Henri Mouhot

Geography and History of the Kingdom of Siam.

HISTORY OF SIAM.

The name of Siam was first heard in Europe in the year 1502. Nine years after Alphonso d’Albuquerque had conquered the peninsula of Malacca, some intercourse took place between Portugal and Siam, which, however, was interrupted by the long wars between this country and the Burmese.

In 1632 an English vessel touched at the ancient capital Ayuthia. Shortly afterwards the Portuguese at Goa sent a party of Dominican and Franciscan missionaries to Siam, and the communication between the two nations became more frequent. The King engaged in his service three hundred Portuguese soldiers, who were distributed over the country, having lands allotted to them for cultivation, and who contracted marriage with native women. The missionaries built two churches, and established a school.

After a while the Dutch power began to supplant that of Portugal in the East, and, in the course of the seventeenth century, the empire of Siam was brought into contact with the new conquerors of the Indies. The Portuguese colonies gradually became extinct; and the influence of the Batavian settlers increased so much, that they established at Ayuthia a Dutch factory, which, under its director Schonten, attained its greatest prosperity about the year 1690. Various articles of merchandise were introduced into Siam, from whence, in return, were exported skins, sapan-wood, &c.; and the country, from its position and the richness of its natural productions, became at that time an important station for the commerce of the Dutch between China and Japan, and the valuable islands of Ceylon and Java.

France herself, at the height of her maritime power under Louis XIV., could not equal the power of the Dutch Company, though, at one period, chances eminently favourable presented themselves to her. A Greek adventurer named Constantine Phaulcon, of whom we shall have subsequently to speak, opened for himself a remarkable career in Siam, where he was converted to Romanism by the missionaries. He suggested to the King to send envoys to Louis XIV., and their arrival in France produced a sensation, the echo of which we have heard in our own day in the embassy from the same country to Napoleon III. His Most Christian Majesty replied by accrediting ambassadors to the Siamese Court—De Chaumont in 1685, and La LoubÉze in 1687. Each was accompanied by several Jesuit priests; and a force of 500 men, under the command of General de Fargues, was stationed at Bangkok. The General, however, was not able to maintain his position; Constantine met with a tragic end, and the Jesuit fathers were kept as hostages. These failures destroyed the French influence for more than a century and a half, and for a time strengthened the power of Holland.

This brief glance at the intercourse between Europe and Siam in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries will suffice.

Drawn by M. ThÉrond, from a Photograph.

PAGODA AT AYUTHIA.

The celebrated German traveller Mandelslohe visited the capital Ayuthia in 1537, and called it the Venice of the East—a title which, as we have seen, is equally applicable to the modern capital Bangkok. The Portuguese explorer Mendez Pinto, who also paid a visit to Siam in the sixteenth century, gives a favourable picture of the country, and all that has since come to our knowledge respecting it shows that he merited a greater faith in his statements than was accorded to him by his contemporaries.

EXTENT OF SIAM.

The empire of Siam is of great extent. Its limits have varied much at different epochs of its history; and even now, with the exception of the western frontier, the lines of demarcation cannot be exactly traced, most of the border-lands being occupied by tribes more or less independent, and there are perpetual wars between the Malay and Burmese races on the one side, and the Cambodian or Chinese on the other. As nearly as can be calculated, the country extends, at present, from the 4th to the 20th or 22nd degree of north latitude, and from the 96th to the 102nd degree of east longitude; and according to this computation, its length would be about 1200 miles and its breadth 400 miles.

PROVINCES OF SIAM.

The Siamese dominions are divided into forty-one provinces, each presided over by a phaja or governor, and these, again, are subdivided into numerous districts under the authority of functionaries of inferior rank, of whose administration little can be said in praise.

The northern provinces are five in number—SangkalÔk, PhitsalÔk or PhitsanulÔk, Kumphang-Phet, Phixai, and TahËng. In the centre are nine provinces—Nantaburi or Jalat-Khuan, Pak-Pret, Patummatoni or Samkuk, Ayuthia or Krung-Kao, Ang-Thong, Monang-Phrom, Monang-In, Xainat, and Nakhon-Savan.

There are seven in the west—Monang-Pin, Suphan or Suphanaburi, Kan-Chanaburi or Pak-PhrËk, Rapri or Raxaburi, Nakhon-Xaisi, Sakhonburi or Tha-Chin, Samut-Songkhram or Mei-Khlong.

The eastern provinces number ten—Phetsjaboun, Bua-Xum, Sara-Buri, Nopha-Buri, Nakhon-Najok, Patsjin, Kabin, Sasong-Sao or Petriu, BattabÂng, and Phanatsani-Khom.

In the south are—Pakhlat or Nakhon-Khuen-Khan, Paknam or Sananthaprakan, Bangplasor or Xalaburi, Rajong, Chantaboun or Chantabouri, Thung-Jai, Phiphri or Phetxaburi, Xumphon, Xaya, and Xalang or Salang.

Siam has been distinguished by the historians of the country under two great divisions—Monang-Nona, the region of the north, at first the more populous portion, and Monang-Tai, the southern region. The Chronicles of the south are sometimes called ‘The Chronicles of the Royal City’ (Ayuthia), and commence at the period when this place became the capital. De Barrios relates that, in his time (the fifteenth century), nine states were in subjection to the monarchs of Siam, two only of which were peopled by the Siamese race—viz., the southern kingdom, and that of the north, whose chief city was Chaumua. The Siamese language, likewise, was spoken only in these two countries.

Siam is called by the natives ThaÏ, or Monang-ThaÏ, which means “free” or “the kingdom of the free.” Archbishop Pallegoix, who is a great authority in these matters, maintains that the modern name Siam is derived from Sajam, or “the brown race.”[2]

CONNECTION WITH NEIGHBOURING STATES.

While several districts in the north and east are tributary to this country, it appears to have been itself originally a great fief of China. Thus the King of Siam receives from this neighbouring empire a special confirmation of his authority, much resembling the patronage accorded by the Sultan to the Barbary states. However, if the external forms of this vassalage are observed, it is rather from a profound respect for tradition and ancient custom than from any virtual recognition of the power of the Emperor of China to acknowledge or interfere with the rights of sovereignty. One of the dependencies of this country, Cambodia, is also claimed by Cochin-China, and its ruler, unable to resist either of his more powerful neighbours, is forced to pay tribute to both.

POPULATION.

The population of Siam cannot yet be determined with any great exactness, but it is certain that it bears no proportion to the extent of territory. Archbishop Pallegoix estimates it at only 6,000,000—a computation, however, very different from that of Sir John Bowring. The difficulty of arriving at any correct result is augmented by the Siamese custom of numbering only the men. Thus, the native registers showed, a few years ago, for the male sex, 2,000,000 Siamese, 1,000,000 Laotians, 1,000,000 Malays, 1,500,000 Chinese, 350,000 Cambodians, 50,000 Peguans, and a like number composed of various tribes inhabiting the mountain ranges.

Drawn by M. Bocourt from a Photograph.

SIAMESE WOMEN.

PHYSICAL FEATURES.

In the north, a chain of mountains, covered with snow, extends from the province of Yunan to China, and its ramifications form two great divisions, between which is situated the fertile valley of Siam. Another chain stretches towards the west, as far as the Malay peninsula. The great river Menam, already mentioned, traverses the level country from north to south, taking its rise in the southern slopes of the mountains of Yunan, and empties itself into the Gulf of Siam. It is the Nile of this region, the great fertility of which is owing to the annual overflowing of its waters, an event eagerly looked for by the inhabitants, and welcomed as a blessing from Heaven. The Menam begins to rise in the month of June, and in August the inundation reaches its height, and then the waves of the ocean, opposing themselves to the current, force the waters of the river back upon its banks. The lands situated towards the middle of the great plain receive most benefit from this operation of nature, the higher districts being too much surrounded by mountains, while the lower are impregnated with so much salt water as to render the cultivation of rice difficult. If the regular inundations are, as a general rule, productive of immense benefit, they now and then, as in Egypt, lay waste the country: thus, for example, that of 1851 destroyed all the sugar-plantations; and the water, to a depth of three or four feet, resting on the earth for some time, a large number of cattle perished, the rice-crops suffered seriously, and many valuable fruit-trees were carried away. Some years afterwards, however, in accordance with nature’s beneficent law of compensation, the produce was only the more abundant.

The ancient annals of Siam relate that, about the seventh century, Chinese junks used to ascend the stream as far as Sang-Khalak, a distance of 120 leagues from the sea; at present it is only navigable for 30 leagues at most. This alteration has arisen from a gradually-increasing collection of sand and alluvial deposit—a process which goes on in some of our western rivers, as, for instance, the Rhine and the Meuse.

The low grounds, as is usually the case in hot climates, are less healthy than the mountainous districts, and the forests especially are the seat of malignant fevers. Several other rivers, and numberless canals, fringed with bamboos and fruit-trees, round which fly a multitude of birds, give a pleasing aspect to the country, which is bounded on the horizon by richly-wooded hills.

The rivers are rich in fish, which, in addition to rice, forms the principal food of the people.

Drawn by M. Sabatier, from a Sketch by M. Mouhot.

PERFORATED ROCK IN THE ISLE OF EBOULON, GULF OF SIAM.

The shores of the sea are very picturesque, and the coast is studded with islands covered with the most luxuriant vegetation. “The Gulf of Siam,” says Mgr. Pallegoix, “is not subject to storms, nor to the destructive typhoons experienced on the Chinese seaboard; thus shipwrecks are of rare occurrence.”

Sir John Bowring recommends to his countrymen a project which he believes feasible, and which would scarcely be secondary in importance to the intersection of the Isthmus of Darien or that of Suez. It is the union of the Bay of Bengal with the Gulf of Siam. He hopes that the establishment of amicable relations between Great Britain and the Siamese Empire will lead to the ventilation and eventual solution of a question so interesting both in a geographical and commercial point of view. It would be, in reality, as he says, a noble enterprise, which would considerably shorten the voyage between India and Eastern Asia, by making no longer necessary the tedious dÉtour through the Straits of Malacca, a passage which occupies not days, but weeks.

MINERALS.

The soil of this country, composed in great part of alluvial earth, in Siam watered by its great river, and in Cambodia by the Nekong and many other streams, refreshed by the periodical rains, and glowing beneath a tropical sky, possesses almost unlimited capabilities. The mountains in the north contain precious metals, but the working of them is as yet very imperfectly attempted. The tin of Siam has been long in repute; copper, lead, and iron have also been discovered. Diamonds and other precious stones exist, although the exact localities where they are met with are not known, for the natives are very mysterious on the subject; but it is supposed that diamonds are found on the eastern boundary of the Gulf.

ARCHIVES.

The history of the empire, arranged in the form of chronicles, is preserved in the archives, and not permitted to be inspected by strangers. The late king made investigations into these documents, which, previously to the foundation of Ayuthia, towards the middle of the fourteenth century, only presented a mass of confused materials, in which truth and fable are curiously intermingled, as in the annals of all nations, and pre-eminently those of the Orientals, who love to substitute highly-coloured narratives, in the style of the Arabian Nights, for plain history.

The Siamese trace their genealogy up to the first disciples of Buddha (Gandama), and commence their records five centuries before the Christian era. A succession of dynasties, varying their seat of government, figure in the earlier volumes; and the miracles of Buddha, and the intervention of supernatural beings, are frequently introduced. Later on there are accounts of matrimonial alliances between Siamese princes and the Imperial families of China, and of embassies to, and wars with, neighbouring countries, the whole interwoven with relations of prodigies and marvellous legends respecting Sudra and other divinities. After the establishment of Ayuthia as the capital, history assumes its rightful place, and the succession of the sovereigns and the course of events are registered with tolerable correctness. The city of Ayuthia was founded by Phaja-Utong, who took the title of Phra-Rama-Thibaldi.[3]

Drawn by M. Catenacci, from a Photograph.

RUINS OF A TEMPLE AND STATUE OF BUDDHA AT AYUTHIA.

EPOCHS.

The following dates, drawn from the annals, and marking important epochs in the sacred history of Siam, are believed to be nearly correct:—

	Christian Era.	Buddhist Era.
The reigning Buddha died on the 3rd day of the 6th month of the year of the serpent, corresponding with the year	B.C. 543
The first great Buddhist Council was convoked under Ajatra-Sutra (in India) the year of the death of Buddha
The second grand Council was convoked under Hala-Sokkaraja	B.C. 443	100
The third, under the rule of Sri Dhamma Soka	B.C. 325	218
The fourth grand Council	B.C. 143	400
The Buddhist doctor, Phra Buddha Ghosa, introduced Buddhism into Cambodia	A.D. 422	965

It was in the year 1000 of the Buddhist era, A.D. 457, that King Tuang, whose accession and glorious reign had been announced by a communication from Gandama himself, and who possessed, in addition to his other claims to distinction, “a white elephant with black tusks,” introduced the alphabet Tai, which was communicated to a numerous conclave of Buddhist priests. The ancient chronicles terminate with the establishment of Chao-Utonng in the new city of Si-Ayo-Thaya (Ayuthia), but leave the date of this event rather doubtful.

SIAMESE MONARCHS.

The following is the list of Siamese monarchs since the foundation of this capital:—

Siamese Era.	Christian Era.
712	1350	Phra Rama Phiobodi.
731	1369	—— Rama Suen (his son).
732	1370	—— Borom Raxa (his brother).
744	1382	—— Rama Suen II.
747	1385	—— Phaja Ram (his son).
763	1401	Inthaxara.
792	1430	Borom Raxa Phirat.
805	1442	Boronua Irai Lokharat.
834	1472	Phra Rama Phibodi.
875	1513	Raxa Kuman.
876	1514	Xaja Raxa Phirat.
889	1527	Phra Jot Fa.
891	1529	Maha Cha Kraphat Raxa Ihirat.
909	1547	Phra Chao Xang Phuok.
914	1552	Mahinthara Thirat.
926	1564	Phra Naret.
957	1595	Eka Thotsarot.
963	1601	Chao Fa.
964	1602	Phra Chao Song Iham.
989	1627	Phra Chao Prasal Ihong.
1017	1655	Chao Fa Xai.
1018	1656	Phra Chao Xam Phuok.
1050	1688	Phra Phet Raxa.
1059	1697	Chao Dua.
1068	1706	Name unknown.
1120	1758	Chao Dok Ma Dua.
1128	1766	Interregnum.
1129	1767	Phyja Tak.
1173	1811	Phra Phuti Chao Luang (the founder of the present dynasty).
1187	1825	Phen Din Prasat Ihong.
1213	1851	Phra Chao Prasat Ihong.

HISTORICAL SKETCH.

Instead of dwelling on the ancient history of Siam, we prefer to give an extract from the appendix to the celebrated work of Sir John Bowring, ‘The Kingdom and People of Siam:’ the passage originally appeared in ‘The Chinese Repository,’ and is from the pen of the late king:—

“Our ancient capital Ayuthia, before the year A.D. 1350, was but the ruin of an ancient place belonging to Kambuja (now known as Cambodia), formerly called LawÉk, whose inhabitants then possessed Southern Siam, or Western Kambuja. Ayuthia is situated in lat. 14° 19' N., and long. 100° 37' E. from Greenwich. There were other cities, not far remote, also possessed by the Kambujans; but their precise locality or much of their history cannot now be satisfactorily ascertained. Some time near the year A.D. 1300, the former inhabitants were much diminished by frequent wars with the northern Siamese and the Peguans, or Mous, so that these cities were vacated, or left in a ruinous state, and nothing remained but their names.

“Former inhabitants declared that the people of Chiang-rÁi, a province of what is now called Chiang-mÁi (North Laos), and Kampengpet, being frequently subjected to great annoyance from their enemies, deserted their native country, and formed a new establishment at Ch’Á-liang, in the western part of Siam proper, and built a city, which they called Thepha-mahÁ-na-khon, whence has been preserved in the national records the name of our capital down to the present day, Krung-Thepha-mahÁ-na-khon. Their city was about lat. 16° N., and long. 99° E., and there five kings of the first dynasty reigned, until the sixth, named U-T’ong RÁmÁ-thi-bodi, ascended the throne in 1344. This king, it is said, was son-in-law of his predecessor, who was named Sirichai Chiang Seu, who was without male issue, and therefore the throne descended to the son-in-law by right of the royal daughter.

Drawn by M. ThÉrond, from a Photograph.

THE PAGODA OF AYUTHIA, FROM THE RIVER.

“U-T’ong RÁmÁ-thi-bodi was a mightier prince than any of his predecessors, and subsequently conquered and subjected to his sway all Southern Siam, and some provinces in the Malayan peninsula. He made Ch’Á-liang the seat of his government for six years, and then, in consequence of the prevalence of disease of a pestilential character, he caused various researches to be made for some more healthy location, and finally fixed upon the site of Ayuthia, and there founded his new capital in April, 1350. This date is an ascertained fact. From this period our Siamese annals are more exact and the accounts generally reliable, being accompanied by dates of days, months, and years, from 1350 to 1767.

Drawn by M. ThÉrond, from a Photograph.

VIEW TAKEN FROM THE CANAL OF AYUTHIA.

“Ayuthia, when founded, was gradually improved and became more and more populous by natural increase, and the settlement there of families of Laos, Kambujans, Peguans, people from YunnÁn in China, who had been brought there as captives, and by Chinese and Mussulmans from India, who came for the purposes of trade. Here reigned fifteen kings of one dynasty, successors of and belonging to the family of U-T’ong RÁmÁ-thi-bodi, who, after his death, was honourably designated as Phra Chetha Bida—i. e. ‘Royal Elder Brother Father.’ This line was interrupted by one interloping usurper between the thirteenth and fourteenth. The last king was Ma-hÍntrÁ-thi-rÁt. During his reign the renowned King of Pegu, named Chamna-dischop, gathered an immense army, consisting of Peguans, Burmese, and inhabitants of Northern Siam, and made an attack upon Ayuthia. The ruler of Northern Siam was MahÁ-thamma rÁjÁ, related to the fourteenth king as son-in-law, and to the last as brother-in-law.

“After a siege of three months the Peguans took Ayuthia, but did not destroy it or its inhabitants, the Peguan monarch contenting himself with capturing the king and royal family, to take with him as trophies to Pegu, and delivered the country over to be governed by MahÁ-thamma rÁjÁ, as a dependency. The King of Pegu also took back with him the oldest son of MahÁ-thamma rÁjÁ as a hostage: his name was Phra NÁret. This conquest of Ayuthia by the King of Pegu took place A.D. 1556.

“This state of dependence and tribute continued but a few years. The King of Pegu died, and in the confusion incident to the elevation of his son as his successor, Prince NÁret escaped with his family, and, attended by many Peguans of influence, commenced his return to his native land. The new king, on hearing of his escape, despatched an army to seize and bring him back. They followed him till he had crossed the Si-thong (Burman, Sit-thaung) River, where he turned against the Peguan army, shot the commander, who fell from his elephant dead, and then proceeded in safety to Ayuthia.

“War with Pegu followed, and Siam again became independent. On the demise of MahÁ-thamma rÁjÁ, Prince NÁret succeeded to the throne, and became one of the mightiest and most renowned rulers Siam ever had. In his wars with Pegu he was accompanied by his younger brother, EkÁ-tassa-rot, who succeeded NÁret on the throne, but, on account of mental derangement, was soon removed, and Phra Siri Sin Wi-mon-tham was called by the nobles from the priesthood to the throne. He had been very popular as a learned and religious teacher, and commanded the respect of all the public counsellors; but he was not of the royal family. His coronation took place A.D. 1602. There had preceded him a race of nineteen kings, excepting one usurper. The new king submitted all authority in government to a descendant of the former line of kings, and to him also he intrusted his sons for education, reposing confidence in him as capable of maintaining the royal authority over all the tributary provinces. This officer thus became possessed of the highest dignity and power. His master had been raised to the throne at an advanced age. During the twenty-six years he was on the throne he had three sons, born under the royal canopy—i. e. the great white umbrella, one of the insignia of royalty.

“After the demise of the king, at an extreme old age, the personage whom he had appointed as regent, in full council of the nobles, raised his eldest son, then sixteen years old, to the throne. A short time after the regent caused the second son to be slain, under the pretext of a rebellion against his elder brother. Those who were envious of the regent, excited the king to revenge his brother’s death as causeless, and plan the regent’s assassination; but he, being seasonably apprised of it, called a council of the nobles and dethroned him after one year’s reign, and then raised his youngest brother, the third son, to the throne.

“He was only eleven years old. His extreme youth and fondness for play, rather than politics or government, soon created discontent. Men of office saw that it was exposing their country to contempt, and sought for some one who might fill the place with dignity. The regent was long accustomed to all the duties of the government, and had enjoyed the confidence of their late venerable king; so, with one voice, the child was dethroned and the regent exalted under the title of Phra Chau Pra Sath-thong. This event occurred A.D. 1630.

Drawn by M. ThÉrond, from a Photograph.

RUINS OF A PAGODA AT AYUTHIA.

“The king was said to have been connected with the former dynasty, both paternally and maternally; but the connection must have been quite remote and obscure. Under the reign of the priest-king he bore the title Raja Suriwong, as indicating a remote connection with the royal family. From him descended a line of ten kings, who reigned at Ayuthia and Lopha-buri—Louvo of French writers. This line was once interrupted by an usurper between the fourth and fifth reigns. This usurper was the foster-father of an unacknowledged though real son of the fourth king Chau NÁrÁi. During his reign many European merchants established themselves and their trade in the country, among whom was Constantine Phaulkon (Faulkon). He became a great favourite through his skill in business, his suggestions and superintendence of public works after European models, and by his presents of many articles regarded by the people of those days as great curiosities, such as telescopes, &c.

“King NÁrÁi, the most distinguished of all Siamese rulers, before or since, being highly pleased with the services of Constantine, conferred on him the title of Chau PhyÁ Wicha-yentrÁ-thÉ-bodi, under which title there devolved on him the management of the government in all the northern provinces of the country. He suggested to the king the plan of erecting a fort on European principles as a protection to the capital. This was so acceptable a proposal, that at the king’s direction he was authorised to select the location and construct the fort.

“He selected a territory which was then employed as garden-ground, but is now the territory of Bangkok. On the west bank, near the mouth of a canal, now called BÁng-luang, he constructed a fort, which bears the name of Wichayeiw Fort to this day. It is close to the residence of his Royal Highness ChaufÁ-noi Kromma Khun Isaret rangsan. This fort and circumjacent territory was called Thana-buri. A wall was erected, enclosing a space of about 100 yards square. Another fort was built on the east side of the river, where the walled city of Bangkok now stands. The ancient name Bangkok was in use when the whole region was a garden.[4] The above-mentioned fort was erected about the year A.D. 1675.

Drawn by M. ThÉrond, from a Photograph.

THE GREAT TOWER OF THE PAGODA WAT-CHING AT BANGKOK.

“This extraordinary European also induced his grateful sovereign King NÁrÁi to repair the old city of Lopha-buri (Louvo), and construct there an extensive royal palace on the principles of European architecture. On the north of this palace Constantine erected an extensive and beautiful collection of buildings for his own residence. Here also he built a Romish church, on which are still to be seen some inscriptions in European letters, supposed to be Dutch or German; they assuredly are neither French nor English (perhaps they are Greek, as he was of Greek extraction, and born at Cephalonia). The ruins of all these edifices and their walls are still to be seen, and are said to be a great curiosity. It is moreover stated that he planned the construction of canals, with reservoirs at intervals for bringing water from the mountains on the north-east to the city Lopha-buri, and conveying it through earthen and copper pipes and syphons, so as to supply the city in the dry season on the same principle as that adopted in Europe. He commenced also a canal, with embankments, to the holy place called Phra-Bat, about twenty-five miles south-west from the city. He made an artificial pond on the summit of Phra-Bat mountain, and thence, by means of copper tubes and stop-cocks, conveyed abundance of water to the kitchen and bath-rooms of the royal residence at the foot of the mountain. His works were not completed when misfortune overtook him.

“Many Siamese officers and royal ministers were jealous of his influence, and murmured their suspicions of his being a secret rebel. At length he was accused of designing to put the king to death by inviting him to visit the church he had built, between the walls of which, it is said, he had inserted a quantity of gunpowder, which was to be ignited by a match at a given signal, and thus involve the death of the king. On this serious charge he was assassinated by private order of the king. (This is the traditional story: the written annals state that he was slain in his sedan while faithful to his king, by order of a rebel prince, who perceived he could not succeed in his nefarious plans against the throne while Constantine lived.) The works which he left half done are now generally in ruins, viz. the canal to Phra-Bat and the aqueduct at the mountains.

“After the demise of NÁrÁi, his unacknowledged son, born of a princess of Yunnan or Chiang-Mai, and intrusted for training to the care of Phya Petcha raja, slew NÁrÁi’s son and heir, and constituted his foster-father king, himself acting as prime minister till the death of his foster-father, fifteen years after; he then assumed the royal state himself. He is ordinarily spoken of as Nai Dua. Two of his sons and two of his grandsons subsequently reigned at Ayuthia. The youngest of these grandsons reigned only a short time, and then surrendered the royal authority to his brother and entered the priesthood. While this brother reigned, in the year 1759, the Burman king, Meng-luang Alaung Barah-gyi, came with an immense army, marching in three divisions on as many distinct routes, and combined at last in the siege of Ayuthia.

“The Siamese king, Chaufa Ekadwat Anurak Moutri, made no resolute effort of resistance. His great officers disagreed in their measures. The inhabitants of all the smaller towns were indeed called behind the walls of the city, and ordered to defend it to their utmost ability; but jealousy and dissension rendered all their bravery useless. Sallies and skirmishes were frequent, in which the Burmese were generally the victorious party. The siege was continued for two years. The Burmese commander-in-chief, MahÁ Noratha, died, but his principal officers elected another in his place. At the end of the two years the Burmese, favoured by the dry season, when the waters were shallow, crossed in safety, battered the walls, broke down the gates, and entered without resistance. The provisions of the Siamese were exhausted, confusion reigned, and the Burmese fired the city and public buildings. The king, badly wounded, escaped with his flying subjects, but soon died alone of his wounds and his sorrows. He was subsequently discovered and buried.

“His brother, who was in the priesthood and now the most important personage in the country, was captured by the Burmans, to be conveyed in triumph to Burmah. They perceived that the country was too remote from their own to be governed by them; they therefore freely plundered the inhabitants, beating, wounding, and even killing many families, to induce them to disclose treasures which they supposed were hidden by them. By these measures the Burmese officers enriched themselves with most of the wealth of the country. After two or three months spent in plunder they appointed a person of Mon or Peguan origin as ruler over Siam, and withdrew with numerous captives, leaving this Peguan officer to gather fugitives and property to convey to Burmah at some subsequent opportunity. This officer was named PhrÁ NÁi KÔng, and made his head-quarters about three miles north of the city, at a place called Pho Sam-ton, i. e. ‘the three Sacred Fig-trees.’ One account relates that the last king mentioned above, when he fled from the city wounded, was apprehended by a party of travellers and brought into the presence of PhyÁ NÁi KÔng in a state of great exhaustion and illness; that he was kindly received and respectfully treated, as though he was still the sovereign; and that PhyÁ NÁi KÔng promised to confirm him again as ruler of Siam, but his strength failed and he died a few days after his apprehension.

“The conquest by Burmah, the destruction of Ayuthia, and appointment of PhyÁ NÁi KÔng, took place in March, A.D. 1767. This date is unquestionable. The period between the foundation of Ayuthia and its overthrow by the Burmans embraces 417 years, during which there were thirty-three kings of three distinct dynasties, of which the first dynasty had nineteen kings with one usurper, the second had three kings, and the third had nine kings and one usurper.

“When Ayuthia was conquered by the Burmese, in March, 1767, there remained in the country many bands of robbers associated under brave men as their leaders. These parties had continued their depredations since the first appearance of the Burman army, and during about two years had lived by plundering the quiet inhabitants, having no government to fear. On the return of the Burman troops to their own country, these parties of robbers had various skirmishes with each other during the year 1767.

“The first king established at Bangkok was an extraordinary man, of Chinese origin, named Pin Tat. He was called by the Chinese Tia Sin Tat, or Tuat. He was born at a village called BÁntÁk, in Northern Siam, in lat. 16° N. The date of his birth was in March, 1734. At the capture of Ayuthia he was thirty-three years old. Previous to that time he had obtained the office of second governor of his own township, TÁk, and he next obtained the office of governor of his own town, under the dignified title of PhyÁ TÁk, which name he bears to the present day. During the reign of the last King of Ayuthia, he was promoted to the office and dignity of governor of the city of Kam-Cheng-philet, which from times of antiquity was called the capital of the western province of Northern Siam. He obtained this office by bribing the high minister of the king, ChaufÁ Ekadwat Anurak Moutri; and being a brave warrior, he was called to Ayuthia on the arrival of the Burman troops, as a member of the council. But when sent to resist the Burman troops, who were harassing the eastern side of the city, perceiving that the Ayuthian government was unable to resist the enemy, he, with his followers, fled to Chautaburi (Chautabun), a town on the eastern shore of the Gulf of Siam, in lat. 12½° N. and long. 101° 21' E. There he united with many brave men, who were robbers and pirates, and subsisted by robbing the villages and merchant-vessels. In this way he became the great military leader of the district, and had a force of more than ten thousand men. He soon formed a treaty of peace with the headman of BÁng-plÁsoi, a district on the north, and with Kambuja and Annam (or Cochin China) on the south-east.”

Such is the short historical sketch, given by the late King of Siam, up to this date, and which we must complete from other sources.

As much by stratagem as by force of arms, he gained possession of the northern districts; but, not deeming himself secure enough from hostile attacks in that part of the country, he decided on falling back towards the south, and established himself at Bangkok, having previously surprised and put to death PhrÁ-Nai-KÔng, the Burman governor of that place, and seized on a quantity of money, provisions, and ammunition. Its proximity to the sea afforded many advantages, one being that escape would be tolerably easy should fortune prove adverse to him. He there built a palace on the western bank of the river, near the fort, which is now standing.

After various encounters with the Burmans, he reduced them into subjection, mainly through the assistance of his flotilla; and on one occasion he overpowered their whole camp, recovering great part of the booty they had amassed, and finally freeing the country from those bitter foes, who had brought into it so much desolation and terror. The people, in gratitude to their deliverer, gladly aided him in his assumption of royal authority. He issued his mandates from Bangkok, appointed viceroys, and distributed colonists far and wide for the repeopling of the country. Thus, by the end of 1768, he found himself sovereign of all the southern part of Siam and the eastern provinces on the shores of the Gulf.

Profiting by a sanguinary war between China and Burmah, he reconquered the northern district of Horahh. He had still to contend with a revolt organised by a prince of the old dynasty, who, pending the struggle with the Burmans, had taken refuge in Ceylon. This, however, was soon quelled; and two more provinces were recovered, which had taken advantage of the foreign invasion to assert their independence. At the end of three years Phya-Jak was master of the whole of the north, and had everywhere re-established peace and order. His dominion being now set on a firm foundation, it was a comparatively easy matter successfully to resist a new attack of the Burmans in 1771; and the year following he sent an expedition into the Malay peninsula to take possession of Lagor, whose governor, formerly a vassal of the king, had assumed the sovereignty, and proclaimed Phya-Jak a usurper. The governor, being worsted in several engagements, took refuge with the chief of Patawi, a town in the peninsula, by whom he was surrendered to the followers of Phya-Jak. The king himself, meanwhile, had entered Lagor, made captives of all the governor’s family, and carried off his treasures. Among his relatives was a daughter possessed of great beauty: the King gave her a place in his harem; and, through her intercession, her father and all the family were spared. Three or four years afterwards she procured his reinstatement as prince of that district, which at the present day is governed by his descendants.

Phya-Jak’s reign did not end happily: in the latter part of his life he fell into a state of morbid melancholy, treated his subjects with cruelty, and lost his popularity. One of his generals, Chakri, commanding in Cambodia, took advantage of these circumstances to concert a plot against the King, who was taken prisoner at Bangkok, and assassinated in the year 1782. Chakri ascended the throne, and, dying soon afterwards, was succeeded by his son. The old quarrels with the Burmans were renewed about some disputed districts on the northern frontier; and the Siamese monarch came victoriously out of two encounters, but, in a third, was overcome, and lost the western part of the country lying towards Burmah.

This king died in 1809, and his son and successor, fearing, or feigning to dread, conspiracies against him, put to death one hundred and seventeen Siamese nobles, among whom were several generals who had fought by his father’s side against the Burmans. This atrocious massacre, and the murder of a cousin much beloved by the people, alienated their affections from him. In other respects he ruled with wisdom and moderation: keeping in check the turbulent Malays, he also successfully repulsed the incursions of the Burmans, bringing his prisoners to Bangkok, where he gave them lands to cultivate, and thus extended his capital.

The English Government, wishing to form a commercial treaty with this prince, sent Mr. Crawfurd on a mission to Siam; but although that gentleman obtained much interesting information respecting the country, he failed in attaining his purpose. Allowed to remain with his suite for some time at Bangkok, they were treated rather as prisoners than guests. Their propositions were rejected; and the only concession obtained from his Majesty was a promise not to increase the export and import duties, the entire abolition of which had been the object of the negotiation. The King died in 1824, and was succeeded by his illegitimate son, Crom-Chiat.

This prince, although he feared the English, saw the advantages of an extended commerce, and, in 1826, concluded a treaty with Great Britain, then represented by Captain Burney; but it did not effect all that had been desired. Direct mercantile intercourse between the two countries was certainly guaranteed, and assistance in all cases of shipwreck on the coast; but English subjects, during their stay, were to be subject to the laws of the empire; and in each province the commerce could be extended or limited at the will of the governor. As these functionaries constantly infringed the terms of the treaty, and imposed heavy charges on the native articles exported, as well as on British goods introduced, disappointment naturally resulted; and the Siamese, fearing a resort to arms on the part of England, made preparations for defence, and fortified the mouth of the Menam.

Meanwhile France was attempting to resume her old intercourse with Siam; but at first great distrust was manifested of the Catholic missionaries. In 1780 they had been ordered, on pain of death, to quit the kingdom; they retired for a time, but again gradually insinuated themselves, and met with considerable success. We owe to Mgr. Pallegoix, in addition to an interesting relation of the progress of the mission, very important information concerning this empire in the far East—its literature, and the character and the manners of the inhabitants. He established there seven churches and four chapels; a seminary in which are thirty native pupils, several other schools, and four monasteries; and has baptized eight thousand Siamese. The King, annoyed at the advance of the new religion, issued, in 1848, an edict against the missionaries, commanding the destruction of all their places of worship; but it was very partially carried into execution.

The Protestant mission has had a more restricted sphere of action. The celebrated Dr. Gutzlaff made a long stay at Bangkok in 1828, and finished there his translation of the New Testament into Siamese. This work was published at Singapore, and has since been widely circulated. In 1830 he revisited Siam, and translated the greater part of the Scriptures into the languages of Cambodia and Laos. At his request the American Baptists founded the first Protestant mission at Siam; the Presbyterians established a second in 1840; and a third was founded, in 1850, by the Society of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Their labours, however, have not yet been crowned with any great success; nevertheless, by uniting to their ministerial office the practice of medicine, they have done much good, and been favourably received by the people.

The French priests have recently made efforts to gain an influence over the government of Siam. At the death of the King Orom-Chiat, his son Chao-Fa, then twenty years of age, should have been his rightful successor, but an elder illegitimate son seized on the throne, promising his brother to resign it in a few years. This promise not having been fulfilled, the prince, as we have before mentioned, went into complete retirement, and gave himself up to scientific pursuits. He then came into contact with the Catholic missionaries, and, at their persuasion, made himself acquainted with their religion.

In 1851 the King fell ill, and, in spite of the promise to his brother, wished to appoint one of his own sons as his successor; but he was answered that the country had already a sovereign; and, on his decease, Prince Chao-Fa mounted the throne, under the name of Somdet Phra. Mgr. Pallegoix addressed to him a letter of congratulation, and presented him with a portrait of Louis Napoleon, then President of the French Republic. The King, in return, made him a gift of money, and revoked the decree of banishment against the five Catholic priests; and at an audience granted to the bishop before his departure for Europe, in 1852, he charged him with messages to Prince Louis Napoleon and the Pope,—intrusting to him an autograph letter for the latter, written in English, and expressing a great regard for his Holiness, as well as his resolution to grant full toleration in his kingdom to the Catholic religion.

He also declared to the archbishop[5] his intention of assuring to his subjects entire religious liberty, with which view he made inquiries from time to time respecting the work of the Catholic missionaries, so as to protect the converted natives against the heathen governors. From that time the friendship with France has never been interrupted, but has become more and more intimate.

Negotiations were commenced at Bangkok in 1856, in the name of the French Government, which terminated in a highly satisfactory manner, a treaty of friendship and commerce being signed on the 15th August between the two countries, which was ratified in the following year. The reception accorded to M. de Montigny, the French envoy, on this occasion by the two kings, was as brilliant as it was cordial; nor was he entertained less kindly by any of the authorities with whom he came in contact, which proved that Siam has preserved a pleasing remembrance of the embassies exchanged with Louis XIV.

All this augured favourably for the future friendly relations between the two Crowns; and these were confirmed in the year 1861, when his Siamese Majesty sent an embassy to Paris, where it arrived in June, and was received with great magnificence.

A French publication[6] gave the following account of the commerce with Siam:—“According to the information obtained from M. de Montigny, the commercial and maritime relations between the kingdom of Siam and Europe are capable of great development. Already more than sixty European ships, have since 1854 entered yearly the port of Bangkok, to which must be added a considerable number of junks and prahus, which navigate the China Sea and the Malayan Archipelago. The markets of Siam and Laos abound in natural products, such as tobacco, cotton, sugar, spice, and dyes. The forests abound with magnificent trees, particularly teak. By the terms of the treaty with France, the duties, whether import or export, are but three per cent. on the value of the merchandise. There is therefore room for hope that commerce, favoured by the moderation of this tariff, will rapidly increase, and that the French navy will profit by it.”

In ‘Les Annales du Commerce ExtÉrieur’ we find the following account:—“The greater part of the commerce of Siam, Laos, and Cambodia is in the hands of the Chinese, who are much more active and intelligent than the natives. Their mercantile transactions are generally characterised by dishonesty, and we cannot too strongly warn our traders against the frauds of every kind common in this country, such as mixing diverse qualities, adulteration, and saturating various articles with moisture to increase the weight. Raw silk, cotton, and hemp, tobacco, and other merchandise sold by weight, should be carefully examined when delivered, and always compared with the samples, which it is prudent to demand beforehand. The treaty concluded between the Siamese Government and France abolishes all monopolies, and obliges the authorities to watch over the strict and faithful execution of all bargains; therefore, in case of fraud, traders should show a bold face and demand indemnity. They should be careful themselves to set an example of strict probity, this being the surest way to improve the morality of the Siamese merchants, who, in dealing with people of proved honesty, will have less temptation to employ fraud.

“The best commerce will be, doubtless, that of barter; but it will be difficult to carry this to any great extent, as these people have few wants. Their ordinary dress, for example, consists simply of drawers in the hot season, to which in winter they add one or more scarves, to cover the upper part of the body. The dignitaries and wealthy individuals on state occasions wear a rich suit, consisting of drawers, vest, belt, and a large tunic. They go barefoot, rarely having even sandals. They are not of a migratory nature, but have their fixed habitations, and are fond of elegance and luxury. Very imitative in their ways, they feel a pride in putting on a European dress; and some of those made after the fashion of Louis XIV.’s reign are still preserved, especially among the descendants of the Portuguese, who are numerous. The uniforms of the soldiers are copied from those of Europe; and the whole nation has a great taste for our Parisian furniture, cotton, silk, and woollen fabrics, porcelain, china, glass, bronzes, cutlery, ironmongery, and toys. Other articles in much esteem with them, and exported by us, are fire-arms, side-arms, saddlery, quilts, carpets, clocks, and windows. Our champagne, brandy, gin, and kirsch, would find in Siam a certain and ready sale in exchange for the produce of the country.”

The efforts of the Americans to obtain from the Siamese Government favourable terms of commerce were for a time fruitless, but in 1833 a treaty was concluded with the United States, which proved of but little material benefit. A second embassy from the Western Republic failed completely. Balestier, the envoy, could not even obtain an audience from the king, and consequently was unable to deliver his letters of credit. The Americans had been unfortunate in their choice of Balestier as their representative, he having formerly been in a mercantile house at Singapore, and in no favour either with the king or his ministers. A treaty was, however, eventually concluded between the two nations.

Sir James Brooke, the English ambassador at Bangkok, found his advances coldly received. Possibly the Court felt aggrieved by the attitude assumed by that gentleman; but, whatever may have been the reason, matters nearly approached to an open rupture. In September, 1850, he abandoned the negotiation, and Great Britain and Siam remained estranged, until the English Government, desirous to establish friendly relations with the Eastern monarch, despatched Sir John Bowring to Bangkok, with instructions to arrange a commercial treaty, which he effected in 1855. His travels have been published in two volumes, and contain, perhaps, the most accurate and full information we possess of Siam. It was particularly from his acquaintance with the language and manners of the nation that Sir John Bowring acquitted himself so well of his task. He was received at Court with great favour, and had several interviews with the king, whose thirst for knowledge pleased him, and whose good will he managed to secure. In all his negotiations with the Siamese ministers he displayed skill and adroitness. Knowing by experience what would be the most profitable conditions, he succeeded in effecting the ratification of an advantageous agreement on the 18th April, 1855, by which the Crown of Siam consented to the appointment of a British consul at the capital, and granted entire liberty of commerce to English merchants in all the maritime districts of the empire. All duties were lowered; those upon opium almost entirely abolished, provision being made that this article should only be sold to parties specially licensed by the Government. On the other hand, the English traders might purchase all the productions of the country directly from the producer. It is only in times of scarcity that the king reserves to himself the right of forbidding the exportation of rice, salt, and fish. English subjects are permitted to settle at Bangkok, to hold landed property there, build or purchase houses, and to lease land to others; but this last privilege is only accorded after a ten years’ possession.

Full toleration in religious matters was guaranteed; and if the presence of a British ship of war was at any time thought requisite for protection of their interests, it was permitted to lie in the Gulf, but not to pass beyond Paknam without express leave from the Government.

Holland has also renewed her ancient dealings with the country, and ratified a treaty during the present year (1862). Even before the arrival of the Siamese ambassadors in Europe, a French publication[7] said very justly, “The Government of Siam is showing itself more and more favourable towards Europeans, who find at Bangkok not only protection, but sympathy and toleration for their religion. Bangkok has become one of the most considerable markets of Asia; and the kingdom of Siam is reaping the reward of the liberal politics which it has introduced into the extreme East, and which is warmly seconded by France, England, and the United States.”