  Next to the subject of images and idols comes that of certain sacred objects which Buddhists of all Schools—whether adherents of the Hina-yana or Maha-yana systems—hold in veneration; for example, relics, relic-receptacles or Stupas, foot-prints, trees, utensils, bells, symbols, and animals. The narratives of the Chinese travellers, frequently mentioned before, teem with descriptions of such objects. Take, for instance, Fa-hien’s account of the district of Nagara, near Peshawar in Northern India (Legge, 34-40), in which several sacred objects are stated to exist—such as a fragment of Buddha’s skull, one of his teeth, portions of his hair and nails, his alms-bowl, his staff (contained in a wooden tube, so heavy that even a thousand men could not lift it), his robe, and the impression of his shadow. This was at the beginning of the fifth century of our era. Fa-hien’s statements are confirmed by Sung-Yun, the next Chinese traveller mentioned before (p. 161 of this volume
Hiouen Thsang, the third traveller, confirms the statements of his predecessors in regard to the relics in this district, and adds as follows:—
It is easy to perceive from the above extracts that the worship of certain sacred objects connected with the founder of Buddhism had become even in Fa-hien’s time a marked feature of Buddhism. In fact, the number of such objects increased so rapidly that before long it became usual to classify them under three heads as follow (1) ?aririka (or ?arira-dhatu or simply ?arira), objects (2) Paribhogika, ‘objects possessed or used by the Buddha,’ such as his seat, alms-bowl, drinking-vessel (kumbha), staff, vestments, and even his spittoon. Under this division is placed the Bodhi-tree. (3) Udde?ika, objects worshipped as in some way commemorative of the Buddha or of some event or incident in his life. It would be difficult to decide under which of these categories the sacred books containing the Buddha’s Law are to be placed, and yet they are deeply revered, and at the present day almost deified, as if they were intelligent and omniscient beings. They are wrapped in costly cloth or silk, and their names are mentioned with the addition of honorific personal titles. Occasionally such sacred books are placed on a kind of rude altar, near the road-side, that passers-by may place offerings of money upon them Without attempting, therefore, to follow any particular classification, we proceed to notice some of the chief objects in the order of their importance, beginning with relics. Relics.Adoration of relics constitutes an important point of difference between Buddhism and Brahmanism; for Brahmanism and its offspring Hinduism are wholly opposed to the practice of preserving the ashes, bones, I remarked in the course of my travels through India that articles used by great religious teachers—as, for example, robes, wooden shoes, and seats—are sometimes preserved and venerated after their death. All articles of this kind, however, must, of course, be removed from the body before actual decease; for it is well known that, in the minds of Hindus, ideas of impurity are inseparably connected with death, and contamination is supposed to result from contact with the corpses of even a man’s dearest relatives. Nor is the mortal frame ever held in veneration by the Hindus as it was by the ancient Egyptians, and as it generally is in Christian countries. Even the living body is regarded as a mass of corruption, a thing to be held in contempt, and a constant impediment to sanctity of life. How much more then ought every part of a dead body to be got rid of without delay! Hence in the present day a corpse is burnt, and its ashes are generally scattered on the surface of sacred rivers or of the sea. It is true that the bodies of great Hindu ascetics and devotees are exempted from this rule. They are usually buried—not burnt. Not, however, because the mere corporeal frame is held in greater veneration, but because the bodies of the most eminent saints are supposed to lie undecomposed in a kind of trance, or state of intense ecstatic meditation (samadhi). The Buddhist, too, is a thorough Hindu in contemning the living body; but when the corpse is burnt, he We know that according to the teaching of Brahmanism the burning of a corpse is followed by religious ceremonies called ?raddhas A true Buddhist, on the other hand, considers all such ?raddhas as useless; although it is certainly a fact that in the end the more developed Buddhism of the North invented similar ceremonies, called Bardo (see pp. 293, 334). True Buddhism, in short, has only one way of honouring ancestors, and only one method of keeping alive the memory of those perfected saints whose whole personality has become extinct, and whose transition into other forms of life has finally ceased. The calcined ashes, or certain unconsumed portions of the body—such as fragments of bone or hair or nails or teeth—are deposited in relic-shrines. Of course the most sacred of all Buddhist relics are those of the Buddha himself. It is said that after the cremation of his corpse the chief remains consisted of four teeth, the two cheek-bones, and fragments of the skull. But it is believed that, even before his death, portions of his hair and nails were preserved and placed Fa-hien, in a passage already alluded to, says that in the country of Nagara there is a particular spot where Buddha shaved off his hair and clipt his nails, and, having done so, proceeded to erect a lofty mound or Stupa to enshrine them, as well as to be a model for all future Stupas (p. 504 of this volume). Hiouen Thsang relates a tradition that when the two travelling merchants Trapusha and Bhallika (see p. 40) were converted, the Buddha gave them at their own request some of his own hair and nail-parings, besides his alms-bowl, staff, and a portion of his clothing, and bade them deposit each article in Stupas or Dagabas. The two merchants, it is narrated, went home to their own country and acquired an enormous stock of religious merit by being the first to erect a Stupa for the reception of personal memorials of the great Buddha. According to a tradition the two merchants were from Burma, and the shrine which was erected to receive eight of his hairs afterwards developed into the great Rangoon Dagaba (Pagoda). It may be inferred from this legend (as Dr. Oldenberg has already remarked) that the care of the Buddha’s relics, and the institution of ceremonies in their honour, were in the first instance left to the devotion of religiously minded Buddhist laymen.
Hiouen Thsang (Beal, ii. 40) also states that when certain Indian Rajas, eight in number, heard of the Buddha’s death, they collected armies and marched to Kusi-nara (p. 424) to seize portions of the relics; but the prince of Kusi-nara refused to give them up. In the end the matter was settled amicably, and the relics were divided, so that each of the eight princes might take a share. Then all departed to their own homes, and each prince built a Stupa over his own portion of the relics. The gods also took their portions. Fa-hien (chap. xxiii) alludes to the building of the eight Stupas, and adds that king A?oka destroyed them, and in their place built 84,000 others—one for the conservation of each atom of the elements of the Buddha’s body; the belief being that the bodies of all human beings consist of that number of elementary particles (see p. 423). The eight-fold division is described in ‘Buddhist Suttas,’ pp. 133-136 (S. B. E. vol. xi). It appears probable that the earliest relics of his burnt body held in honour were his teeth; and of these again the most celebrated seem to have been his The first two eye-teeth have only mythical histories, and little is recorded of the third, but the fourth has gone through a series of terrestrial adventures, which have been much written about and would fill several volumes. One of the immediate followers of Gautama is said to have gained possession of it on the occasion of the eight-fold distribution of the great sage’s relics (p. 499), and to have conveyed it to a place afterwards called Danta-pura, ‘tooth-city Every native of Ceylon (La?ka), whether Buddhist or Hindu, seems to feel that the welfare of his country depends on its careful conservation. At any rate the Sinhalese have placed their tooth-temple—called Dalada Maligawa—in the loveliest part of their beautiful island (see p. 454), amid richly wooded hills, from which may be obtained some of the most enchanting views in the world. The eye-tooth is in appearance like a piece of discoloured ivory about two inches The tooth is enclosed in nine bell-shaped, jewelled golden cases, one within the other, each locked by a key, and each key consigned to the custody of a separate official. The interior cases increase in costliness till the most highly jewelled of all is reached, and within this on a golden lotus lies the relic. When I visited the tooth-temple in 1877, the cases were kept within iron bars in a dimly-lighted shrine—redolent with flower-offerings which exhaled an overpowering A detailed account of the tooth is given in a book called Dalada-va??a or Da?ha-va??a, said to have been written originally in ancient Sinhalese (Elu) about the year 310 of our era, and translated into the sacred Pali about the year 1200. This book has been rendered into English by the late Sir Coomara Swamy. The tooth is also described in many other Pali and Sinhalese books, including the Maha-va??a. And here it may be remarked that one feature of the Buddha’s relics was that they gave forth on special occasions celestial light, and had the power of working miracles. Sometimes a reverent circumambulation of the shrine which contained the relics was believed to be sufficiently efficacious in stimulating their miraculous powers. Sometimes they were taken out and exhibited. The following extract from Fa-hien reminds one of what takes place at Kandy in the present day:—
Fa-hien records a similar exhibition of the Buddha’s alms-bowl in the country near Peshawar:—
He states that the Buddha’s robe was also brought out to be worshipped:—
The relics of all great saints in Buddhist countries were revered in a similar manner. At the same time it ought to be noted that the periodical exhibition of relics, before the eyes of worshippers, was not a usual occurrence (as it is in Roman Catholic countries). Indeed, as a general rule, the custom seems to have been to shield the ashes and remains of revered dead bodies from observation and liability to be touched. Hence they were commonly sealed up hermetically, as it were, in the interior of receptacles which effectually concealed them from view and protected them from disturbance. And this leads us to advert to the form and character of Buddhist relic-receptacles. It is probable that at a very early period, and even before the Buddha’s time, the Hindus were accustomed to raise heaps or tumuli over the ashes of kings, great men, saints and sages, just as even to this day among the Sikhs of the Panjab, the ashes of great men are so Such heaps were at first generally called Caityas, and afterwards Stupas (from the Sansk?it roots ci and styai, meaning ‘to heap together’); but Caitya ultimately denoted a relic-structure in an assembly-hall (see p. 450), while the word Stupa denoted one in the open air. Then inside the Caitya or Stupa (Pali Thupa, corrupted into Tope) there was a casket—made of silver, gold, stone, earthenware, etc.—in which were deposited the ashes, fragments of bone, or the teeth or nails of the deceased. And this relic-casket was called in Sansk?it Dhatu-garbha, or in Pali Dagaba (corrupted into Dagoba and afterwards into Pagoda)—that is, a repository of the elementary particles of which all bodies are composed. Then in time the word Dagaba (Pagoda) denoted the monument as well as the relic-casket. Moreover Caityas and Stupas were often mere pyramidal structures, enshrining images or marking important events (see p. 390), but not containing relics. Among the Hindus Caitya often denotes the sacred village-tree planted on a mound. VOTIVE STUPA, RECENTLY FOUND AT BUDDHA-GAYA. (Date about ninth or tenth century of our era.) The process by which the simple Caitya or mound developed into more elaborate structures is remarkable. First came erections of stone or brick, generally bell-shaped or domed like bee-hives. These again expanded into elongated pyramidal structures, springing from cylindrical or octagonal or hexagonal bases, and ornamented with images of Gautama, and resting on plinth-like foundations, the summits tapering into finials consisting of three, or seven, or nine, or eleven, or even fifteen tiers of umbrella-shaped ornaments (see note, p. 393). Then, again, in time, these elaborate Dagabas expanded into vast Pagodas of enormous height, as, for example, the Rangoon Pagoda (see p. 456) and that at Anuradha-pura in Ceylon. It is doubtful whether in early Buddhism Caityas and Stupas were ever empty monuments or cenotaphs. Probably all of them contained ashes, fragments of bone, teeth, or hair, though in some cases the most careful examination has failed to discover the vessel in which they were deposited. If made of fragile materials, it rapidly crumbled into dust. But Stupas, even without relics, were themselves objects of reverence. In the later period of Buddhism the practice of carving, or moulding mere memorial or votive Stupas, and dedicating them at sacred spots became common. The examples of this kind of Stupa which I saw unearthed at Buddha-Gaya have been described (p. 397). The engraving opposite to this page is a copy of one of these votive Stupas which I procured for the Indian Institute through Mr. Beglar. At Mandalay there is a large Pagoda with about 620 smaller ones round it (in rows of six or seven deep). Each small Pagoda enshrines a tablet—exposed to view—on which some portion of the Law is engraved. Outside the Buddhist convent near Darjiling, when I visited it in 1884, a monk was roughly moulding a number of small votive Stupas in clay, with which he was probably mixing the powdered bones of some deceased Lama. Here is a copy of one exactly the size of the original:— If broken open, a terra-cotta seal, inscribed with some sacred formula, would probably be found inside. Of course most of the Buddha’s chief disciples, such as Sariputta, Maudgalyayana, Ka?yapa, Ananda, Upali, each had Stupas erected over their relics. Sacred Foot-prints.Next in importance to the worship of relics is that of foot-prints (Sansk?it ?ri-pada or ?ri-pada). Everywhere throughout Buddhist countries the supposed impressions of the Buddha’s feet are as much honoured as those of the god Vish?u are by Vaish?avas. When Fa-hien reached G?idhra-ku?a (see pp. 404, 406), he is said to have used words to the following effect: ‘I, Fa-hien, was born when I could not meet with Buddha, and now I only see the foot-prints which he has left’ (Legge, 83). It is well known that the practice of bowing down and honouring the feet is a thoroughly Asiatic custom. The idea seems to be derived from a kind of a fortiori argument. If the feet, as the lowest member of the body, are honoured, how much more is homage rendered to the whole man. Hence children honour their parents, not by kissing their faces, but by prostrating themselves at their feet and touching them reverentially. Another reason for venerating the feet is well expressed in one of our hymns:— O let me see Thy foot-marks, And in them plant my own; and in Longfellow’s Foot-prints on the sands of time; Foot-prints which perhaps another, Sailing o’er life’s solemn main, A forlorn and shipwrecked brother, Seeing may take life again. This shows that even Europeans are familiar with the idea. There is a Roman Catholic church at Vienna which possesses a celebrated image of Christ on the Cross. On one occasion I visited this church and observed several worshippers kissing the feet of the image, while others—too short in stature to reach it with their lips—touched its feet with their fingers and then kissed their fingers. A similar honour is paid Every sentiment in the East is exaggerated, and it need not therefore be matter of wonder if a veneration for foot-prints has led to an excessive multiplication of these symbols, and to an excess of superstitious worship paid to them by Hindus of various sects in every part of India. No true Vaish?ava will leave his house in the morning without marking his forehead with the symbol of Vish?u’s feet. In travelling from one place to another I often came across what appeared to be an empty shrine, but on a close inspection I found that it contained two foot-prints on a little raised altar made of stone. These are called Paduka ‘shoes,’ but are really the supposed impressions of the soles of the feet of the person to whom the shrines are dedicated. In 1876 I visited the celebrated Vish?u-pad temple at Gaya. Crowds were worshipping the foot-mark impressed on the bare stone, but concealed by offerings, and surrounded by a silver fence under a silver canopy (see ‘Brahmanism and Hinduism,’ p. 309). It is true that Buddhists never imitate the practice The Jainas, who are the only Hindu representatives of the Buddhistic system left in India, are quite as ardent foot-print worshippers. In 1884 I ascended Mount Parasnath (Par?va-nath) in Bengal at the same time with crowds of Jaina pilgrims who, like myself, toiled up the hill to visit the numerous Jaina temples scattered over the uneven surface at the summit, some five thousand feet above the plain. Our objects were very different. Theirs was the acquisition of merit, mine was the acquirement of knowledge. Lepers lined the rough pathway, and much additional merit was held to accrue to the pilgrims by distributing alms among them. I found that nearly every shrine at the summit consisted of a little domed canopy of marble, covering two foot-prints of some one of the twenty-four Jaina saints (especially Par?va-nath) impressed on a marble altar. The soles of the supposed foot-prints were either white or black and marked with small gilded circles. Groups of worshippers bowed down before the shrines and deposited offerings of money, rice, almonds, raisins, and spices on the foot-marks. No sooner did they quit one shrine for the next, than a troop of frolicking monkeys promptly took their place and scampered off with the edible portion of the objects offered. It is impossible to state positively when either With regard to this point General Sir A. Cunningham, in his account of the Bharhut Stupa—a Stupa which dates from the second century B.C.—says:—
The General justly remarks that perhaps the worship of the Buddha’s foot-prints may have sprung up in imitation of the homage alleged to have been paid by Maha-Ka?yapa and 500 monks to his feet, which, it is said, were exposed to view when his body was lying on the funeral pile. The legend states that while the monks were in the act of bowing down in adoration before the feet, the funeral pile ignited spontaneously. On one of the gate-pillars of the ancient SaÑchi Stupa there is a sculpture of a foot-print marked with the wheel (Cakra, p. 522) symbol, which the late Mr. Fergusson ascribed to the early part of the first century of the Christian era. There are also sculptured representations of the Buddha’s foot-prints at Amaravati, supposed to date But of all foot-prints, that on Adam’s Peak (the highest mountain in Ceylon, more than 7000 feet above the sea), supposed to have been left by the Buddha when he ascended thence to heaven, is the most celebrated. According to Fa-hien (Legge, p. 102), when Buddha was in Ceylon he planted one foot on the north of the royal city and the other on Sumana-Ku?a (Adam’s Peak), fifteen yojanas, or about a hundred miles, distant. This fancied impression of the Buddha’s foot (believed by Christians to be that of St. Thomas, by Muhammadans to be that of Adam, and by Hindus to be that of the god ?iva) is merely a shapeless hollow in the rock, five feet seven inches long by two feet seven inches broad, which would give the Buddha a stature of about thirty-five feet. It is said to have been discovered by a hunter at the beginning of the century before Christ, and, although very difficult of access, is annually visited by about 100,000 Buddhist pilgrims. Near it, on the summit of the mountain, is a small temple dedicated to Saman (p. 217). In a shrine near the tooth-temple at Kandy, I saw a so-called facsimile of this foot-print. Those who are physically incapable of toiling up the mountain to bow down before the sacred impression on the rock, gain nearly as much merit by worshipping its copy. The shrine was filled with fragrant flowers recently deposited on the facsimile. Other foot-prints in various places throughout India, Burma, Siam, Tibet, Mongolia, and China, are from two to five feet long. A tradition is mentioned by Fa-hien (Legge, 29) that, when Buddha visited Northern India, he came to the country of Woo-chang or Udyana, and there he left a print of his foot, which appears long or short according to the ideas of the beholders. Another legend states that Buddha left the print of his left foot on Adam’s Peak, and then, in one stride, strode across to Siam, where he left the impression of his right foot. The Siamese hold their foot-print in as much reverence as the Sinhalese hold theirs. It is called Phra Bat, and, according to Mr. Alabaster, its appearance is like that of the foot-print on Adam’s Peak. Nothing is to be seen but a hole in the rock, about five feet long by two broad. A temple is built over it, and every precaution taken to protect it from over-zealous worshippers. Mr. Alabaster thus describes his visit to this sacred spot:—
The soles of the Buddha’s feet are represented as quite flat, and all the toes of equal length. Each sole possesses, as we have seen (p. 20), one hundred and eight auspicious marks (ma?gala-lakkha?a), and of these the principal is generally the wheel (Cakra), while around it are grouped representations of animals, inhabitants of various worlds, and symbols of different kinds. In all probability the idea is that all things are subject to the Buddha or belong to him; they are therefore metaphorically placed under his feet. (Compare the metaphor in Psalm viii. 6-8.) The one hundred and eight marks vary in various specimens. A good typical example (brought from Burma) of the impression of one foot may be seen in the British Museum. The sole is divided into compartments, each compartment containing a mark. There are five conch-shells, one in each of the five toes, this symbol being highly esteemed by Buddhists as well as by Hindus. Among the one hundred and eight auspicious marks on the Siamese foot-print are the following:—A spear, trident (tri-ratna), book, elephant-goad, Indra’s elephant, dragon (makara), ocean, golden ship, water with lotuses, conch-shell, four-faced Brahma, umbrella, king of Nagas, king of horses, of tigers, of birds, sun, moon, ten mountains, peacock, flag of victory, deer, fish, water-jar. The wheel (Cakra) does not occur in Mr. Alabaster’s list (‘Wheel of the Law,’ p. 290), but the two feet of the Amaravati Stupa, described by Mr. Fergusson, have a wheel in the centre of the soles. Above is the Tri-ratna emblem with a Svastika symbol on each side. The Skanda-Pura?a and Bhagavata-Pura?a give similar lists of marks on the sole of Vish?u’s foot. Sacred Trees.We now pass on to a brief consideration of sacred trees. Most persons are aware that the homage offered to trees and plants is not confined to Buddhism. It existed very early in Brahmanism and is still common everywhere throughout India (see my ‘Brahmanism and Hinduism,’ p. 330). In point of fact various forms of tree-worship prevail at the present moment in almost every part of the world where superstition and ignorance are ruling influences. Nor can we really condemn, as either unnatural or unreasonable, the feeling of veneration with which trees are generally regarded, bearing in mind the grateful shade and shelter which they afford, the beauty of their foliage, their importance as purifiers of the atmosphere, and the hundreds of useful purposes to which their wood, leaves, and fruit are applicable. According to Dr. E. B. Tylor (‘Primitive Culture,’ ii. 223), the North American Indians of the Far West often hang offerings on the trees to propitiate the spirits and procure good weather and good hunting. He adds that Mr. Darwin describes the South Americans as doing much the same. In Persia and other Eastern Countries trees may often be met with, the branches of which have been recently hung with offerings of cloth, rags, and even garments. In India the notion of trees being inhabited by deities or semi-divine beings or spirits is to this day very common, and we have already noted (p. 112) that during the period of Gautama’s Bodhi-sattvaship, in the course of which he had to undergo countless births in preparation for his Buddhahood, he was born forty-three times as a tree-god. In Siam, according to Mr. Alabaster, offerings are commonly made in the present day to the spirits or deities inhabiting trees. People hang various votive objects on the branches, or place them on a stand or altar beneath any particular tree whose deity they wish to propitiate. Moreover they are very averse to the cutting down of any trees of any kind, lest the tree-gods should be angry.
We have already seen that, according to the theory of later Buddhism, every Buddha is supposed to have his own special tree under which he sat and meditated, and in the end attained supreme knowledge (see p. 136). For example, there is the Pippala (also called A?vattha, Ficus Religiosa) sacred fig-tree of Gautama Buddha, the Va?a or Banyan-tree (Ficus Indica) of Ka?yapa Buddha, the U?umbara (Ficus Glomerata) of Kanaka-muni; the ?irisha (Acacia Serisa) of Kraku-Cchanda; the ?ala (Shorea Robusta) of Vi?va-bhu; the Pu??arika (White These six Buddhas with Gautama are sometimes held to be the seven principal Buddhas, and, according to some authorities, the tree of the future Buddha (Maitreya) will be the Iron-wood tree (Sideroxylon) It might have been expected, too, that the ?al-tree would have ranked next in sacredness to the Pipal and Banyan; for according to one legend, Maya gave birth to Gautama while standing under a ?al-tree, and according to another legend, Gautama died on a couch placed between two ?al-trees (pp. 23, 50). This tree, however, appears to be more honoured in connexion with the Buddha Vi?va-bhu (p. 136, note 1). There are other trees which were held in veneration by Indian Buddhists:—for example, the Mango (Amra) and the Jambu, and the A?oka. The first of these appears frequently in sculptures, and is known by the shape of its fruit. Two other trees under which the Buddha is said to have meditated after his attainment of Buddhahood—namely, the Mucalinda-tree But among all trees revered by all Buddhists of all nationalities, the A?vattha or Pippala (Pipal), under which Gautama achieved Buddhahood and perfect knowledge, takes the precedence. In some Buddhist countries the climate prevents its introduction, but if it can by any means be made to grow, it is everywhere planted close to Buddhist temples, monasteries and Dagabas, and in many cases is the product of a seed brought from the supposed original tree at Buddha-Gaya. A tradition relates that Gautama during his lifetime directed Ananda to break off a branch from that original tree and to plant it in the garden of the Vihara, or monastery, at ?ravasti—Gautama’s favourite place of residence—‘He who worships it,’ said Gautama, ‘will receive the same reward as if he worshipped me This is a mere legend resting on no historical basis; but the tradition which makes Gautama choose a seat under the sacred Pippala or A?vattha as the spot where the first stirrings of a divine afflatus and the first whisperings of divine communications—symbolized by the mysterious quivering and rustling of its leaves—were The history of the original sacred Pippala (A?vattha) tree, or as it is commonly called the Bodhi-tree (Bo-tree) of Gautama Buddha at Buddha-Gaya, has already been sketched in a previous Lecture (see pp. 392-394). Hiouen Thsang’s description of the tree, as he saw it in the seventh century, has also been given (see p. 399). Fa-hien, who saw it at Buddha-Gaya in the fifth century, calls it the Patra-tree. The following is an abridgement of what he says about it:—
Fa-hien also saw the offspring of the original Bodhi-tree growing in Ceylon (Legge, p. 103). It is recorded that soon after Mahinda, son of A?oka, arrived in Ceylon (about 250 B.C.) for the purpose of propagating Buddhism, his sister, who had become a Buddhist Nun, also arrived there, and brought with her from King A?oka a branch of the sacred Bodhi-tree of Buddha-Gaya. This was planted at Anuradha-pura, and the zealous Buddhists of Ceylon fully believe that the identical tree exists there still. An interesting account of the state of this tree or its descendant, about thirty years ago, is given in Sir Emerson Tennant’s ‘Ceylon’ (vol. ii. p. 613). I here give an abridged extract:—
When Buddhism became thoroughly mixed up with Hinduism the Kalpa-tree or divine tree of Indra’s paradise was often introduced. It is supposed to have its terrestrial counterpart in some sacred spots on earth, and there to grant all desires, the worshipper having merely to stretch out his hand and take the gifts suspended from its branches The miraculous tree which developed out of the Buddha’s tooth-cleaning twig, when thrown by him on the ground, has been already described (see p. 419, and compare ‘Brahmanism and Hinduism,’ p. 337). Sacred Symbols.Some of the sacred objects already described may be regarded as symbols. Of those which are more The use of this triple symbol is another proof of the connexion between Buddhism and Hinduism. Both delight in triads and in symbolizing triads Sir A. Cunningham was the first to show that the three fetish-like figures of Jagannath (K?ish?a) and his sister and brother, at Puri in Orissa, were derived from three of the combined emblems of the Buddhist Tri-ratna (compare p. 166 of this volume). Next to the Tri-ratna comes the Cakra or wheel. This symbolizes the Buddhist doctrine that the origin Observe that the Cakra or wheel is equally a Vaish?ava symbol, but in the hand of Vish?u or of K?ish?a it is a circular weapon, hurled at a demon-foe. Another symbol is the Lotus-flower. Its constant use as an emblem, seems to result from the wheel-like form of the flower—the petals taking the place of spokes, and thus typifying the doctrine of perpetual cycles of existence—or from the perfection typified by the regularity of these petals, or from the idea that its expanded flower, reposing on a calm mirror-like lake, is a fit emblem of Nirva?a. The Wheel, the Tri-ratna, and the Lotus are so important, as symbols of Buddhism, that they are combined in the vignette on the title-page of this volume. Another symbol is the Svastika mark, consisting of two lines crossing each other, the termination of each arm of the cross being usually bent round in the same direction Another symbol is the Throne or seat of Buddha—a favourite emblem in many sculptures. In Cunningham’s ‘Stupa of Bharhut’ the throne of each Buddha is often represented under his Bodhi-tree (but without any image), and the thrones of the last four Buddhas are joined together in a single bas-relief. Sometimes the throne is covered by an umbrella with garlands, or the Buddha’s bowl may rest on it. Sometimes two foot-prints are on a foot-stool under the throne. Another venerated symbol is the Stupa (see p. 505). It is often an object of adoration in itself. I need scarcely revert to the Umbrella symbol (see p. 393). In Eastern countries it typifies supremacy. If a king is present no one else ought to carry an umbrella. The ?a?kha or Conch-shell is a very auspicious symbol, especially if the convolutions turn to the right in the Nandy-avarta form, as on the Buddha’s foot (see p. 513). The Tibetan symbol of the ‘Flying horse’ (Lung-ta)—able to transport a man round the world in one day—has been mentioned before; also the Norbu gem (see pp. 381, 528). Sacred Animals.It may be truly said that all animals are more or less venerated—though not actually worshipped—under the Buddhist system. How can it be otherwise when every Buddhist believes that the Buddha himself was incarnated in various animals during the period of his Bodhi-sattvaship (see p. 111)? In the same way the Hindus believe that the god Vish?u was incarnated in animals, such as a fish, a tortoise, and a boar. Buddhism in this as in other respects is like Brahmanism and Hinduism. The feeling of reverence for animals rests on the doctrine of metempsychosis. It is difficult for either a Hindu or a Buddhist to draw a line of demarcation between gods, men, and animals, when the same living being may exist as a god, a man, or an animal. It is on this account that in India animals appear to live on terms of the greatest friendship and mutual confidence with human beings.
Perhaps the most sacred animal in the estimation of all Buddhists is the elephant. This will be easily understood by recalling what has been said in a previous Lecture (see pp. 23, 24). In one of the Bharhut sculptures the white elephant is seen descending to enter the side of Gautama’s mother Maya (‘Stupa of Bharhut,’ p. 84). The elephant, says Sir A. Cunningham, is a favourite subject for delineation. It is represented in almost every possible position, as standing, walking, running, sitting down, eating, drinking, throwing water over its own back, and lastly, kneeling down in reverence before the holy Bodhi-tree. Probably the next sacred animal to the elephant is the deer. The Buddha was born eleven times as a deer (p. 111), and he delivered his first sermon in a deer-park (p. 42). The ‘goose’ (Ha?sa, sometimes called ‘a duck’ or ‘a swan’) is also very sacred. With regard to other animals, Sir A. Cunningham remarks:—
In Burma people feed sacred fish, and save their lives in seasons when they would perish through the drying up of rivers and ponds (see p. 364). Dr. Eitel, in his Lectures (p. 136), points out that even pigs are held sacred, though not worshipped, by Northern Buddhists. We must not forget that the Buddha in two of his births was a pig (p. 112), that he died of eating pork, and that in sculptures of the Tantrik goddess Vajra-varahi—adopted by Northern Buddhists—a row of seven pigs is carved underneath her three-headed figure, one head being that of a pig. Miscellaneous Objects.Among these may be reckoned bells of various kinds. The prayer-bells common in Tibet, which are held in the hand and used during the chanting of prayers, have been already described (p. 323). In Burma bells abound everywhere. They are of all sizes, and often of immense weight, but are not used in the same way as in Tibet. Nor are they ever rung in peals or with a clapper. Their use is not to call people to religious services. It is no part of the business of monks or priests to summon the laity to any service. Every man worships on his own account, and for himself, and by himself, and no so-called priest reminds him of his religious duties, or is responsible if he neglects them. The real use of bells in Burmese temples is to draw the attention of the deities and spirits (Naths) to the act of worship, and so secure the due registering of prayer-merit. When a man has finished his repetitions, he strikes the bell with a piece of wood or The form of dedication is inscribed on every bell, and is in the Pali language, though instances of the vernacular occur. The following is a portion of a remarkable inscription in the vernacular (Shway Yoe, i. 243, abridged):—
The weight of the bell is generally added to the dedication. There is a fine Burmese bell in the Indian section of the South Kensington Museum. It has a long Pali inscription, a portion of the translation of which I here give:—
Under the head of miscellaneous objects, we may note the seven precious minerals or substances to which allusion has frequently been made. They are gold, silver, pearl, sapphire or ruby, cat’s eye, diamond, and coral (Childers); but they vary, and some authorities substitute lapis lazuli for pearl. In Hinduism there are nine precious substances (nava-ratna). We may also enumerate here the seven treasures belonging to every universal monarch. These are:—1. a wheel which, being set in motion by the monarch, rolls before him to establish the Law in his dominions; 2. an elephant; 3. a flying horse (see p. 523); 4. a jewel which on the darkest night illuminates the earth for seven miles round (p. 381); 5. a good queen or wife; 6. a good minister or servant, who has the power of discovering hidden treasures; 7. a good general (compare Alabaster’s ‘Wheel of the Law,’ p. 81). |
|
