like those already described from Varese. There were also shells of hazel-nuts, and the kernels of the cornel cherry. Pozzolo.—This station was similar to the former as regards the stony mounds, but only about half its size. The principal relics from it were:— Bronze.—A triangularly-shaped spear-head or dagger 3¼ inches long and an inch broad at its base, where there were two rivet-holes; a hair-pin 3½ inches long, with a ring head; also a fish-hook. Stone.—A few chips, arrow-points, and a chisel of dark flint; a hammer and polisher of the hatchet-shaped kind. Pottery.—Fragments of a coarse and fine kind. Vases containing the "sostanza terrosa" already noticed. One bone was found, and in one spot there was a large quantity of cherry-stones. Occhio.—The "Stazione dell' Occhio" is near Monate, and consists of a mass of stones in water from 10 to 14 feet deep; but, notwithstanding the difficulty of searching in such a depth, the following industrial remains were collected:—Chips of flint, charcoal, fragments of pottery, shells of hazel-nuts, and a bronze hook—sufficient to show that it belonged to the same period as the others. LAKE VARANO, TERNATE, OR COMABBIO.The previous failure of the early explorers and subsequently of the experienced fisherman known as "Lo Spariss" in their search for palafittes in Lake Varano did not prevent Castelfranco from trying his luck in this lake also. In July, 1878, with the Professor Castelfranco comes to the conclusion that in both the lakes of Monate and Varano the palafittes are coeval with those in Lake Varese. He is, however, struck with the entire absence of bones from both of them—a fact which appears to him unaccountable. (B. 321.) TORBIERA DI MOMBELLOBetween the villages of Mombello and Cerro, on the east shore of Lake Maggiore, and a few miles south of Laveno, there was a small turbary in which Dr. Carlo Tinelli discovered the remains of a palafitte. The peat was being excavated from 1844, but it was 20 years later before the remains of the palafitte were detected. The further progress of the peat-cutting was carefully watched by Tinelli and a priest, Guiseppe Della Chiesa, in the interests of archÆology. Some of the piles were extracted, and were said to show marks of having been fashioned by stone implements. The relics collected here are:—Flint objects in considerable abundance, among which were two saws, a lance-head, and a beautiful knife-flake (Fig. 50, No. 1), now in the Museum at Varese; fragments of coarsely-made dishes without handles or ornamentation. Three canoes, roughly made and similar to those from Mercurago, were found at a depth of 8 feet. One of the canoes, 7 feet long, was presented to the Museum at Varese. Along with these objects were bones of the stag, goat, and roe. (B. 171.) TORBIERA DI VALCUVIA.In 1870 Professor Leopoldi Maggi described the remains of a palafitte found in "un bacino torboso" between Santa Maria di Cuveglio and Cavona. (B. 187.) This basin lies among glacial dÉbris, and was formerly a small lake, but in modern times it became entirely filled up with peat. On the surface there was a layer of vegetable soil 10 inches thick, then spongy peat to the depth of 3 feet, and then a layer of more solid peat about 1 foot TORBIERA DI BRENNO.Another locality that has yielded interesting remains, of "stazioni palustri," is the "torbiera di Brenno-Useria," situated along the road from Varese to Porto Ceresio, on Lake Lugano. Here, some years ago, a canoe was dug out by the peat-cutters, and associated with it were a large number of weapons of bronze and iron, bracelets, fibulÆ (Fig. 51, No. 14), bones of domestic animals and of man, but no objects of flint. (B. 327, p. 92.) LAKE OF LECCO.As early as 1860 Desor thought he had discovered indications of a palafitte in Lake Maggiore, Stoppani, in his first exploratory tour, turned his attention to Lago di Lecco as, in his opinion, a suitable locality, and having found a group of piles half-way between the Bridge of Lecco and Malgrate stretching towards the western shore, he concluded this was "una bella palafitta a cui nulla mancherebbe per ritrarre perfettamente quelle della etÀ del bronzo." The only resemblance of this supposed palafitte to those of the Bronze Age was the fact that the tops of the piles projected 1 or 2 feet above the lake mud, as no relics of any kind were found. Further researches have not confirmed the genuineness of this palafitte, and Regazzoni throws out the hint that the piles observed by Stoppani might be the work of modern fishermen, who are in the habit of inserting stakes LAKE OF ANNONE.In the narrow strait which connects the small lake-basins of Sale and Annone, Stoppani found some piles projecting from a heap of stones in a depth of 6 or 7 feet of water, which he took to be indications of a palafitte. In 1877 Castelfranco (B. 307) re-examined the locality, and came to the conclusion that the submerged piles and stones observed by Stoppani were merely the remains of a bridge which, at some former period, connected the peninsula Isella with the southern shore; and so the matter still rests. LAKE OF PUSIANO.More satisfactory discoveries were, however, made by Stoppani in his preliminary tour in the Lake Pusiano, where, at the north end of the Isola dei Cipressi, he recognised the existence of a pile-dwelling. The genuineness of this station has been confirmed both by Castelfranco and Regazzoni, who had subsequently made some investigations in the locality. The industrial remains were confined to a few objects of flint-saws, scrapers, flakes, and arrow-points, a portion of a terra-cotta whorl, and some bones and teeth of animals. In 1877 Regazzoni found piles at the other end of the Isola dei Cipressi buried in a heap of stones. (B. 327, p. 72.) TORBIERA DI BOSISIO.To the east of Lake Pusiano lies the torbiera di Bosisio, which came early under the notice of archÆologists by the discovery in it, at a depth of 10 feet, of a beautiful bronze axe-head (Fig. 51, No. 10). Since then a great many relics have been from time to time found in this peat, but they have been widely dispersed, and as the deposit is now nearly exhausted no more finds can be looked for. Sig. G. B. Villa, TORBIERA DI CAPRIANO.In 1869 Dr. Marinoni described a turbary at Capriano, near Renate (B. 169), in which some remarkable objects of bronze were found at a depth of about 7 feet. Similar objects are prevalent among the relics from the Swiss lake-dwellings, and, judging from what we know of the early Iron Age in Italy, they appear to belong to this period. The find comprised a hair-pin (Fig. 51, No. 13), a fibula (No. 18), three bracelets (Nos. 15 and 16), a pendant (No. 17), and a spiral ring (No. 19), all of which are here reproduced from Marinoni's work. (Ibid., Mem., vol. vi. Pl. 1.) Fig. 51.—Bosisio (1 to 7, 10 and 11), Capriano (13, and 15 to 19), Brenno (14), and Cascina (9 and 12). Nos. 9 to 12 = 1/4, and the rest = 1/2 real size. TORBIERA DI MAGGIOLINO.Sig. G. B. Villa, in his "Notizie sulle Torbe della Brianza" (B. 90), describes another locality not far from Bosisio, in the territory of Rogeno, called Maggiolino, in which piles, bones, fragments of pottery, flint knives, and arrow-points, etc., were found—evidently the usual dÉbris of a palafitte. (See also B. 327, p. 97.) TORBIERA DI MERCURAGO.Since Gastaldi published his first report on the discovery of palafittes in the bog of Mercurago by Professor Moro, many additional objects from this locality have come to light, some of which have been noticed and figured by Gastaldi in his numerous articles on the antiquities of Lombardy. The peat is now exhausted, but from these notices, together with an inspection of the relics still preserved in the Turin Museum, we can have a tolerably correct notion of this the first discovered lake-dwelling in Italy. (B. 43, 52, 91, 168, and 294.) Fig. 52.—Plan and Section of portion of Torbiera di Mercurago, showing distribution of piles. Fig. 53.—Cover of Earthenware Vessel (1/3). The peat basin of Mercurago is of an oblong shape, and the antiquities and piles were in a circumscribed place at its northern end, about 130 feet from the bank. Here in a space of 30 feet square, cleared for antiquarian purposes, were counted 22 piles bound together with cross timbers (Fig. 52). The superficial deposit of peat was about 6 feet in thickness, and the tops of the piles reached half-way upwards, while their lower ends penetrated from 3 to 4 feet into the lake mud below. Between this mud and the superincumbent peat there was a bed of fern, and lying immediately over it were three earthen dishes in good preservation, one of which appears to be a lid or cover for another dish (Fig. 53), together with a large quantity of the broken fragments of others, a bronze pin (Fig. 60, No. 6), a scraper 4¾ inches Fig. 54.—Flint Arrow-heads (2/3). The pottery was made of a blackish paste mixed with coarse grains of sand or quartz, and a few dishes were ornamented with patterns of zig-zag scratches separated by parallel lines (Fig. 60, No. 13). Some had handles, and others small ears or perforated knobs, two of which had portions of string still attached to them (Figs. 55 and 56). Fig. 55.—An Earthenware Vessel, with portions of string attached to handles (1/2). Among other relics from this station were:—Two daggers of bronze, one still retaining a couple of rivets for fixing the handle (Fig. 60, No. 1); two bronze pins (Nos. 2 and 4); a wooden anchor 3¼ feet long, terminating at one end with two hooks and at the other with a hole as if for attaching a rope; a canoe 6 feet long, 3¼ feet wide, and about a foot in depth (Fig. 57); near the Fig. 56.—Earthenware Vessel (1/2). Fig. 57.—Portion of Canoe. Fig. 58.—Wooden Wheel. But the most remarkable objects were two wooden wheels. One (Fig. 58) was made of three boards kept together with two Fig. 59.—Wooden Wheel. TORBIERA DI BORGO-TICINO, ETC.Analogous remains to those in Mercurago have been found in several other localities, especially in the districts called Pennino near Borgo-Ticino, and the moor of Gagnano; but the objects were dispersed or thrown away. A stone celt from this place is figured by Gastaldi (Fig. 60, No. 19). In the neighbouring moor of Conturabia a group of piles was observed in the centre of the bog which appears to have belonged to a palafitte of a later date, as some of the piles were said to have been tipped with iron. Gastaldi procured one of these piles, and although this particular one had no iron on it he was convinced that it had been sharpened by instruments similar to those in use at the present day. (B. 52.) TORBIERA DI SAN MARTINO (SAN GIOVANNI DEL BOSCO).This morainic basin is situated in the vicinity of Ivrea, immediately to the south of the village of Giovanni, and it also has yielded, from time to time, antiquities which leave no doubt that it was a home of the lake-dwellers. The bog is of an oval shape, about 1¼ mile in length, and half this in breadth, and is beautifully situated amidst groves of chestnut and walnut trees interspersed through rich meadows and fields. On its margin are found the trunks of trees, from 1 to 2 feet in diameter, still attached to their roots and lying just as they had fallen with their points directed to the centre of the bog. These trees are generally pine, oak, hazel, alder, etc. Below the ordinary peat there is a layer of blackish mud which, on being dried, is combustible, and underneath it lie the stratified layers of ancient lake silt, consisting of a whitish clayey substance. In the blackish intermediate layer there was found, in September, 1864, a canoe 8 feet 4 inches long, 1 foot 9½ inches broad, and 8 inches deep. (A model of this canoe is now in the Museum at Turin.) A few years later (1868) another canoe was found in this turbary, of slightly larger dimensions, having two paddles in it (Fig. 60, No. 17). The following objects are, among others, described and figured by Gastaldi as coming from the same place, viz.:—Specimens of pottery (Nos. 14 and 23), one of which (No. 23) is a lid of a vessel precisely similar to the one from Mercurago (Fig. 53); flint and stone implements (Fig. 60, No. 20); wooden net-floats (No. 21); two bronze pins (Nos. 10 and 11); and a remarkable bronze pendant (No. 15), supposed, however, to be of Etruscan or Roman origin, and of later date than the other remains. (B. 168 and 294.) Other turbaries in the western districts of the Po that have yielded prehistoric remains, but with which there were no piles or other indications of lake-dwellings, are:— Torb. di Torre Bairo.—Fragments of vessels made on the wheel. In another small bog a quern-stone was found which is supposed to be of Roman times. Torb. di Mongenet.—A bronze paalstab. (B. 294, tav. xiii. 4.) Torb. di Bolengo.—A bronze arrow-point. (Ibid., tav. xiii. 9.) Fig. 60.—Mercurago (1 to 9, 12, 13, 18, and 22), Borgo-Ticino (19), and San Martino. Nos. 12, 14, 18, 21, and 23 = 1/4, 13 = 1/6, 17 = 1/24 (the paddles 1/20), and the rest = 1/2 real size. Torb. di Trana.—A sword of bronze 27 inches long (B. 294, Pl. xi.), and a celt of the flat type, (B. 168, Pl. viii.) Lago di Piverone.—A bronze sword. (B. 168, Pl. viii.) Torb. di Oleggio-Castello.—A bronze sword and a socketed spear-head. (Ibid.) LAGOZZA.Lagozza is the name given to a small natural "bacino torbosa" situated in an undulating plateau of morainic dÉbris, about 4 miles from Gallarate in the province of Milan. It is roughly oval in shape and covers a superficial area of 10 or 12 acres. Till recently this basin was a peaty bog, passable in summer, with certain precautions, to "Cacciatori;" but in former times, as its name implies, it was a stagnant lake. In 1875 the proprietor, Count Cornaggio, an ardent and skilful agriculturist, determined to remove the peat altogether, and, for this purpose, commenced operations by cutting a central canal to carry off the water. While the workmen were thus engaged they began to find near the middle of the bog bits of pottery, charcoal, and rotten piles, which, on skilled attention being directed to them, turned out to be undoubted indications of a prehistoric lake-dwelling. The process of clearing out the peat was therefore watched with great interest by local antiquaries, as the operation would involve a more thorough investigation of the antiquities imbedded in the peat than any researches that were likely to be undertaken solely from the scientific point of view. It was not till the spring of 1880 that the main portion of the palafitte was reached by the peat-cutters, and then various antiquarian objects were met with. The turf is now entirely removed, and the relics collected are deposited partly in the Museo Civico in Milan, and partly in the Museo Archeologico at Como. The pile-dwelling occupied a rectangular space, near the centre of the bacino, about 80 yards long from north to south and 30 to 40 yards broad. The turf here varied in thickness from 1 to 2 yards, according to the state of moisture; below which there was a muddy stratum containing the roots of water plants (fango con radice), among which the tops of the piles appeared. This layer was 16 inches thick, and immediately below it was the strato archeologico, which varied in thickness from 2 to 8 inches, and contained the usual dÉbris of human occupancy embedded in a matrix of black peat mud and earth. Below this again was a stratum of black earth, mixed with the whitish clay or marl of the ancient lake bottom, in which the points of the piles were firmly fixed. The piles were pointed at the base and irregularly fixed, 4 or 5 to the square yard, and varied in length from 3½ to 5 Castelfranco thinks the points of the piles were fashioned by some sharp-cutting instrument of metal, as some of the cuts were 11 inches long, and such as no stone weapon could have produced ("non credo che una scure di pietra sia mai stata capace di tanto"). This observation is very significant in face of the fact that there is no object of metal among the relics from Lagozza, with the exception of a fibula (Fig. 61, No. 18), found in the lower part of the turf and, therefore, outside the well-defined relic-bed. This fibula belongs to the early Iron Age, and it is doubtful whether it belonged to the inhabitants of the palafitte. The same author also states that where charcoal and partially burnt wood were in greater abundance there also the relics were more numerous, and hence he concludes that the settlement came to an end by a conflagration ("il risultato di un incendio generale o di parecchi parziali"). Among the industrial remains collected from Lagozza pottery takes the chief place. The quality is of two kinds, coarse and fine, the latter having a smooth black appearance and without any admixture of coarse sand. The vessels, of which a considerable number are whole or nearly so, consist of cups, bowls, plates, vases, spoons, etc. They are generally without handles, having, instead, perforated knobs, as may be seen from the accompanying illustrations ( The spindle-whorls, about 40 of which are in the Museum at Como, are somewhat peculiar, being flat circular cakes of burnt clay with a hole in the centre, and often ornamented with lines or rows of elliptical impressions ( There are some clay weights of the usual conical shape, and There is not a single article made of bone or horn, nor any trace of fishing or hunting gear, with the exception of one or two arrow-heads (Fig. 61, Nos. 5 and 6). Fig. 61.—Lagozza. All 1/2 real size. Stone celts are scarce, only about 30 in all, and none perforated (No. 10). One small implement is in the form of a double-edged axe, and adapted for cutting at both ends (No. 8). Flint flakes or knives (Nos. 1 to 4) are numerous, but cores and chips are less frequent. Arrow-points are extremely few—only three have I seen in the Museum at Como, but their authenticity seems to be questioned by Castelfranco, who thinks they were not actually from the relic-bed in the palafitte. Among the usual stone objects, such as hammers, rubbers, etc., are to be noticed a number of white quartz pebbles and eight or nine small polished stones with scratched markings on them (Fig. 62, Nos. 11 and 12). Fig. 62.—Lagozza. All 1/3 real size. Ornaments or charms are represented by one small pendant of green steatite perforated for suspension (No. 7). As evidence that the inhabitants were in the habit of spinning and weaving, there are, besides the spindle-whorls and clay weights, bits of thread and cord, and one small fragment of coarsely-made linen tissue (No. 9). According to Professor Sordelli, this was made from wild flax (Linum angustifolium), of which he found the seeds and fibres in abundance, but no trace of the cultivated species. On the other hand, there were two kinds of wheat and the six-eared barley. Among the food-remains were the wild apple, acorns, hazel-nuts, stones of the cornel cherry, poppy-seeds, etc. But the most remarkable feature of Lagozza is, that no animal bones of any description were found—not a tooth, or horn, or bone of any kind. Neither were there any warlike weapons, with the exception of the few questionable arrow-points. Castelfranco therefore suggests that the inhabitants of Lagozza might have been vegetarians. (B. 354, 359b, 372d´, 387, 409, 452, 456, and 459c.) LAKE GARDA.In 1851, while the harbour of Peschiera was being deepened, numerous bronze implements, associated with piles deeply buried in the bed of the lake, were found at a particular spot near the north mole of the fortress; but no special attention was paid to them. The bronze objects were laid aside by the workmen, and it is said that a quantity of them, weighing some 15 or 20 pounds, was sold as old metal. Of this find a very few were sent to the K. K. Antiken Cabinet in Vienna. In 1860 further deepening of the harbour became necessary, and again similar objects were found in the dredged-up stuff. These operations were conducted under the supervision of M. Lorenz and Col. von Silber, who, in the interests of archÆology, collected "In deepening the entrance of the harbour at Peschiera for the newly-built gunboat, which was done by means of a mud-machine (called a 'paternoster') to a depth of 7 or 8 feet below the usual level of the water, the workmen found amongst the mud and sand brought up by the machine a great number of bronze implements. These were carefully preserved, for the sake of archÆology, by Mr. Lorenz, the marine engineer, now residing at Pola, and myself. I was so uninitiated in this science, that when I found that the greater part of the objects had been taken up from a space of a very few square fathoms, I had the notion that a ship, laden with bronze, had been wrecked here, and it was not till a conversation which I had with Dr. Freudenberg, of Bonn, that I was led to believe that a lake-dwelling probably existed on this spot. This idea was corroborated by the fact that just in this place the working of the mud-machine was very much impeded by a number of burnt piles which were quite covered with the mud. Unfortunately, I fancied at first that these piles came from the fishermen's huts, which abound in this neighbourhood at the present day, so that I paid no attention to their position or arrangement. The piles which were drawn up were, on an average, 4 or 5 feet long, quite hidden under the sand, and burnt to such a degree that it is quite impossible for me to say with certainty what kinds of wood they were made of. I imagine, however, that the wood was chiefly that of the stone oak (Quercus ilex). The piles were 4 or 5 inches in diameter. "Besides the bronze implements one of stone was found, which I believe to be a sling-stone. Lately, when reading the reports of the Swiss lake-dwellings, I remember the occurrence of a great number of pieces of burnt clay found in the mud. These pieces were of a blackish colour, remarkably thick, and without any definite form. I do not doubt that they have been fragments of the clay covering the huts of the lake-dwellings." (B. 119, 2nd ed., p. 364.) These discoveries induced the eminent archÆologist, In this report the following sectional description of the sedimentary strata is given:— (1) In a depth of about 5 feet of water there was first a sandy layer from 2½ to 3 feet thick in which no relics were found. (2) Beneath this layer of sand was the relic-bed, from 2 to 3½ feet thick, composed of a mossy deposit containing the remains of plants, organic dÉbris, the industrial objects already referred to, and the tops of numerous piles. (3) Underlying the relic-bed was a thick bed of stiff loam and sand, into which the piles deeply penetrated. These piles were generally of pine and oak, the former predominating in the proportion of two to one. The dimensions of the lake-dwelling were not accurately ascertained, but the area covered by the dredging operations exceeded 10,000 square yards, and in most of this space piles were found. No stone implements were found, with the exception of the polished discoidal stone sent to Dr. Keller; but the number of bronze objects amounted to 250, most of which were sent to Vienna. Professor Franz Unger made a careful study of the organic remains, and amongst the various fruits, plants, and wood identified by him the most interesting are rye (Secale cereale) and the vine (Vitis vinifera). The former has not yet been found in any of the terremare or lake-dwellings of North Italy. The osseous remains represented the ordinary domestic animals—dog, sheep, goat, ox, horse, and pig—as well as the stag, roe, wild boar, etc. Besides the bronze objects there were fragments of pottery and one or two Roman coins—one of Trajan and one of Domitian. Meantime archÆologists were on the look out for palafittes in other parts of the lake. It appears that as early as 1861 Cav. Martinati detected piles at a place called Rocca di Garda, near On the western and more sheltered shores of Lake Garda Professor Stoppani, of Milan, found traces of several stations, particularly in the Gulf San Felice di Scovolo, three of which were situated close to its northern shore, and two close to the Isola Lecchi on the landward side of the island. As few relics were found—only a few flint objects—and as the piles in all these stations were near the shore and in comparatively shallow water, Stoppani concluded they belonged to the Stone Age. These explorations were a sequence to the first researches in Lake Varese, so auspiciously initiated by Desor and Mortillet, and which Stoppani followed up by making an exploratory tour of the lakes of North Italy. The observations of Stoppani, however, have not been confirmed by any subsequent researches, though this particular locality is pre-eminently the most fitted for lake-dwellings in the whole of this extensive sheet of water. (B. 87.) In 1879, under the skilful management of Cav. Stefano de Stefani (R. Ispettore degli Scavi, Verona), dredging operations were resumed at the old place in the harbour of Peschiera, which considerably added to the number of relics from this station. In the spring of the following year De Stefani transferred his As both these investigations were undertaken by orders from the Minister of Public Instruction and at the expense of Government the relics were sent to enrich the prehistoric department of the Kircherian Museum at Rome. The people of Verona were greatly chagrined to find that these successive discoveries, which had now attained much celebrity in archÆological circles, were constantly slipping out of their hands, and that in their own local museum there was scarcely a single article illustrative of the culture and social condition of these early lake-dwellers. To rectify this state of matters and make some amends for their past neglect the Academical Commission was induced to order a fresh investigation under De Stefani, whose recent success was characterised as "risultati splendidissimi." Again the excavations of De Stefani were crowned with great success. In 1881 his attentions were directed to Peschiera, which yielded him a considerable number of articles, being the fourth important supply since its discovery in 1851. In 1883 the station in the Mincio was subjected to further explorations, and De Stefani's labours were rewarded by a rich harvest of relics, mostly of the Stone Age, which included many flint implements, as knives, hatchets, saws, arrow-points, etc. The relics collected on both these occasions are now deposited in the Museo Civico at Verona, and at last this town shares with Rome, Vienna, and ZÜrich, the honour of possessing a collection of these remarkable remains. (B. 342, 358, 370, 424, and "Notizie degli Scavi, 1880 and 1884.") From these general remarks it will be seen that there are only three lake-dwellings in Lake Garda that have yielded remains sufficiently comprehensive in quantity and variety to enable us to form some idea of the period to which they belonged, viz. the station close to the fortress of Peschiera, that in the Mincio, and that known as Il Bor on the south-east shore of the lake. Peschiera.—Since the report of This settlement appears to have flourished exclusively in the Bronze Age, as may be seen from a glance at the accompanying illustrations (Figs. 63, 64, and 65). Pottery.—The fragments of earthenware indicate a great variety of vessels made of two kinds of paste—a coarse and a fine quality. Of the latter, Nos. 26 to 30, Fig. 65, are sufficient to show that the ceramic art of the lake-dwellers was identical at one period of their existence with that of the terramaricoli in which the anse lunate (No. 26) are so characteristic. Bronze.—Weapons, implements, and ornaments of this material are extremely numerous, numbering upwards of 300 objects. Among the weapons we find socketed lance-heads (Fig. 64, No. 10), daggers (No. 1 to 7), single-edged knives (No. 11), and a remarkable series of double-edged dagger-knives with riveted tangs or sword-like handles (Fig. 65, Nos. 10, and 12 to 14). The implements include three kinds of hatchets (Fig. 63, No. 30; Fig. 64, No. 32, and Fig. 65, No. 11), chisels and gouges (Fig. 63, No. 36), sickles (No. 33), various forms of razors with handle and double cutting edges (Nos. 1 to 5), needles (No. 7), and fish-prongs and hooks (Fig. 64, Nos. 18 to 21, 30 and 31). Fig. 63.—Peschiera. All 1/2 real size. Fig. 64.—Peschiera. No. 32 = 1/4, and all the rest = 1/2 real size. Finally there are a few spirals, bits of wire, and one special object of unknown use (Fig. 64, No. 17). The relationship which these objects have to analogous remains in foreign countries is most exhaustively and ably dealt with by Professor Pigorini. (B. 310.) Mincio.—As the surplus water of Lake Garda, under the name Mincio, passes beyond the railway-bridge, it divides into two larger channels and some smaller ones, forming a series of acutely-pointed islands. The bed is here irregular, and at various points the tops of piles were seen in groups projecting from the bed of the river. The first explorations were in the larger channel to the left. Here De Stefani found several objects of antiquity, among which the following are the principal (B. 358):— Bronze.—The corroded blade of a knife-dagger (double-edged), portion of a dagger-blade with a mid-rib, portion of another with deep longitudinal grooves, portion of a small disc and portion of a spiral. Flint.—Two rectangularly-shaped hatchets, a saw (curved), a javelin, an arrow-point, a lance-head, small knives, and a large quantity of chips, cores, and crude flints. Pottery.—Two spindle-whorls, a quantity of handles and fragments of dishes. Fig. 65.—Peschiera. (10 to 14, 21, 26 to 29, and 31.), Il Mincio (1 to 9, 17 to 19, 22, 23, 25, and 30), and Il Bor (15, 16, 20, and 24). All 1/2 real size. Staghorn.—A portion converted into the form of a hatchet, a hair-pin, and several other worked bits. Bones, etc.—A large quantity of teeth and bones of the ordinary domestic animals. At another spot, 200 yards lower down in the central canal, amidst a group of piles he collected:— Bronze.—A knife (Fig. 65, No. 17), two small dagger-blades with rivet-holes, the point of a sickle, two bits of the cutting-ends of axes (paalstabs), two hair-pins 10 inches long and three smaller ones, a disc-shaped head of a pin, portions of a fibula, together with fragments of various other undetermined objects. One interesting relic is supposed to be the knob of a handle (No. 25). Stone.—One portion of a polished stone of basalt (No. 19). Flint.—The implements of this material were here in great abundance (Nos. 1 to 9). Eighteen hatchets, mostly of a rectangular form (No. 9); 60 saws (Nos. 5 and 6); 49 arrow-points (Nos. 1 to 4), of which one (No. 4) has four barbs and another is chisel-shaped (No. 8); 13 lance-heads (No. 7), etc. Amber.—Two beads, one reddish and the other yellow. Pottery.—Various fragments, especially handles of vessels of different forms—cornuta, lunata, lagotis, bitubercolata, etc. Some of the dishes were of fine black ware, among which I may note a spoon (No. 30), but generally the coarser kinds predominated. Spindle-whorls were also numerous and varied in form, not less than 31 being collected. There were also two large net weights, one round and the other ring-shaped. Staghorn.—Several worked bits: one was a portion of an ornamented comb and another part of a handle of some sort. Money.—Four coins, much corroded, supposed by De Stefani to be of the second half of the third century. In 1883 De Stefani resumed his researches in the same place. (B. 424.) On this occasion the bronze objects were limited to one or two insignificant fragments; but, on the other hand, the flint implements increased—knives, saws, javelins, lance-heads and arrow-heads being in abundance. Among the other things I may mention two small stone discs perforated, probably used as spindle-whorls; a small bit of green glass, together with portions of worked and unworked horn, bone, etc. The ornamental blade (Fig. 65, No. 18), a neat spiral-headed Il Bor.—Previous to the investigations of Il Bor by Cavazzocca (B. 355), Dr. Alberti had estimated the number of heads of piles visible on this station at 500, but this number the former considers rather high. The station stretched parallel to the shore, from which its site is now distant about a hundred yards; but it is supposed that the present level of the water stands higher than it was in the days of the lake-dwellers. One reason for this opinion is that a triple row of piles which runs shorewards, and is considered to be the remains of a gangway, was found to terminate suddenly about half-way. The strato archeologico lies under a thin covering of sand and gravel, which Cavazzocca explains to be the dÉbris of the disintegrated morainic coast carried outwards by the boisterous action of the waves. The principal relics collected by Cavazzocca are as follows, most of which are illustrated in his monograph:— Bronze.—Four knife daggers similar to those from Peschiera; three pin-heads, "capocchie di aghi crinali" (Fig. 65, No. 24), like those from the terremare; one axe-head with wings, like No. 30, Fig. 63; one conical button; two chisels (Fig. 65, No. 15); four hair-pins; two fragments of spiral tubes (No. 20), and six undetermined objects. Pottery showed diverse forms, including anse lunate, and fragments of vessels, spindle-whorls, etc. Stone.—Three fragments of stone moulds, several whetstones, and an arrow, knife, and several chips of flint. An arrow-point of bronze (No. 16) and a couple of small daggers from Il Bor are in the Museum of Rome. LAKE FIMON. (B. 83, 110, 132, and 295.)About four miles to the south of Vicenza, at the southernmost point of an irregularly-shaped valley of rich meadow-land, lies the small lake of Fimon. At the present time it is hardly a couple of miles in circumference, but before the Debba Canal, which carries its surplus water to the river Bacchiglione, was cut, it is known to have been considerably larger, and in prehistoric times it is supposed to have covered the larger part of the valley. In a meadow called Pascalone, near its north end, and close to where the Debba Canal begins, Mr. Lioy Piles.—The piles were from 8 to 12 inches in diameter, singly and irregularly placed, but sometimes in groups; some were hard and black (oak), and others soft, but they bore no traces of any cutting implements. In some instances they were surrounded with heaps of stones. They penetrated deeply, and one which was pulled up measured 18 feet in length. No traces of a gangway stretching to the shore could be discovered. Relic-bed.—Below a thin covering of vegetable-mould there was a peaty bed about 16 inches thick, and underneath this, lake-marl containing various kinds of fresh-water shells to the extent of 3 feet 4 inches. To this succeeded the strato archeologico with its various contents—decomposed organic matter, broken bones, fragments of pottery, flint implements and other worked stones, bits of straw, reeds, charcoal, clay plaster, burnt faggots, etc. This bed was about 12 inches thick, and its matrix was of a yellowish-black colour, which, when cut into, had a doughy consistency and emitted a strong sulphurous smell. Relics.—The rough stone implements were made out of the limestone of the neighbouring hills, very seldom of sandstone, but more frequently of flint from the spurs of the Alps. These flints were in considerable numbers in the form of chips, nuclei, and unfinished implements, very few of which were well formed; a few rudely-formed arrow-points, lance-heads, knives, and saws or scrapers; pebbles of limestone, probably hammer-stones; stone discs, 2 to 4 inches in diameter (only one was perforated); also numerous sling-stones made of sandstone, basalt, and serpentine; one fragment of granite, flattened and polished on all the four sides, but only one small polished stone celt. Many of the bones were worked, and there were tynes of staghorn, sharpened at the top and perforated at the base; also pointers, spear-heads, spatulÆ, and splinters of all kinds. The fragments of pottery were so plentiful that a handful of mud could not be taken up without finding some pieces in Numerous specimens of spindle-whorls. They are flat circular cakes of clay, like small wheels, perforated and unornamented. Organic Remains.—Fruit of the water-chestnut (Trapa natans), kernels of cherries, hazel-nuts, acorns, bramble seeds, etc. The bones of the stag and wild boar seem to predominate among those of the sheep, ox, roe, badger, etc.; also a large quantity of the broken carapaces of a small fresh-water turtle (Emys lutaria). Some five or six years later (1871) Mr. Lioy made further excavations near the same place, and came upon a relic-bed 8 inches in thickness and only 16 inches below the surface, which he considered to be the remains of a pile-dwelling of a later age. In this relic-bed he found a bronze celt (Fig. 66, No. 1) and some flints of a grey-reddish or yellowish colour (different from the blue variety in the earlier dwelling), but no stone implements and no arrow-points. Pottery was not abundant, but it was made of a finer quality and the ornamentation shows a higher style of art. Mr. Lioy also observes that the bones of the domestic animals, such as sheep and oxen, are now in excess of those of wild animals. As a final report of the abitazioni lacustri of Lake Fimon (B. 295) Mr. Lioy has published a lengthy monograph with numerous plates of illustrations. The work, however, deals more with extraneous and general considerations than specific facts or details bearing on the remains of the palafittes in this lake. I consider the station at Polada, with its remarkable relics, far more typical of the Stone Age lake-dwellings, and I have accordingly selected it as a standard for such remains in the eastern valley of the Po. Moreover, Mr. Lee (B. 119, 2nd ed.) has already presented to English readers an abridgement of Mr. ARQUÀ-PETRARCA.In the neighbourhood of Padua remains of lake-dwellings presenting in many respects similar characteristics to those in Lake Fimon, have recently been discovered in the small lake of ArquÀ-Petrarca situated in the Euganean hills. It was discovered in the autumn of 1885 by Professor Frederico Cordenons, who, with the aid of funds from the Museums of Padua and Este, made excavations during this and the following summer, the result of which he has just published. (B. 464.) It appears that the lake, though now only covering some dozen acres, was formerly of much greater extent and occupied the whole of the present valley. In the slime of this ancient lake-basin, which is now overlaid with a deposit of peat over 3 feet in thickness, the remains of two stations were found, one on the eastern and the other on the western margin of the present lake. These remains, which consist of piles, portions of transverse beams, and a large assortment of the industrial dÉbris of the inhabitants, are entirely confined to the ancient mud deposit, nothing being found in the peat above it. Mr. Cordenons does not give as minute a description of the relic-bed and its surroundings as could be desired; but as only a fourth of the area occupied by the piles has been excavated (1,000 square yards), the present report may be only a first instalment of the researches. Among the objects collected, the following will give a general idea of its chronological position with respect to analogous remains in the Po valley:—Several perforated stone axes, half of a perforated hammer-axe of green serpentine beautifully polished, a large hammer-stone, a beautiful flint saw four inches long ("un bellissimo coltello-sega"), portion of a finely-worked laurel-leaf-shaped lance-head of flint, a number of arrow-heads, lance-heads, saws, knives, etc., of flint. Objects of staghorn were not numerous, and only some perforated rings of this material are recorded. Fig. 66.—Fimon (1 to 8), and ArquÀ-Petrarca (9 to 12). All 1/3 real size except No. 2 = 1/6. The pottery is abundant, and with the description of it much of Cordenons's monograph is taken up. The paste in the generality of the vessels is mixed with sand and bits of mica, recognised to be the dÉbris of the surrounding hills. Only one dish (Fig. 66, No. 11) showed ornamentation of incised lines, but, on No metal objects were found, and consequently Mr. Cordenons concludes that the station belonged to the pure Stone Age, a conclusion which, however, Pigorini disputes. (B. 466b.) The pottery is very similar to that from the adjacent lake-dwellings at Fimon, and by no means dissimilar to that from Polada. POLADA.About half-way between Desenzano sul Lago and the village of Lonato, and a little to the south of the direct railway between Milan and Venice, there is, in the midst of a series of morainic hillocks, a small bowl-shaped hollow, scarcely 300 yards in diameter, which at one time formed a stagnant lake called Polada. It appears that at some former period, of which there is now no record, this pool had been partially drained by means of a small tunnel which was pierced through the morainic lip on its north side, and so carried off the water to a lower valley. The result of this was to expose a considerable portion of the lake-bottom, one part of which formed a tongue-like projection or promontory attached to its eastern margin. This continued to be the condition of Polada for many ages, and in course of time the remaining portion of the lake became completely filled up with peat. Some years ago the proprietors of this bog commenced to utilise its contents as fuel, and, to facilitate this operation, the margin of the crater-like cavity was pierced by a second tunnel at a lower level than the former, so as to get rid of the water. It was then found that the promontory of land, which since its original exposure had been cultivated, had been only partially bared by the first drainage, as on its inner side there was a thin covering of peat, which a little farther on suddenly sank to a great depth. In the course of removing this covering of peat from the tip of the promontory, and just on the margin of the cultivated land, some rotten piles and other indications of a prehistoric dwelling were discovered. Dr. Giovanni Rambotti, President of the Liceo Ginnasio at Desenzano, recognised this to be the remains of a lake-dwelling erected on piles, and so greatly did he interest himself in the objects recovered and daily turning up that he From an inspection of the original outlet Dr. Rambotti calculates that before the first tunnel was executed this tongue of land would be covered by eight to ten feet of water, and he thinks that in this depth of water the lake-dwellers must have erected their piles and platform. That portion of the site might have been exposed and destroyed when the first drainage was made, is probable; but at any rate sufficient remained to be able to form some opinion as to its size. When I visited the locality with Dr. Rambotti he gave me the following dimensions, which he derived from a careful study of the locality and disposition of the piles. Its form was that of an oblong parallelogram, 65 yards long and about one-third of this distance in breadth. Its longest diameter ran nearly east and west, and the dwelling thus presented its short side to the nearest shore. Two rows of piles, about two feet apart, stretched to the shore, a distance of about 100 yards, and Dr. Rambotti justly concluded this to be the remains of a gangway. A shallow canoe, 25 feet long and 30 inches wide, having traces of fixtures for oars at three equidistant spots on each side, was found near the site of the lake-dwelling. Portions of a second canoe, apparently of smaller dimensions, were disinterred at the land end of the gangway. But the valuable feature of this lake-dwelling is the large and unique assortment of industrial remains which it has furnished, all of which are kept together at the private residence of Dr. Rambotti, where they constitute a respectable museum. Pottery.—The larger vessels were made of coarse greyish clay, mixed with rough sand or pebbles; but the smaller and more ornamental were composed of a fine black homogeneous paste. Besides a large quantity of fragments, there are in Rambotti's collection about 150 vessels, more or less entire, showing a considerable variety of size and form, according to the uses for which the vessels were intended. Some were large wide-mouthed jars, with two, or sometimes four, handles. The About 140 spindle-whorls of terra-cotta, some of which are variously ornamented (Fig. 68, Nos. 28, 29, and 36). A considerable number of perforated clay weights, of which five are flat, with the hole in the centre (Fig. 67, Nos. 19 and 20). The most novel objects were a few oblong cakes of terra-cotta ornamented with repeating lines of small circular depressions (Fig. 68, Nos. 22 to 24). Fig. 67.—Polada. All 1/3 real size. Horn und Bone.—About 40 daggers and pointers of bone, of which 12 are made from split leg-bones and beautifully polished like those from Laibach and other places. A number of small pointed objects of bone, chisels, pins, etc. (Fig. 68, Nos. 25 to 27). Seven perforated axe hammer-heads of staghorn (Fig. 67, No. 17), also similar to those from Laibach. Bronze.—A bronze dagger (No. 1) with a neatly-worked bone handle terminating in a button-shaped capsule. The blade was attached to a semilunar capsule of thin bronze by rivets. Portions of worked bone similar to the handle of this weapon were supposed to belong to other analogous weapons. Three flat celts of the terramara type (Nos. 2 and 3). Ornaments.—Eight bone rings, one of which is ornamented with small circles (Fig. 68, No. 33). Three perforated buttons or spindle-whorls of marble (No. 30). Several other forms of Fig. 68.—Polada. Nos. 37 and 38 = 1/6 and all the rest = 1/2 real size. Wood.—Several articles of wood are preserved, as handles of implements, a portion of an oar, fragments of the casings for flint Osseous Remains.—Upper part of a human skull. Also numerous bones of the following animals:—the urus and some other breeds of cattle, horse, sheep, goat, dog, cat (one skull), wild boar, pig, stag, and roe. Dr. Rambotti thinks that there was satisfactory evidence to conclude that the settlement had been destroyed by fire. No report of this remarkable lake-dwelling has yet been published in Italy, but the principal objects were exhibited at a Congress of Art and ArchÆology held at Brescia in the autumn of 1875. On this occasion no less than fourteen pages of the published catalogue of the exhibition are devoted to the enumeration of Dr. Rambotti's collection from Polada. CASCINA, Etc.The Torbiera di Cascina, situated between Castelnuovo and San Georgio, in Salice, has from time to time yielded objects which, there can be no doubt, belonged to ancient pile-dwellers. The station was first recognised by Martinati (Adige, 1874, No. 23), who found flint arrow-points, a laurel-leaf-shaped lance-head, some stone implements, bits of staghorn, etc. In 1878 Pigorini gives a further account (B. 328d') of some of the objects since discovered, including 18 flint pieces—arrow-points of various forms, including one of the so-called rhomboidal type (selce romboidale), a magnificent lance-head, a fine saw, and one small triangular chisel. In the Museo Kircheriano at Rome there are also preserved a bronze axe of the flat type (Fig. 51, No. 9) and a curious knife of bronze (No. 12), similar to those from the lake-dwelling at Peschiera, which were found in this place. Martinati (B. 279, p. 179) also describes another small torbiera in the vicinity of Lazise, in which three rows of piles were encountered, and associated with them were fragments of black pottery. It was also reported that in past years entire vessels of the same kind were found in the locality. TERREMARE.Shortly after the middle of last century certain artificial deposits of an earthy substance found scattered in the shape of large, flattish mounds, over the provinces of Parma, Reggio, and This celebrated and best known of all these settlements is situated about four miles north-west of Borgo San Donino, in the province of Parma. It was discovered about seventy years ago, and continued to be excavated solely for agricultural purposes till 1861, when Gastaldi's publications directed attention to the prehistoric remains of North Italy. Till then the numerous objects of human industry disinterred by the workmen excited little or no curiosity. Things, however, were very different after the northern wave of archÆological inquiry, now greatly quickened by the discovery of the Swiss lake-dwellings, had reached the Parmensian antiquaries. Henceforth instructions went forth from the proprietor, Sig. Ugolotti, that these objects were to be carefully preserved, and now they constitute a special and most interesting collection in the ArchÆological Museum at Parma. On visiting Castione one sees a slight elevation rising about 10 feet above the plain and surmounted by a church and convent. These buildings, which are both lofty and extensive, are approached on the west side by a stone bridge, spanning a canal-like pool of stagnant water, which lies along the margin of the mound and partly surrounds it. Elsewhere the slope from this plateau to the level plain is gradual, except where the more recent excavations have been made, which present much the same appearance as a roadside sand-pit. Of the original size and form of the mound it is now difficult to form a correct estimate, owing to the amount of stuff yearly carted away, but the portion still undisturbed or covered by buildings may be estimated at two acres. A perpendicular section, which can be readily obtained at various points, presents the following succession of layers from above downwards:— 1. Ordinary mould or disturbed soil for a depth of 6 feet, said to contain Roman and more recent remains. 2. The terramara beds proper, arranged in thin, wavy laminations of variously-coloured earths. Sometimes a thickish bed of clay or a black band of charcoal catches the eye; in Fig. 68a—Pottery from the Terremare. 3. Underneath these beds lies a blackish peaty substance, some 3 feet thick, in which, as already mentioned, Strobel detected the remains of a palafitte. Below this peaty stratum there is a greenish clayey deposit, similar in composition to that found at some depth in the surrounding plain, into which the piles were driven. Fig. 68b.—Anse Lunate or Cornute from the Terremare. Strobel's discovery caused much speculative interest, especially when correlated with the researches initiated by Gastaldi regarding lake-and pile-dwellings, the existence of which in Italy had just been demonstrated at Mercurago and Lake Garda.
Reflecting on these novel revelations and impelled, no doubt, by the growing interest in such studies, Strobel and Pigorini, both then residing at Parma, commenced a series of observations and inquiries regarding the terremare in their vicinity, the outcome of which was a joint report, first published in 1862 as part of Gastaldi's well-known article, "Nuovi cenni sugli oggetti di alta antichitÀ trovati nelle torbiere e nelle mariniere dell' Italia." (B. 52.)
Among the utensils they distinguished a variety of industrial objects such as needles, pins, ornamented combs, small wheels, handles, etc., made of bone or horn (Figs. 69 to 74). Of stone there were numbers of rubbers, corn-grinders, and grooved spheroidal stones (Fig. 75), but very few hatchets and chisels. Of bronze they found sickles (Fig. 76), spear-heads (Fig. 77), flat celts (Fig. 78), awls (Fig. 79), chisels, pins, etc. Among the objects of uncertain use were classified a series of spindle-whorls of different forms (Fig. 80). Fig. 80.—Various forms of Spindle-whorls or Beads (1/2) from Campeggine. From the existence of metal slag and stone moulds (Fig. 81) the authors inferred that the terramaricoli knew the art of founding in metals. Professor Strobel gave also a minute description of the bones Fig. 81.—Stone Mould from Castelnuovo. In summing up, the authors used the following words:— "As to the first origin of the marl-earths, it is clear that the banquets, as you assert, are a considerable part; but there seems to us to appear in the scoriÆ, the millstones, the heaps of grain, the palisades, the potsherds, already cited, together with the arms and utensils of all sorts which are found in these earths, something more than a mere meeting-place to banquet. It seems to us, if we do not err, that there is something of settlement and duration. Man did not meet there only to arrange and devour the feast, but to employ himself besides in domestic avocations, in preparing implements and arms, to sew garments, and make nets—in a word, to inhabit them; besides, to exercise the practices of their religious worship, and, perhaps, also to burn their dead, and all these after the fashion of barbarians, such as the people of the marl-beds must have been. These people, according to the place and time, were fishermen, hunters, shepherds, and even agriculturists." (B. 91, p. 83.) These words contain the most important feature of this report. The authors, though not absolutely free from the previous notions that floods and inundations had something to do with the stratification of the dÉbris, distinctly recognise that the terremare must be considered as the remains of the habitations of the living, and not, as hitherto supposed, the resting-places of the dead. Interest in the whole subject now rapidly increased, and extended to agriculturists and local observers. Yearly excavations were carefully scanned and even special researches were carried on in the interests of science. Strobel, a professed naturalist with remarkably precise and accurate habits, devoted his great energies to the elucidation of the organic remains, especially the rich and varied products of the peaty bed (terra uliginosa) at Castione, in which the piles were detected. Pigorini, on the other hand, was an archÆologist pure and simple, but endowed with great ability and much fertility in the correlation and generalisation of facts—qualities which have since gained him the chair of archÆology at Rome, which he now fills with so much distinction. Thus associated these two men may be said to have developed a new school of archÆology, especially anent the terremare, having as its primary and indispensable object the collection of authenticated data, without which, they asserted, no deductions however brilliant could be scientific. In the course of researches conducted by Strobel at Castione, during the years 1862 and 1863, he observed that the piles were placed in a sort of basin, either natural or artificial; that they supported transverse beams over which clay floorings had been placed; and that they were more thickly set towards the margin, and slanting, as if to strengthen the inner superstructures. Moreover, he proved that the supposed peaty formation (terra uliginosa) had nothing in common with true peat, but was simply a subaqueous deposit of ordinary earth, associated with decomposed organic dÉbris. Another terramara in Parma having similar characteristics to that at Castione was investigated in the following year by Pigorini, and thus the theory of an occasional palafitte converted into a land-dwelling seemed to them to be confirmed. Previous to this the stratification of the beds—one of the most remarkable features of these deposits—had not excited any unusual surprise, but now it began to be commented upon. These and some other noteworthy observations here and there coming to light induced Strobel and Pigorini to issue a second report on the terremare of Parma. (B. 89.) But in this brochure, which appeared in 1864, there does not appear to be any striking departure from the views expressed by the authors in their previous report. They asserted that the people who constructed and inhabited these dwellings were a nomadic or The terremare now became a controversial focus between the adherents of the old and new schools. To the former Cavedoni, Coppi, and subsequently Crespellani, lent their influence; while the latter were reinforced by Boni, Canestrini, Calegari, and Chierici. Amongst all these, during the next few years, Chierici stood pre-eminent. Already an ardent collector of the antiquities of his native country, he found in the mysterious terremare a congenial field and a new outlet for his love of practical research. For minute observation and lucid exposition of the phenomena observed in explorations, Chierici had few superiors. To him must undoubtedly be assigned the next great contributions towards the elucidation of the terremare problem. Observing in several instances that an earthy dyke of a rectangular shape, with a ditch outside, surrounded the terramara mound, and that upright beams, or traces of them, were to be seen in all parts of the deposits, he suggested that these were normal features in their structure. Although some of his contemporary explorers had incidentally noticed piles in a stratum different from that in which their original discovery was made at Castione, and even recorded the fact (B. 407, p. 7), it remained to Chierici alone to interpret the true significance of the discovery. In support of the theory of universality of the palafitte system, he showed that in many cases the piles had entirely disappeared by decomposition, and that the only traces of their existence were the holes they had occupied. Some of these, indeed, had subsequently become filled up by infiltrated matter, so that on section they presented the appearance of inverted cones. On this point he relates that in one space measuring 210 square metres he counted no less than 124 "buche di pali." (B. 206, p. 9.) It must be remembered that, previous to this, archÆologists had no clear notion of the order or relative position of the products of different ages and races, and the same confusion extended to the terremare. For instance, at Castelnuovo, Chierici seemed puzzled at finding, underneath a Bronze Age terramara, indications of an older period. At Campeggine, on the other hand, objects of the early Iron Age appeared, but chiefly in the upper strata, while Etruscan remains had been recognised in several instances. Another point to which Chierici's attention was directed was the frequency with which rectangular enclosures were disposed so as to have their four sides facing the cardinal points; and this orientation within certain limits, varying, it would seem, according to the direction of the sunrise when the settlement was founded, he considered also applicable to all the terramara villages. On this point see also Helbig. (B. 308.) In his famous theory of the structure of the terramara villages (B. 206) Chierici conceived the idea that they had been constructed over artificial basins to which a running stream was made to flow so as to convert the bacino into a pool of water. This pool was surrounded by an earthen dyke inside of which a wooden platform was erected on piles and covered with a layer of clay. Huts were then erected over this platform at regular intervals, and the refuse from them was thrown, by means of holes here and there, into the space below. The water entering at one side of the enclosure made its exit at the opposite side. Thus the space below the platform was more or less occupied with water, and the dÉbris thrown into it became arranged into sedimentary strata, and so continued to accumulate until the entire space was filled up. When the accumulation of dÉbris reached this extent it became necessary to elevate their floorings, and this was done by repeating the same process at a higher level; and in this manner Chierici accounted for the successive platforms and palafittes which were to be met with in the terramara beds. Thus in the hands of Chierici almost every feature of the terramara deposits excited fresh interest and an eagerness for further inquiries. Piles or their traces were found almost immediately in all the stations wherever they were carefully looked for. In 1872 Chierici and Mantovani explored two stations, one Pigorini, on the other hand, looked favourably on the major portion of Chierici's generalisations, and in the course of explorations conducted by him at Casaroldo in 1874 (B. 266 and 297) he found everything not only in harmony with his views but some additional facts that seemed to strengthen that portion of his theory in which he maintained that the palafitte was the normal method adopted in the structure of the terremare, whatever the nature of the locality might be in which they were constructed. Thus at Casaroldo, although there was both a ditch and a dyke surrounding the basin containing the palafitte, it had no peaty understratum (terra uliginosa), as at Castione, but a substance precisely identical with the superimposed deposits. Here also there were traces of piles on a higher level. Almost coincident with the publication of Chierici's theory of the terremare, in 1871, was the International Congress of Anthropology and Prehistoric ArchÆology at Bologna, which gave an immense impetus to such studies. Indeed, the decade which followed may be characterised as the Augustan age in the department of prehistoric archÆology in Italy. The remarkable discoveries in the old cemeteries of Bologna, and in Etruscan tombs elsewhere in the Circumpadana district, together with the increasing number of prehistoric stations in lakes, turbaries, caverns, etc., greatly widened the field of research and added to the difficulty of deciphering, from amidst the endless overlappings of their remains, the history of the various civilisations which formerly characterised the country. In order to facilitate these studies the Bullettino Paletnologia Italiana was established at the commencement of 1875, under the joint editorship of Chierici, Pigorini, and Strobel. This periodical has done much good and is still in a flourishing condition. SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS AT CASTIONE.Such was the general tenor of the opinions in regard to the terremare up to 1877, when, owing to the interest then taken in these singular remains and with the view of clearing up some of the contested points, the Minister of Public Instruction ordered a fresh excavation to be made at Castione under the superintendence of Professor Pigorini. The portion selected was an oblong space at the north side of the church, beginning at the margin and stretching inwards for a considerable distance. The result of this was the disclosure of a new and remarkable feature in its structural arrangement. At the inside of the earthen dyke, and intervening between it and a forest of piles which extended towards the interior, was a series of small rectangular enclosures constructed of horizontal beams laid one above the other. These enclosures, which extended side by side like a string of log-houses, formed an abrupt facing to the dyke. The beams were roughly hewn, and partially mortised into each other at the points of crossing, from which their ends projected irregularly, some even extending from one compartment to the next. Inside these log-houses there was nothing but rubbish—clay, gravel, bits of wood, etc.—packed firmly together. But it is needless to enter upon all the details of this curious structure; suffice it to say that Pigorini came to the conclusion that their purpose was to support the inside of the earthen dyke (contrafforte dell' argine). The piles were in rows about two feet apart, and each pile was separated from its neighbour by an interval of one foot. When the space was cleared there was quite a forest of these piles, and it is noteworthy that they were all inclined in one direction, viz. north-east, a fact which is well shown in the first of the two photographic illustrations here given (Fig. 82). From an examination of the composition of the soil outside the limits of the station Pigorini ascertained that the bluish clay bed forming the subsoil of the terramara mound corresponded to what was the surface of the surrounding plain when the terramaricoli founded their settlement, and that the thick mass of alluvial yellowish clay in which the mound is now partially buried has been subsequently deposited. Fig. 82.—Two Views of the Piles and Woodwork exposed at Castione during the special excavations conducted by Prof. Pigorini in 1877. "The terramaricoli having arrived at the place now called Castione dei Marchesi did not select for their encampment a low-lying spot subject to inundations, but the top of a slight elevation of bluish clay not yet covered with the more recent alluvial deposits. The space measured out for the station was of a rectangular shape and covered about a couple of acres. This area they surrounded with a ditch, the excavated soil being thrown to the inside and so they formed a dyke 6 feet in height, which consequently enclosed a bacino having its base on the original soil of the plain. The area thus defined had an orientated position with a deviation of 30° from east to north. "Having completed the surrounding ditch and dyke, the next step was to construct along the inner margin of the dyke a series of log-houses, bound together and filled with dÉbris, over which they finally laid a gravel pavement. The main object of this elaborate structure was to support the earthen dyke. Next they planted all over the bacino rows of piles at regular intervals, whose tops reached to the level of the surface of the contrafforte, and over them they laid horizontal planks of wood which, in certain places, were covered with beds of clay (tavole coperte d'argilla). "On this platform were constructed the huts of the people. The exact form of these huts has not been ascertained, but they were certainly made of wood, straw and clay, no other material having been used either at Castione or any other terramara. The village was now complete, and the inhabitants, in the course of their domestic avocations, threw the refuse of food and other dÉbris into the space below, probably by means of holes, which gradually accumulated until the space became completely filled up. "When this stage was reached the people did not change their chosen site, but proceeded to erect a new palafitte above the old one. They elevated the dyke by extending its base, placed new contrafforte along its inner side superimposed on the older ones, and thus continued to convert the surface of the first platform into the base of the new bacino. Here they repeated the operation of planting it with piles, and over these a new platform and huts were erected, which were occupied as before, until the accumulation of dÉbris again drove the inhabitants to construct a third dwelling-place at a still higher level." (B. 407, p. 44.) Fig. 83.—Castione and various other Terremare in the vicinity of Parma. Nos. 1 to 12 and 18 to 20 = 1/2, and the rest = 1/4 real size. MONTALE.Another instructive station, which I visited along with the distinguished archÆologist, Sig. Crespellani, is that at Montale, a few miles south of Modena. Here the elevation of the mound is more marked than at Castione, as the entire mass stands clear above the surrounding plain, and, like it, the central part is occupied by a church and some other religious buildings. The discovery of this terramara was not made till 1868, but, its contents being readily accessible, the progress of its demolition has been rapid. In 1871 it was selected as the most suitable to be visited by the members of the International Congress, and, for their special benefit, a new section was then opened up. The annual explorations conducted in this mound, of course regulated by agricultural demands, are now entirely in the hands of the authorities of the Museo Civico at Modena, who appropriate all rare objects for the enhancement of their large and valuable prehistoric collection. The director of the Museum, Sig. Boni, publishes, from time to time, a report of the excavations and of the results obtained. (B. 380 and 421.) According to Boni, the area of the mound, including the dyke, was 9,000 square mÈtres (about 2 acres), of which about 4,000 are occupied by the ecclesiastical buildings already referred to. Of the remaining space available for explorations about one half has been cleared away. On the north side of the church, just on the verge of the pit where the workmen were riddling and preparing the saleable stuff, stood an enormous chestnut tree, whose roots could be seen below the grassy surface projecting from the perpendicular face of the section. The priest, whose house forms part of the ecclesiastical buildings on the mound, soon joined our party, and expatiated on the fabulous age of this tree, but which Crespellani reduced to something like 150 or 200 years. The entire height of the section here exposed would be from 15 to 20 feet, the upper The great depth of this upper bed of mould, which exists in all the terremare, is very remarkable and most puzzling to archÆologists. Boni thinks it was spread over the mound at some posterior time, either for agricultural purposes, or as hygienic precautions, or perhaps from motives of respect to the supposed sacred character of its contents. All the rest of the section was terramara proper, whose contorted and wave-like beds could readily be distinguished. Sticking in the face of the section were innumerable fragments of black pottery, broken bones, and bits of charcoal. All the stuff, before being disposed of, was passed through riddles, and what remained was thrown aside as useless rubbish, the heaps of which could only be estimated by cart-loads. The riddlings consisted almost entirely of broken pottery, among which were occasional clay weights and more frequently spindle-whorls, together with the bones and horns of animals, many of which were converted into implements. Bronze objects were comparatively rare. Part of a large earthen dyke which is supposed to have surrounded the entire mound is still left exposed on the north side. It measured from 20 to 30 feet in breadth at the base and 11½ feet in height. Boni, in his description of this dyke, states that a section which ought to be conical is not so, but more slanting on the outside; also, at the inner side, its contents are occasionally seen to overlap the terramara beds. From this and some other structural details he adduces evidence to show that the dyke had been subsequently added to by the terramaricoli during their occupation of the settlement. Bearing in mind what Pigorini says about Castione, the significance of these observations will be readily perceived. Fig. 84.—Montale. All 1/2 real size. Fig. 85.—Montale and various other Terremare in the vicinity. All 1/2 real size. CASALE ZAFFANELLA.Another typical example of the terremare, which I wish to describe shortly, lies 1¼ mile north of the Po, near the town of Viadana. This station was accidentally discovered a few years ago by the brothers Pietro and Giacomo Tassoni, the peasant proprietors of a field in which they were making trenches for planting vines. In the course of their operations they dug up fragments of pottery, which they brought to the Arciprete Antonio Parazzi of Viadana (already widely known as a skilled archÆologist and the founder of an excellent museum of the local antiquities of the district). Some of the fragments of pottery turned out to be Roman, while others were undoubtedly pre-Roman, and this led to a preliminary investigation of the locality, in which the experienced eye of Parazzi soon detected the site of a terramara dwelling. A full report of the subsequent excavations and results obtained was published by Parazzi in the Bullettino for 1886 (B. 451)—a monograph which is a perfect model of the descriptive details of an investigation conducted on scientific methods. First of all let me emphasise the fact that there was here no mound at all. The field was quite flat, and to reach the surface of the terramara beds a stratum of considerable thickness, varying from 1 to 2 feet, of the ordinary alluvial deposits had to be passed through. The terramara beds then continued for a depth of 8 or 10 feet, underneath which came the subsoil on which the settlement was originally constructed. It is noteworthy that in one part of the area, underneath the terramara beds proper, a peaty bed, similar to that at Castione, was discovered. To make the resemblance still more striking, this terra uliginosa also contained the remains of a palafitte. It was impossible, without enormous labour, to explore this settlement to a great extent; but by a few well-directed trenches Parazzi ascertained that it was of a quadrangular shape, and orientated to within 11 degrees, and that it was surrounded by a ditch and a dyke. The enclosure, exclusive of the area of the dyke, had a superficial area of about one English acre. Its four sides measured, respectively, 208 (N.), 218 (S.), 227 (W.), and 237 (E.) feet. The dyke was 26 feet broad at its base, and 11 feet 6 inches high, and showed that it had been added to on three different occasions. Its inner edge appeared to have been very steep, a fact which suggests that, as at Castione, there had been some kind of support to prevent the earth from falling in. The ditch was 34 feet wide, and its maximum depth was 6½ feet. The underlying peaty stratum, containing the piles, occupied much of Parazzi's attention, and he goes largely into its minutiÆ. One curious fact which he records is that the dyke passed over its middle, leaving a considerable portion of the terra torbosa and palafitte outside the area of the terramara deposits. This undoubtedly suggests the idea that the palafitte existed prior to the terramara settlement. From the character of the relics we shall, however, see that both belonged to the same age and people. On the surface of the terramara beds Roman remains were largely met with, and in one place they came upon a rectangular excavation, measuring 18 square mÈtres, containing ordinary earth, bricks, tiles, fragments of jars, and other Roman pottery. When this was cleared out there was found at the bottom, at a depth of 7 feet 6 inches, a Roman pavement, and the stratified terramara layers could be distinctly seen in the perpendicular walls. Clearly this cellar was constructed long after the deposition of the terramara beds. Nor is the settlement of Casale Zaffanella a solitary example in the Viadana district. Already Parazzi has prepared a large map of the neighbourhood, which finds a suitable position on the wall of his museum, with no less than 12 terramara stations marked on it. Among these there is one Cogozzo (B. 372b) situated about one-and-a-quarter mile from the town and within 200 yards of the Po, Some of the objects from this group of terramara stations, now deposited in the Viadana Museum, are represented in Fig. 86, Nos. 1 to 13. GORZANO (MODENA).The old-school views advocated by Dr. Coppi, viz. that the terremare were remains of funeral pyres (roghi), so much biassed his mind that for many years he appeared to have paid little attention to the significance of the strata, and consequently the first two volumes of his magnificently illustrated monograph on the terramara settlement at Gorzano (B. 207 and 261) lose much of their value from having the objects of different ages indiscriminately mixed. This defect is so far removed in the third volume that he divides the deposits into upper and lower, corresponding to the historic and prehistoric periods. But, notwithstanding this defect in Dr. Coppi's earlier works, his investigations are of considerable scientific value, as his numerous matter-of-fact observations are strictly to be depended on. The accompanying plan and sections of Gorzano will convey some idea of the position of the terramara beds in respect to their immediate surroundings. The deposits (marked c on section A) extended in length about 90 to 100 mÈtres from north to south, and 70 mÈtres in breadth, with an average thickness of 3½ mÈtres. The settlement was constructed on a natural elevation, rising about 9 mÈtres above the rest of the plain and 11 above the bed of the adjacent stream Tiepido. It was surrounded by a ditch and a dyke, and it also contained the remains of a palafitte. The existence of piles is clearly proved by Dr. Coppi himself, who gives a section (C) showing their respective positions, but at the same time he denies that they indicate the remains of a palafitte. Of the comparative frequency of industrial remains in the terramara deposits, a correct notion will be got from a study of Dr. Coppi's report of the excavations at Gorzano during the year 1875. The 852 industrial remains are again thus assigned:— Bronze.—50 objects: viz. eight pins, four axes, 12 daggers, one chisel, two awls, six discs, one spindle-whorl, two fragments of sickles, and 14 diverse bits. Bone.—80 objects: viz. 38 needles and pins (of which 23 are entire), nine spatulÆ, 17 pointers, three chisels, six teeth, one lamina, five awls, and one handle. Horn.—62 objects: viz. seven small wheels, one cylinder, one comb, two arrow-points, 17 spatulÆ, 12 pointers, two awls, three ornaments, two picks, four handles, and 17 diverse pieces. Terracotta.—585 objects: viz. 494 spindle-whorls (Fig. 85, No. 17), two cylinders, 12 weights, 68 vases, three covers, five percolators, and one small animal figure. The bones capable of being determined represented the following animals:—15 oxen, 25 sheep or goats, seven stags, eight roes, 30 pigs, two wild boars, 14 dogs or wolves, one cat, eight birds, one tortoise, and 15 toads. The industrial remains from the upper stratum were as follows:—The central part of a Byzantine crucifix, one lamp, two fibulÆ, three rings of bronze, 12 spindle-whorls of terra-cotta (of which four were glazed), one spindle-whorl of amber, one spindle-whorl of glass, two spindle-whorls of talc; of iron there were 20 darts, two lance-heads, eight knives, seven keys, one lock, eight buckles, one horseshoe, one bullock-shoe, and 11 undetermined fragments; five fragments of glass vessels; one sword-handle of wood with bronze mountings; four bronze fragments; 25 pieces of pottery (three with potters mark); a small basin of brick; 52 coins (of which 46 were together); and some slag, etc. The objects in the upper stratum were mostly associated with the Oratorio di S. Alberto, built about the early part of the seventeenth century, and other mediÆval buildings now entirely demolished. It was found to have been built over a still older church, which dated from the third century. A few of the coins were Roman of about the same date, but the largest number dated from the end of the twelfth or commencement of the thirteenth century, and a few were of still later date. There was also a Christian cemetery found containing a number of skeletons. In 1879 Coppi published (B. 340) an account of further discoveries, and among other objects he describes several stone moulds (10 for pins, five for lance-heads, and seven for daggers), a stone weapon of nephrite, two flint knives, a weight of white marble, etc. Of bronze there are 12 pins, three needles, 20 dagger-blades, five chisels, nine awls, and a small wheel ornamented with graffiti, besides a quantity of other objects of horn, bone, pottery, etc. In 1885 the workmen came upon a grave embedded in the virgin soil underneath the terramara beds, and supposed to be A few of the bronze objects from Gorzano are illustrated on Fig. 85, Nos. 9, 12 to 14, and 19 to 23. GENERAL REMARKS ON THE TERRAMARA SETTLEMENTS.In the above sketch of the progress of scientific research into the terremare I have selected four typical examples for special description. We have seen that in one, viz. Montale, accumulated dÉbris stood as a clear mound on the surface of the surrounding plain, while that of Gorzano rested on a natural hillock. The Castione deposits also assumed the same form, but in this case the mound was only partially above the plain, the rest being buried in it. The tops of the piles found in its peaty stratum (terra uliginosa) were on an average 3 feet below the level of the present surface of the surrounding plain, and the lowest portion of this bed was a couple of feet still lower. In the fourth example, Casale Zaffanella, there was no mound at all visible, but on examination the remains of the settlement were found to be precisely similar to those of the others, only the mound was completely buried, as it were, in a sea of hardened mud. The explanation of this will be readily perceived when we remember that the amount of submergence respectively shown in these instances is in the inverse ratio to their distance from the lower parts of the plain and its great water channels. The yearly inundations of the Po and its tributaries extend far and wide, each time leaving a film of mud, by the repetition of which, in the course of ages, the surface of the plain has become considerably elevated. Thus, the increase of silt since the terramara settlement of Casale Zaffanella was founded, amounts to 12½ feet—a depth sufficient to cover the highest part of the mound. It is difficult to say how much this levelling up process is accountable for the scarcity of these stations in the lower parts of the Po valley. That they existed, however, in close proximity to the river is amply proved by those Distribution.—Formerly the terramara deposits were supposed to be peculiar to the middle reaches of Parma, Reggio, and Modena; but later discoveries have upset this generalisation, as they are now shown to have a much wider distribution, embracing the provinces on both sides of the Po. (See Sketch Map, page 266.) Dr. Giacometti first (1868) directed attention to the terramara deposits in the province of Mantua, and showed their similarity to those of Emilia. A few miles north-east of the town of Mantua there was found a group of seven or eight stations, regarding one of which, Bigarello, he stated that it contained the same kind of pottery In 1874 Marinoni gave an interesting account of the prehistoric remains of the district of Seniga in the province of Brescia, especially those of the terremare at Chiavichetto and Gottolengo. (B. 265.) The former, which is the most interesting of a group of seven stations, is situated in the angle formed by the junction of the Mella with the Oglia, nearly 20 miles south of the town of Brescia. In excavating soil for making a dyke the workmen found objects of human industry—scrapers and saws of flint, three hatchets of serpentine, one large stone-adze, various stone rubbers, etc., several fragments of worked horn, and an extraordinary quantity of broken pottery. The further objects discovered here were chiefly of stone, rarely of bronze, and, according to Marinoni, they were very similar to those from the terramara stations of Bigarello and Pomella to the east of Mantua. The station at Gottolengo, discovered in 1871, is situated five miles to the north of Regona, and on the left bank of the Mella. Before being disturbed it presented the form of a flattish mound, which on examination yielded relics similar to those of the other well-known terremare, of which the following may be mentioned:— Upwards of 20 arrow-points—pedunculated, triangular, or heart-shaped. Some fragments of polished hatchets of serpentine; spindle-whorls of terra-cotta (Fig. 86, No. 17):—one very large, 4¾ inches in diameter (No. 28), was similar to another found at Chiavichetto. Broken bones, portions of deer-horns, some of which · were made into daggers and pointers; two bone combs ornamented with triangular lines and graffitti, similar to those from Castione and Noceto. An oval cake or ring of wood like the supports for vases (No. 25). Of bronze there were various tools and implements. Spear-heads with a tang were most common; No. 19 represents one with two rivet-holes, a type which was also represented at Chiavichetto. A double-edged implement still held the rivet which had fixed it to a handle (No. 22). One arrow-point (No. 23) is similar to one found in the terramara station at Campeggine in the province of Parma. Several fragments of pins, wires, spirals, and small plates of bronze. Among iron objects, all of which were much corroded, was a spear-head (No. 24). Portions of greenish vitreous paste. Fig. 86.—Viadana and stations on the north side of the Po. No. 3 = 1/4, 28 = 1/3 and the rest = 1/2 real size. Not only as regards the relics but also in internal structure the terramara stations on the north of the Po have been shown to be identical with those on the south side. This we have already seen in the description of Casale Zaffanella. But the point was first established by the indefatigable researches of Chierici, who, in 1881, along with a few other antiquaries, explored the stations at Bellanda and Villa Cappella in the commune of Gazzoldo, about 10 miles west of Mantua. Here all the characteristic features of the terremare—the surrounding dyke, palafitte, and orientation—were clearly established. (B. 372a.) The best investigated terramara in the Bologna district is that at Castellaccio, about three-quarters of a mile to the south of Imola. (B. 457.) The deposits repose on an isolated elevation on the right bank of the river Santerno, and rising nearly 120 feet above its bed; but on it there are no remains of ancient stone buildings, as the name would seem to imply. The hill is of yellowish sand, belonging to the Upper Pliocene. Scarabelli, who has recently published an illustrated monograph of its peculiarities and the antiquities found on it, states that piles were numerous, though many had disappeared by decomposition, only traces of their holes being then detected. Some of the piles were large, measuring over a foot in diameter, and they were placed irregularly. No less than 26 hearths were met with at different levels, and those on the same level were from 4 to 6½ mÈtres apart. The peculiarity of this terramara is that its antiquities would appear to belong to both the Stone and Bronze Ages. The flint implements included about 20 roughly-chipped tools like scrapers, some badly-made arrow-points, and saws resembling those found in the palafittes in the Mincio. Altogether 216 worked flints and about 600 chips and cores were collected. Some polished stone axes, together with four portions of perforated implements. Among about 120 spindle-whorls of burnt clay there was only one ornamented. There were various implements of staghorn and bone, a few of the former being perforated and apparently used as axe and hammer heads like those from Gorzano. Some perforated shells are also recorded. The pottery was precisely similar to that usually found on the well-known terramara deposits of Emilia, showing various forms of handles, horn-like projections, perforated knobs, etc. The total number of bronze articles amounted only to seven pieces, and included a small sickle, a coltello-ascia like that from Bosisio (Fig. 51, No. 10), and a small dagger with two rivets—the rest being of an undetermined character. Two objects of pietra ollare (a small spindle-whorl and a dish turned on the wheel) and a bronze buckle were found among the disturbed beds on the surface. Beyond the valley of the Po no decided remains of palafittes or terremare have come to light, and the obscure indications that have been recorded leave it doubtful whether they are of a prehistoric character. About one and a half miles from Offida, in a small valley surrounded by hills, there was formerly a small lake, which has become drained by the erosion of a stream which falls into the Tresino. Here, covered with 16 feet of sand and dÉbris, the Marquis Allevi found a platform 50 yards long, 15 yards wide, and 2 feet thick. Below the platform there was lake-mud, containing fresh-water shells, to the depth of 9½ feet, in which were charcoal, bones of animals, fragments of pottery, and other remains of human occupancy. This platform was constructed of large trunks deprived of their branches and laid horizontally at intervals of about four feet, above which came smaller beams irregularly laid without any order and then a layer of clay and moss. On this platform were found calcined round stones, the bottom of a dish, and some 12 fragments of other vessels, some of fine and some of coarse pottery. One bit had a recurved lip, and another was ornamented with a kind of zig-zag ornamentation in incised lines. There were also about 20 pieces of copper, some of which looked like crucibles. Extent.—As to the actual dimensions of the terramara mounds, Casaroldo (Parma), 200 by 160 by 3·70 mÈtres. (B. 297, p. 360.) Parma, 300 by 28 mÈtres. (Strobel e Pigorini, Seconda Relazione, p. 149.) Castiglione di Marano (Modena), 114 by 64, and 3 mÈtres thick. (B. 422, p. 19.) Pragatto (Bologna), 200 by 150, and 3 mÈtres thick. (B. 372, p. 138.) In his description of Bellanda (Mantua), Chierici observes that the bacino was a rectangle 96 mÈtres across, giving an area of about two acres, to which he adds "ampiezza ordinaria delle terremare." (B. 372, p. 80.) On the other hand, the two whose measurements have been accurately given by Parazzi, viz. Cogozzo and Casale Zaffanella, show a superficial area of only half this size, a fact which induced Parazzi to observe that the terremare in Viadana seemed to be smaller than those of Emilia and that at Bellanda. (B. 451, p. 4.) Number.—The total number of terramara stations in the Po valley is over 100, which are thus (approximately) distributed among the provinces:—Parma, 30; Reggio, 25; Modena, 16; Bologna, 5 or 6; Mantua, about 20; and Brescia, 8. Relics.—More trustworthy knowledge of the social conditions and general culture of the terramaricoli is to be derived from a study of the remains of their villages than if they had come within the scope of the earliest written records. The ordinary dÉbris here accumulated, such as the more imperishable portions of food refuse, stray objects, etc., are arranged in chronological sequence like geological strata, the more recent being on the surface, and the oldest at the bottom. Wherever an object of human industry We have already seen that the terramaricoli had an extensive knowledge of the ceramic art. The vessels in daily use were no less varied and elegant in shape than our modern jugs, teapots, cups, bowls, basins, saucers, flower-vases, etc. Some had everted rims and the majority flat bases. The ornamentation consisted of parallel and wavy ridges, knobs (sometimes perforated), triangles, and crosses of incised grooves, circular or semicircular impressions, etc. But most characteristic are the appendages attached to the tops of the handles (Fig. 84, Nos. 21 and 22), which were of the most varied and fanciful forms. These remarkable handles are not found on pottery beyond the area circumscribed by the terremare. Nor is the fully-developed ansa lunata found in the lake-dwellings within this area, with the exception of the stations at Peschiera, Mincio and Il Bor, in the south-east corner of Lake Garda. Rudimentary forms of these handles, such as those from the lake-dwellings of Polada (Fig. 67, Nos. 13 and 14), ArquÀ Petrarca and Fimon (Fig. 66), are also found in the western district of the Po valley (Fig. 48, No. 16). The terremare would, therefore, appear to be somewhat posterior to the earlier lake-dwellings. But, on the other hand, the later lake-dwellings (Peschiera and Mincio) were posterior to the terremare. Not only does the pottery of the palafitte at Peschiera include the characteristic anse lunate (Fig. 65, No. 26), but among its bronze relics are examples of almost every object found in the terremare, as razors, pins, sickles, knives, etc.—a fact which will be at once seen from a comparison of their Organic Remains.—The principal food of the terramaricoli consisted of the produce derived from agricultural and pastoral farming. An exhaustive analysis of their vegetable remains has not yet been made; but, from the occasional stores of grain, chiefly in a carbonised state, and other provisions met with, they are believed to have been in the habit of eating the following seeds and fruits:—wheat (two varieties), beans, millet, acorns, beech-nuts, apples, pears, sloes, cornel-cherries, brambles, pistachio-nuts (Staphylea pinnata), hazel-nuts, and grapes (Vitis vinifera). Flax was largely cultivated, and its seeds were supposed to have been used as food, while of course its fibres were converted into thread, ropes, and cloth. Among the vegetal remains from Casale Zaffanella submitted to Professor Oreste Mattirolo in Turin, wheat and both the seeds and wood of the vine were recognised. As regards the domestic and wild animals on which the terramaricoli subsisted, we are in possession of more definite information, owing to the persevering watchfulness of Professor Strobel. The following is his corrected list down to the year 1883 (B. 410c):— Erinaceus europÆus, L. (hedgehog). Gorzano. As coming under the category of organic remains I may add that a great variety of shells, both of living and fossil species, are found in the terramara deposits. Many of them are perforated, especially the more ornamental fossil varieties, and were undoubtedly used as ornaments. Some of the flat shells of bivalves give a tingling noise when struck, and are therefore supposed to have been used to produce some kind of musical sound. Land and fresh-water species were also, no doubt, used as food. Coppi in his monograph (vol. ii. p. 100) describes and illustrates a variety of the more striking forms From the existence of the horny cases of various kinds of insects, some living in air and others in water, and their larvÆ in various stages of evolution, Pigorini adduces an argument against the supposition that the bacino was kept constantly filled with water. (Strobel, B. 88, p. 18, and 89, p. 36; Pigorini, B. 407, p. 38; Parazzi, B. 451, p. 54.) The protracted discussion as to whether or not amber has been found in the terremare proper was finally settled by the statement of Pigorini that, in his recent explorations (1877) at Castione, it was found in the lowest stratum. "Ora siamo certi che l'ambra si trovÒ in Castione sepolta nello strato infimo, e colla certezza che vi fosse penetrata nei giorni in cui lo strato stesso si formava." (B. 407, p. 51.) As early as 1863 Strobel and Pigorini announced the discovery at Castione of a couple of amber beads, but as their position in the dÉbris had not been determined, no inferences could be drawn from this discovery. In 1871 Coppi found a large one (fusaiuola) at Gorzano; and later, another of the same kind. One was also found at Montale, and another at Casinalbo. As these are all the records of amber up to the decided discovery of Pigorini, it is clear that it was a very scarce object among the terramaricoli. The number from Montale, however, now amounts to 16, the largest of which is 1¾ inches in diameter. (B. 279b, 298b, 311a'.) Age.—In the spring of 1865 Pigorini explored and described a station in the district of Parma called Fontanellato, which, at the time, he considered to be a terramara containing a fascine structure belonging to the Iron Age. (B. 112.) In the excavations which were conducted here the following different strata were exposed from above downwards:—(1) 2 feet of soil; (2) a bed of alluvial deposits 4 inches thick; (3) a bed of materials similar in colour and composition to those of the ordinary terramara deposits, 1 foot 10 inches thick; (4) a mass of mixed materials 2 feet 7 inches thick, containing roots, branches, leaves, etc., mixed with clay, together with pottery, short piles, charcoal, bones of animals, shells, fruits, seeds, etc. The objects of special interest collected were fragments of coarse pottery, made, however, on the wheel, and particularly In 1883 Pigorini recurs to the remains at Fontanellato (B. 408) and explains that, owing to the great progress made in the investigations of the terramara deposits, and the additional light thrown on the subject, he has come to the conclusion that the station at Fontanellato was not a direct continuation of the terramara system which prevailed in the Bronze Age, but a "palafitta barbarica," in which he sees the practical evidence of the incursions, into the Po valley many centuries later, of the northern hordes of barbarians which gave the final coup to the Roman empire. That these people were conversant with such structures there is ample evidence in the analogous remains of terpen in Holland, the burgwÄlle and lake-dwellings of Germany, the TÓszeg and other mounds in Hungary, etc. (B. 410b.) Nor does the station at Fontanellato stand as an isolated example of these later structures. Chierici found one at Marmirolo, in the district of Reggio. |
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