Fig. 5.—Mansfield’s still. R the heating burner, A the body of the still with stopcock, i, for running out the contents. B the still-head kept in a cistern, C, of hot water or other liquid. The vapour generated by the boiling of the liquid in A, partly condenses in B, from whence the higher boiling-point portion flows back into the still. The uncondensed vapour passes into the condensing-worm, D, which is kept cool by a stream of water, and from thence flows into the receiver S. By opening m in the side-pipe any higher boiling-point oil condensing in the delivery-pipe can be run back into the still.

The operation of tar-distilling is about as unromantic a process as can be imagined, but it must be briefly described before the subsequent developments of the industry can be appreciated properly. It has already been explained that the tar is a complex mixture of many different substances. These various compounds boil at certain definite temperatures, the boiling-point of a chemical compound being an inherent property. If a mixture of substances boiling at different temperatures is heated in a suitable vessel the compounds distil over, broadly speaking, in the order of their boiling-points. The separation by this process is not absolute, because compounds boiling at a certain temperature have a tendency to bring over with them the vapours of other compounds which boil at a higher temperature. But for practical purposes it will be sufficient to consider that the general tendency is for the compounds of low boiling-point to come over first, then the compounds of higher boiling-point, and finally those of the highest boiling-point. This is the principle made use of by the tar-distiller. The tar-still is a large iron pot provided with a still-head from which the vapours boil out into a coil of iron pipe kept cool in a vessel of water (see Fig. 6). The still is heated by a fire beneath it, and the different portions which condense in the iron coil are received in vessels which are changed as the different fractions of the tar come over. The process is what chemists would call a rough fractional distillation. The first fractions are liquid at ordinary temperatures, and the water in the condenser is kept cold; then, as the boiling-point rises, the fraction contains a hydrocarbon which solidifies on cooling, and the water in the condenser is made hot to prevent the choking up of the coil. Every one of these fractions of coal-tar, from the beginning to the end of the process, has its story to tell—all the chief constituents of the tar separated by this means have by chemical science been converted into useful products.

Fig. 6.—Sectional diagram of tar-still with arched bottom. The fireplace is at i; the hot gases pass over the bridge k and through g into the flues h, h. The pipe at c is to supply the still with tar; a is the exit pipe connected with the condenser, and b a man-hole for cleaning out the still. The condenser and bottom pipe for drawing off pitch have been omitted to avoid complication.

It is customary at the present time to collect four distinct fractions from the period when the tar begins to boil quietly, i.e. from the point when the small quantity of watery liquor which is unavoidably entangled with the tar has distilled over, by which time the temperature in the still is about 110° C. The small fraction that comes over up to this temperature constitutes what the tar-distiller calls “first runnings.” From 110° C. to 210° C. there comes over a limpid inflammable liquid known as “light oil,” and this is succeeded by a fraction which shows a tendency to solidify on cooling, owing to the separation of a solid crystalline hydrocarbon known as naphthalene. This last fraction, boiling between 210° C. and 240° C., is known as “carbolic oil,” because it contains, in addition to the naphthalene, the chief portion of the carbolic acid present in the tar. From 240° C. to 270° C. there comes over another fraction which shows but little tendency to solidify in the condensing coil, and which is known as “heavy oil,” or “creosote oil.” From 270° C. up to the end of the distillation there distils a fraction which is viscid in consistency, and has a tendency to solidify on cooling owing to the separation of another crystalline hydrocarbon known as anthracene, and which gives the name of “anthracene oil” to this last fraction. When the latter has been collected there remains in the still the black viscid substance known as pitch, which is obtained of any desired consistency by leaving more or less of the anthracene oil mixed with it, or by afterwards mixing it with the heavy oil from previous distillations. The process carried out in the tar-still thus separates the tar into—(1) First runnings, up to 110° C. (2) Light oil, from 110° to 210° C. (3) Carbolic oil, from 210° to 240° C. (4) Creosote oil, from 240° to 270° C. (5) Anthracene oil, from 270° to pitch. (6) Pitch, left in still.

It has already been said that coal-tar is a complex mixture of various distinct chemical compounds. Included among the gases, ammoniacal liquor, and tar, the compounds which are known to be formed by the destructive distillation of coal already reach to nearly one hundred and fifty in number. Of the substances present in the tar, about a dozen are utilized as raw materials by the manufacturer, and these are contained in the fractions described above. The first runnings and light oil contain a series of important hydrocarbons, of which the three first members are known to chemists as benzene, toluene, and xylene, the latter being present in three different modifications. The carbolic oil furnishes carbolic acid and naphthalene, and the anthracene oil the hydrocarbon which gives its name to that fraction. Here we have only half a dozen distinct chemical compounds to deal with, and if we confine our attention to these for the present, we shall be enabled to gain a good general idea of what chemistry has done with these raw materials. The products separated during the processes which have to be resorted to for the isolation of these raw materials have also their uses, which will be pointed out incidentally.

Beginning with the first runnings and the light oil, from which the hydrocarbons of the benzene series are separated, we have to make ourselves acquainted with the treatment to which these fractions are submitted by the tar-distiller. The light oil is first distilled from an iron still, similar to a tar-still, and the first portions which come over are added to the oily fraction brought over by the water of the first runnings. The separation of the oil from the water in this last fraction is a simple matter, because the hydrocarbons float as a distinct layer on the water, and do not mix with it. We have at this stage, therefore, four products to consider, viz. 1st, the oil from the first runnings; 2nd, the first portions of the light oil; 3rd, the later portions of the light oil; and 4th, the residue in the still. The first and second are mixed together, and the third is washed alternately with alkali and acid to remove acid and basic impurities, and can then be mixed with the first and second products. The total product is then ready for the next operation. The last portion of the light oil which remains in the still is useless as a source of benzene hydrocarbons, and goes into the heavy oil of the later tar fractions.

The process of purification is thus far one of fractional distillation combined with chemical washing. In fact, all the processes of purification to which these oils are submitted are essentially of the same character. The principle of fractional distillation has already been explained sufficiently for our present purpose. The process of washing a liquid may appear mysterious to the uninitiated, but in principle it is extremely simple. If we pour some water into a bottle, and then add some liquid which does not mix with the water—say paraffin oil—the two liquids form distinct layers, the one floating on the other. On shaking the bottle so as to mix the contents, the two liquids form a homogeneous mixture at first, but on standing for a short time separation into two layers again takes place. Now if there was present in the paraffin oil some substance soluble in the oil, but more soluble in water, such as alcohol, we should by the operation described wash the alcohol out of the oil, and when the liquids separated into layers after agitation the watery layer would contain the alcohol. By drawing off the oil or the water the former would then be obtained free from alcohol—it would have been “washed.” This operation is precisely what the manufacturer does on a large scale with the coal-tar oils. These oils contain certain impurities of which some are of an acid character and dissolve in alkalies, while others are basic and dissolve in acid. The oil is therefore agitated in a suitable vessel provided with mechanical stirring gear with an aqueous solution of caustic soda, and after separation into layers the alkaline solution retaining the acid impurities is drawn off. Then the oil may be washed with water in the same way to remove the lingering traces of alkali, and then with acid—sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol—which dissolves out basic impurities and certain hydrocarbons not belonging to the benzene series which it is desirable to get rid of. A final washing with water removes any acid that may be retained by the oil.

The total product containing the benzene hydrocarbons is put through such a series of washing operations as above described, and is then ready for separation into its constituents by another and more perfect process of fractional distillation. This final separation is effected in a piece of apparatus somewhat complicated in structure, but simple in principle. It is a development on a large scale of the apparatus used by Mansfield in his early experiments. The details of construction are not essential to the present treatment of the subject, but it will suffice to say that the vapours of the boiling hydrocarbons ascend through upright columns, in which the compounds of high boiling-point first condense and run back into the still, while the lower boiling-point compounds do not condense in the columns, but pass on into a separate condenser, where they liquefy and are collected. But even with this rectification we do not get a perfect separation—the hydrocarbons are not perfectly pure from a chemical point of view, although they are pure enough for manufacturing purposes. Thus the first fraction consists of benzene containing a small percentage of toluene, then comes over a mixture containing a larger proportion of toluene, then comes a purer toluene mixed with a small percentage of xylene. The boiling-points of the three hydrocarbons are 81° C., 111° C., and 140° C. respectively; but owing to the nature of fractional distillation, a compound of a certain boiling-point always brings over with it a certain quantity of the compound of higher boiling-point, and that is why the rectifying column effects only a partial separation.Of the hydrocarbons thus separated, benzene and toluene are by far the most important; there is but a limited use for the xylenes at present, and these and the hydrocarbons of higher boiling-point belonging to the same series which distil over between 140° and 150° constitute what is known as “solvent naphtha,” because it is used for dissolving india-rubber for waterproofing purposes. The hydrocarbons of still higher boiling-point which remain in the still are used as burning naphtha for lamps. If benzene of a higher degree of purity is required—as it is for the manufacture of certain colouring-matters—the fraction containing this hydrocarbon can be again distilled through the rectifying column, and a large proportion of the toluene thus separated from it. Finally, pure benzene can be obtained by submitting the rectified hydrocarbon to a process of refrigeration in a mixture of ice and salt, when the benzene solidifies to a white crystalline solid, while the toluene does not solidify, and can be drained away from the benzene crystals which liquefy at about 5° C.

The account rendered by the technologist with respect to the light oils of the tar is thus a pretty good one. Already we see that benzene, toluene, solvent naphtha, and burning naphtha are separated from them. Even the alkaline and acid washings may be made to surrender their contained products, for the first of these contains a certain quantity of carbolic acid, and the acid contains a strongly smelling base called pyridine, for which there is at present no great demand, but which may one day become of importance. The actual quantity of benzene in tar is a little over one per cent. by weight, and of toluene there is somewhat less. The naphthas are present to the extent of about 35 per cent.

Now let us consider some of the transformations which benzene and toluene undergo in the hands of the manufacturing chemist. The production of aniline from benzene by acting upon this hydrocarbon with nitric acid, and then reducing the nitrobenzene, has already been referred to. For this purpose we now heat the nitrobenzene with iron dust and a little hydrochloric (muriatic) acid, and then distil over the aniline by means of a current of steam blown through the still. By a similar process toluene is converted into nitrotoluene, and the latter into toluidine.

The large quantity of aniline and toluidine now made has opened up a channel for the use of the waste borings from cast-iron. These are ground to a fine powder under heavy mill-stones, and constitute a most valuable reducing agent, known technically as “iron swarf.” The metallic iron introduced in this form into the aniline still is converted into an oxide of iron by the action of the nitrobenzene, and this oxide of iron is used by the gas-maker for purifying the gas from sulphur as already described. When the oxide of iron is exhausted, i.e. when it has taken up as much sulphur as it can, it goes to the vitriol-maker to be burnt as a source of this acid. Here we have a waste product of the aniline manufacture utilized for the purification of coal-gas, and finally being made to give up the sulphur, which it obtained primarily from the coal, for the production of sulphuric acid, which is consumed in nearly every branch of chemical industry.

Nitrotoluene and toluidine each exist in three distinct modifications, so that it is more correct to speak of the nitrotoluenes and the toluidines; but the explanation of these differences belongs to pure chemical theory, and cannot now be attempted in detail. It must suffice to say that many compounds having the same chemical composition differ in their properties, and are said to be “isomeric,” the isomerism being regarded as the result of the different order of arrangement of the atoms within the molecule.

Consider a homely illustration. A child’s box of bricks contains a certain number of wooden blocks, by means of which different structures can be built up. Supposing all the bricks to be employed for every structure erected, the latter must in every case contain all the blocks, and yet the result is different, because in each structure the blocks are arranged in a different way. The bricks represent atoms, and the whole structure represents a molecule; the structures all have the same ultimate composition, and are therefore isomeric. This will serve as a rough analogy, only it must not be understood that the different atoms of the elements composing a molecule are of different sizes and shapes; on this point we are as yet profoundly ignorant.

Now as long ago as 1856, at the time when Perkin began making mauve by oxidizing aniline with bichromate of potash, it was observed by Natanson, that when aniline was heated with a certain oxidizing agent a red colouring-matter was produced. The same fact was observed in 1858 by Hofmann, who used the tetrachloride of carbon as an oxidizing agent. These chemists obtained the red colouring-matter as a by-product; it was formed only in small quantity, and was regarded as an impurity. In the same year, 1858, two French manufacturers patented the production of a red dye formed by the action of chromic acid and other oxidizing agents on aniline, the colouring matter thus made being used for dying artificial flowers. Then, a year later, the French chemist Verguin found that the best oxidizing agent was the tetrachloride of tin, and this with many other oxidizing substances was patented by Renard FrÈres and Franc, and under their patent the manufacture of the aniline red was commenced on a small scale in France. Finally, in 1860, an oxidizing agent was made use of almost simultaneously by two English chemists, Medlock and Nicholson, which gave a far better yield of the red than any of the other materials previously in use, and put the manufacture of the colouring-matter on quite a new basis. The oxidizing material patented by Medlock and Nicholson is arsenic acid, and their process is carried on at the present time on an enormous scale in all the chief colour factories in Europe, the colouring-matter produced by this means being generally known as fuchsine or magenta.

In four years the accidental observation of Natanson and Hofmann, made, be it remembered, in the course of abstract scientific investigation, had thus developed into an important branch of manufacture. A demand for aniline on an increased scale sprung up, and the light oils of coal-tar became of still greater importance. The operations of the tar-distiller had to undergo a corresponding increase in magnitude and refinement; the production of nitrobenzene and necessarily of nitric acid had to be increased, and a new branch of manufacture, that of arsenic acid from arsenious acid and nitric acid, was called into existence. Perkin’s mauve prepared the way for the manufacture of aniline, and the discovery of a good process for the production of magenta increased this branch of manufacture to a remarkable extent. Still later in the history of the magenta manufacture, attempts were made, with more or less success, to use nitrobenzene itself as an oxidizing agent, and a process was perfected in 1869 by Coupier, which is now in use in many factories.

The introduction of magenta into commerce marks an epoch in the history of the coal-tar colour industry—pure chemistry and chemical technology both profited by the discovery. The brilliant red of this colouring-matter is objected to by modern Æstheticism, but the dye is still made in large quantities, its value having been greatly increased by a discovery made about the same time by John Holliday and the Baden Aniline and Soda Company, and patented by the latter in 1877. Magenta is the salt of a base now known as rosaniline, and it belongs therefore to the class of basic colouring-matters. The dyes of this kind are as a group less fast, and have a more limited application than those colouring-matters which possess an acid character, so that the discovery above referred to—that magenta could be converted into an acid without destroying its colouring power by acting upon it with very strong sulphuric acid—opened up a new field for the employment of the dye, and greatly extended its usefulness. In this form the colouring-matter is met with under the name of “acid magenta.”

It must be understood that the production of magenta from aniline by the oxidizing action of arsenic acid or nitrobenzene is the result of chemical change; the colouring-matter is no more present in the aniline than the latter is contained in the benzene. And just in the same way that the colourless aniline oil by chemical transformation gives rise to the intensely colorific magenta, so the latter by further chemical change can be made to give rise to whole series of different colouring-matters, each consisting of definite chemical compounds as distinct in individuality as magenta itself. Thus in 1860, about the time when the arsenic acid process was inaugurated, two French chemists, Messrs. Girard and De Laire, observed that by heating rosaniline for some time with aniline and an aniline salt, blue and violet colouring-matters were produced. This observation formed the starting-point of a new manufacture proceeding from magenta as a raw material. The production of the new colouring-matters was perfected by various investigators, and a magnificent blue was the final result. But here also the dye was of a basic character, and being insoluble in water had only a limited application, as a spirit bath had to be used for dissolving the substance. In 1862, however, an English technologist, the late E. C. Nicholson, found that by the action of strong sulphuric acid the aniline blue could be rendered soluble in water or alkali, and the value of the colouring-matter was enormously increased by this discovery. The basic and slightly soluble spirit blue was by this means converted into acid blues, which are now made in large quantities, and sold under the names of Nicholson’s blue, alkali blue, soluble blue, and other trade designations. There is at the present time hardly any other blue which for fastness, facility of dyeing, and beauty can compete with this colouring-matter introduced by Nicholson as the outcome of the work of Girard and De Laire.

Other transformations of rosaniline have yet to be chronicled. In 1862 Hofmann found that by acting upon this base—the base of magenta—with the iodide of methyl, violet colouring-matters were produced, and these were for some years extensively employed under the name of Hofmann’s violets. And still more remarkable, by the prolonged action of an excess of methyl iodide upon rosaniline, Keisser found that a green colouring-matter was formed. The latter was patented in 1866, and the dye was for some time in use under the name of “iodine green.” The statement that technology profited by the introduction of magenta has therefore been justified.

It remains to add, that the tar obtained from one ton of Lancashire coal furnishes an amount of aniline capable of giving a little over half a pound of magenta. The colouring power of the latter will be inferred from the fact, that this quantity would dye 375 square yards of white flannel of a full red colour, and if converted into Hofmann violet by methylation, would give enough colour to dye double this surface of flannel of a deep violet shade. It should be stated also, that during the formation of magenta by the arsenic acid process, there are formed small quantities of other colouring-matters which are utilized by the manufacturer. Among these by-products is a basic orange dye, which was isolated by Nicholson, and investigated by Hofmann in 1862. Under the name of “phosphine” this colouring-matter is still used, especially for the dyeing of leather. Even the spent arsenic acid of the magenta-still has its use. The arsenious acid resulting from the reduction of this arsenic acid is generally obtained in the form of a lime salt after the removal of the magenta by the purifying processes to which the crude product is submitted. From the arsenical waste arsenious acid can be recovered, and converted back into arsenic acid by the action of nitric acid. Quite recently the arsenical residue has been used with considerable success in America as an insecticide for the destruction of pests injurious to agricultural crops.

Concurrently with these technical developments of coal-tar products, the scientific chemist was carrying on his investigations. The compounds which science had given to commerce were made on a scale that enabled the investigator to obtain his materials in quantities that appeared fabulous in the early days when aniline was regarded as a laboratory curiosity, and magenta had been seen by only a few chemists.

The fundamental problem which the modern chemist seeks to solve is in the first place the composition of a compound, i.e. the number of the atoms of the different elements which form the molecule, and in the next place the way in which these atoms are combined in the molecule. Reverting to our former analogy, the first thing to be found is how many different blocks enter into the composition of the structure, and the next thing is to ascertain how the blocks are arranged. When this is done, we are said to know the “constitution” or “structure” of the molecule, and in many cases when this is known we can build up or synthesise the compound by combining its different groups of atoms by suitable methods. The coal-tar industry abounds with such triumphs of chemical synthesis; a few of these achievements will be brought to light in the course of the remaining portions of this work.

The chemical investigation of magenta was commenced by Hofmann, whose name is inseparably connected with the scientific development of the coal-tar colour industry. In 1862 he showed that magenta was the salt of a base which he isolated, analysed, and named rosaniline. He established the composition of this base and of the violet and blue colouring-matters obtained from it by the processes already described. In 1864 he made the interesting discovery that magenta is not formed by the oxidation of pure aniline, but that a mixture of aniline and toluidine is essential for the production of this colouring-matter. In fact, the aniline oil used by the manufacturer had from the beginning consisted of a mixture of aniline and toluidine, and at the present time “aniline for red” is made by nitrating a mixture of benzene and toluene and reducing the nitro-compounds.

From this work of Hofmann’s suggestions naturally arose concerning the “constitution” of rosaniline, and new and fruitful lines of work were opened up. Large numbers of chemists of the greatest eminence pursued the inquiry, but the details of their work, although of absorbing interest to the chemist, cannot be discussed in the present volume. The final touch to a long series of investigations was given by two German chemists, Emil and Otto Fischer, who in 1878 proved the constitution of rosaniline by obtaining from it a hydrocarbon, the parent hydrocarbon from which the colouring-matter is derived. The purely scientific discovery of the Fischers threw a flood of light on the chemistry of magenta, and enabled a large number of colouring-matters related to the latter to be classed under one group, having the parent hydrocarbon as a central type. This hydrocarbon, it may be remarked, is known as triphenylmethane, as it is a derivative of methane, or marsh gas. The blues and violets obtained from rosaniline belong to this group, and so also do certain other colouring-matters which had been manufactured before the Fischers’ discovery. In order to carry on the story of the utilisation of aniline, it is necessary to know something about these other colouring-matters which are obtained from it.

It has been explained that by the methylation of rosaniline Hofmann obtained violet colouring-matters. Now as rosaniline is obtained by the oxidation of a mixture of aniline and toluidine, it seems but natural that if these bases were methylated first and then oxidized a violet dye would be produced. The French chemist Lauth first obtained a violet colouring-matter by this method in 1861. In 1866 this violet dye was manufactured in France by Poirrier, and it is still made in large quantities, being known under the name of “methyl violet.” This colouring-matter, and a bluer derivative of it discovered in 1868, gradually displaced the Hofmann violets, chiefly owing to their greater cheapness of production. We are thus introduced to methylated aniline as a source of colouring-matters, and as the compound in question has many different uses in the coal-tar industry, a few words must be devoted to its technology.

Aniline, toluidine, and similar bases can be methylated by the action of methyl iodide, but the cost of iodine is too great to enable this process to be used by the manufacturer. Methyl chloride, however, answers equally well, and this compound, which is a liquid of very low boiling point (-23° C.), is prepared on a large scale from the waste material of another industry, viz. the beet-sugar manufacture. It is interesting to see how distinct industries by chemical skill are made to act and react upon one another. Thus the cultivation of the beet, as already explained, is largely dependent on the supply of ammonia from gas-liquor. During the refining of the beet-sugar, a large quantity of uncrystallisable treacle is separated, and this is fermented for the manufacture of alcohol. When the latter is distilled off there remains a spent liquor containing among other things potassium salts and nitrogenous compounds. This waste liquor, called “vinasse,” is evaporated down and ignited in order to recover the potash, and during the ignition, ammonia, tar, gas, and other volatile products are given off. Among the volatile products is a base called trimethylamine, which is a derivative of ammonia; the salt formed by combining trimethylamine with hydrochloric acid when heated gives off methyl chloride as a gas which can be condensed by pressure.

Here we have a very pretty cycle of chemical transmigration. The nitrogen of the coal plants, stored up in the earth for ages, is restored in the form of ammonia to the crops of growing beet; the nitrogen is made to enter into the composition of the latter plant by the chemico-physiological process going on, and the nitrogenous compounds removed from the plant and heated to the point of decomposition in presence of the potash (which also entered into the composition of the plant), give back their nitrogen partly in the form of a base from which methyl chloride can be obtained. The latter is then made to methylate a product, aniline, derived indirectly from coal-tar. The utilisation of the “vinasse” for this purpose was made known by Camille Vincent of Paris in 1878.

The methylation of aniline can obviously be carried out by the foregoing process only when beet-sugar residues are available. There is another method which is more generally used, and which is interesting as bringing in a distinct branch of industry. The same result can, in fact, be arrived at by heating dry aniline hydrochloride, i.e. the hydrochloric acid salt of aniline, with methyl alcohol or wood-spirit in strong metallic boilers under great pressure. This is the process carried on in most factories, and it involves the use of pure methyl alcohol, a branch of manufacture which has been called into existence to meet the requirements of the coal-tar colour maker.[4] This alcohol or wood-spirit is obtained by the destructive distillation of wood, and is purified by a series of operations which do not at present concern us. It must be mentioned that the product of the methylation of aniline, which it is the object of the manufacturer to obtain, is an oily liquid called dimethylaniline, which, by virtue of the chemical transformation, is quite different in its properties to the aniline from which it is derived. By a similar operation, using ethyl alcohol, or spirit of wine, diethylaniline can be obtained, and by heating dry aniline hydrochloride with aniline under similar conditions a crystalline base called diphenylamine is also prepared.

Now these products—dimethylaniline, diethylaniline, and diphenylamine—are derived from aniline, and they are all sources of colouring-matters. Methyl-violet is obtained by the oxidation of dimethylaniline by means of a gentle oxidizer; a mixture of bases is not necessary as in the case of the magenta formation. Then in 1866 diphenylamine was shown by Girard and De Laire to be capable of yielding a fine blue by heating it with oxalic acid, and this blue, on account of the purity of its shade, is still an article of commerce. It can be made soluble by the action of sulphuric acid in just the same way as the other aniline blue. Furthermore, by acting with excess of methyl chloride on methyl violet, a brilliant green colouring-matter was manufactured in 1878, which was obviously analogous to the iodine green already mentioned, and which for some years held its own as the only good coal-tar green. These are the dyes—methyl violet and green, and diphenylamine blue—which were in commerce before the discovery of the Fischers, and which this discovery enabled chemists to class with magenta, aniline blue, and Hofmann violet in the triphenylmethane group.

Later developments bring us into contact with other dyes of the same class, and with the industrial evolution of the purely scientific idea concerning the constitution of the colouring-matters of this group. Benzene and toluene again form the points of departure. By the action of chlorine upon the vapour of boiling toluene there are obtained, according to the extent of the action of the chlorine, three liquids of use to the colour manufacturer. The first of these is benzyl chloride, the second benzal chloride, and the third benzotrichloride or phenyl chloroform. Benzyl chloride, it may be remarked in passing, plays the same part in organic chemistry as methyl chloride, and enables certain compounds to be benzylated, just in the same way that they can be methylated. The bluer shade of methyl violet, introduced in 1868, and still manufactured, is a benzylated derivative. By the action of benzotrichloride on dimethylaniline in the presence of dry zinc chloride, Oscar Doebner obtained in 1878 a brilliant green colouring-matter which was manufactured under the name of “malachite green.” It will be remembered that this was about the time when the Fischers were engaged with their investigations. These last chemists, by virtue of their scientific results, were enabled to show that Doebner’s green was a member of the triphenylmethane group, and they prepared the same compound by another method which has enabled the manufacturer to dispense with the use of the somewhat expensive and disagreeable benzotrichloride. The Fischers’ method consists in heating dimethylaniline with bitter-almond oil and oxidizing the product thus formed, when the green colouring-matter is at once produced. This method brings the technologist into competition with Nature, and we shall see the result.

Benzoic aldehyde or bitter-almond oil is one of the oldest known products of the vegetable kingdom, and has from time to time been made the subject of investigation by chemists since the beginning of the century. It arises from the fermentation of a nitrogenous compound found in the almond, and known as amygdalin, the nature of the fermentative change undergone by this substance having been brought to light by WÖhler and Liebig. The discovery of a green dye, requiring for its preparation a vegetable product which was very costly, compelled the manufacturer to seek another source of the oil. Pure chemistry again steps in, and solves the problem. In 1863 it was known to Cahours that benzal chloride, on being heated with water or alkali, gave benzoic aldehyde, and in 1867 Lauth and Grimaux showed that the same compound could be formed by oxidizing benzyl chloride in the presence of water. It was but a step from the laboratory into the factory in this case, and at the present time the aldehyde is made on a large scale by chlorinating boiling toluene beyond the stage of benzyl chloride, and heating the mixture of benzal chloride and benzotrichloride with lime and water under pressure. By this means the first compound is transformed into benzoic aldehyde, and the second into benzoic acid. This last substance is also required by the colour-maker, as it is used in the manufacture of blue by the action of aniline on rosaniline; without some such organic acid the transformation of rosaniline into the blue is very imperfect.

Benzoic acid, like the aldehyde, is a natural product which has long been known. It was obtained from gum benzoÏn at the beginning of the seventeenth century, and its preparation from this source was described by Scheele in 1755. The same chemist afterwards found it in urine, and from these two sources, the one vegetable and the other animal, the acid was formerly prepared. Its relationship to benzene has already been alluded to in connection with the history of that hydrocarbon. It will be remembered that by heating this acid with lime Mitscherlich obtained benzene in 1834. In one operation, therefore, setting out from toluene, we make these two natural products, the aldehyde and acid, which are easily separable by technical processes. The wants of the technologist have been met, and he has been enabled to compete successfully with Nature, for he can manufacture these products much more cheaply than when he had to depend upon bitter almonds or gum benzoÏn. The synthetical bitter-almond oil is chemically identical with that from the plant. Besides its use for the manufacture of colouring-matters, it is employed for flavouring purposes and in perfumery, this being the first instance of a coal-tar perfume which we have had occasion to mention. The odour in this case, it must be remembered, is that of the actual compound which imparts the characteristic taste and smell to the almond; it is not the result of substituting a substance which has a particular odour for another having a similar odour, as is the case with nitrobenzene, which, as already mentioned, is used in large quantities under the name of “essence of mirbane,” for imparting an almond-like smell to soap.

The introduction of malachite green marks another epoch in the history of the technology of the triphenylmethane colours. The action between benzoic aldehyde and other bases analogous to dimethylaniline was found to be quite general, and the principle was extended to diethylaniline and similarly constituted bases. Various green dyes—some of them acids formed by the action of sulphuric acid on the colour base—are now manufactured, and many other colouring-matters of the same group are synthesised by the benzoic aldehyde process.

One other development of this branch of manufacture has yet to be recorded. The new departure was made in 1883 by Caro and Kern, who patented a process for the synthesis of colouring-matters of this group. In this synthesis a gas called phosgene is used, the said gas having been discovered by John Davy in 1811, who gave it its name because it is formed by the direct union of chlorine and carbon monoxide under the influence of sunlight. Caro and Kern’s process is the first technical application of Davy’s compound. By the action of phosgene on dimethylaniline and analogous bases in the presence of certain compounds which promote the chemical interaction, a number of basic colouring-matters of brilliant shades of violet (“crystal violet”) and blue (“Victoria blue,” “night blue”) are produced, these being all members of the triphenylmethane group. One of these dyes is a fine basic yellow known as “auramine,” which is a derivative of diphenylmethane.

From benzene and toluene alone about forty distinct colouring-matters of the rosaniline group are sent into commerce. The relationship of those compounds to each other and to their generating substances is not easy to grasp by those to whom the facts are presented for the first time. The scheme on page 107 shows these relationships at a glance.

The colouring-matters derived from these two hydrocarbons are far from being exhausted. During the oxidation of aniline for the production of mauve—which colouring-matter, it may be mentioned, is no longer made—a red compound is formed as a by-product. This was isolated by Perkin in 1861, and studied scientifically by Hofmann and Geyger, who established its composition in 1872, the dye being at that time manufactured under the name of “saffranine.” It appears to have been first introduced about 1868. The conditions of formation of this dye were at first imperfectly understood, but the problem was attacked by chemists and technologists, and the first point of importance resulting from their work was that saffranine was derived from one of the toluidines present in the commercial aniline. To record the various steps in this chapter of industrial chemistry would take us beyond the scope of the present work. In addition to the chemists named, Caro, Bindschedler, and others contributed to the technology, while the scientific side of the matter was first taken up by Nietzki in 1877, by Otto Witt in 1878, and by Bernthsen in 1886. It is to the work of these chemists, and especially to that of Witt, that we owe our present knowledge of the constitution of this and allied colouring-matters. Space will not admit of our traversing the ground, although to chemists it is a line of investigation full of interest; it will be sufficient to say that by 1886 these investigators had accomplished for these colouring-matters what the Fischers had done for the rosaniline group—they established their constitution, and showed that they were derivatives of diphenylamine, containing two nitrogen atoms joined together in a particular way. The parent-substance from which these compounds are derived is known at the present time as “azine” (French, azote = nitrogen), and the dyes belong accordingly to the azine group. The first coal-tar colouring-matter, Perkin’s mauve, is a member of this class.

The azine dyes are basic, and mostly of a red or pink shade; they are somewhat fugitive when exposed to light, but possess a certain value on account of their affinity for cotton, and the readiness with which they can be used in admixture with other colouring-matters. Some of the best known are made by oxidizing certain derivatives of aniline or toluidine, in the presence of these or analogous bases. To make this intelligible a little more chemistry is necessary. Aniline is a derivative of benzene in which one atom of hydrogen is replaced by the residue of ammonia. Ammonia is composed of one atom of nitrogen and three atoms of hydrogen; benzene is composed of six atoms of carbon and six of hydrogen. If one atom of hydrogen is supposed to be withdrawn from ammonia, there remains a residue called the amido-group, and if we imagine this group to be substituted for one of the hydrogen atoms in benzene, we have an amido-derivative, i.e. amidobenzene or aniline. Similarly, the toluidines are amidotoluenes. If two hydrogen atoms in benzene or toluene are replaced by two amido-groups, we have diamidobenzenes and diamidotoluenes, which are strongly basic substances, capable of existing in several isomeric modifications. Certain of these diamido-compounds when oxidized in the presence of a further quantity of aniline, toluidine, and such amido-compounds, give rise to unstable blue products, which readily become transformed into red dyes of the azine group.

Some azine dyes are produced by another method, which is instructive because it brings us into contact with a derivative of dimethylaniline which figures largely in the coal-tar colour industry. By the action of nitrous acid on this base, there is produced a compound known as nitrosodimethylaniline, which was discovered by Baeyer and Caro in 1874, and which contains the residue of nitrous acid in place of one atom of hydrogen. The residue of nitric acid which replaces hydrogen in benzene is the nitro-group, and the compound is nitrobenzene. The analogy with nitrous acid will therefore be sufficiently understood—the residue of this acid is the nitroso-group, and compounds containing this group are nitroso-derivatives. In 1879, Otto Witt found that the nitroso-group in nitrosodimethylaniline acted as an oxidizing group, and enabled this compound to act upon certain diamido-derivatives of benzene and toluene, with the formation of unstable blue compounds, which on heating the solution changed into red colouring-matters of the azine group. This process soon bore fruit industrially, and azines of a red, violet, and blue shade were introduced under the names of neutral red, violet, and blue, Basle blue, &c., some of these surviving at the present time.

We have now to turn to another chapter in the history of dimethylaniline. In 1876, Lauth discovered a new colour test for one of the diamidobenzenes. By heating this base with sulphur, and oxidizing the product, a violet colouring-matter was formed, and the same compound was produced by oxidizing the base in an aqueous solution in the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen. Lauth’s violet was never manufactured in quantity because the yield is small; but in the hands of Dr. Caro the work of Lauth bore fruit in another direction. Instead of using the diamidobenzene, Caro used its dimethyl-derivative, and by this means obtained a splendid blue dye, which was introduced under the name of “methylene blue.” Here again we find scientific research reacting on technology. A few words of chemical explanation will make this manufacture intelligible. By the action of reducing agents on nitro and nitroso-compounds, the nitro and nitroso-group become converted into the amido-group. Thus when nitrobenzene is reduced by iron and an acid we get aniline; similarly when nitrosodimethylaniline is reduced by zinc and an acid we get amidodimethylaniline, and this is the base used in the preparation of methylene blue. By oxidizing this base in the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen, the colouring-matter is formed. Other methods of arriving at the same result were discovered and patented in due course, but the various processes cannot be discussed here.

Lauth’s violet and methylene blue became the subjects of scientific investigation in 1879 by Koch, and in 1883 a series of brilliant researches were commenced by Bernthsen which extended over several years, and which established the constitution of these compounds. It was shown that they are derivatives of diphenylamine containing sulphur as an essential constituent. The parent-compound is diphenylamine in which sulphur replaces hydrogen, and is therefore known as thiodiphenylamine. It can be prepared by heating diphenylamine with sulphur, and is sometimes called thiazine, because it is somewhat analogous in type to azine. We must therefore credit dimethylaniline with being the industrial generator of the thiazines. The blue is largely used for cotton dyeing, producing on this fibre when properly mordanted an indigo shade. By the action of nitrous acid the blue is converted into a green known as “methylene green.”

Although the scope of this work admits of our dealing with only a few of the more important groups of colouring-matters, it will already be evident that the chemist has turned benzene and toluene to good account. But great as is the demand for these hydrocarbons for the foregoing purposes, there are other branches of the coal-tar industry which are dependent upon them. It will serve as an answer to those who are continually raising the cry of brilliancy as an offence to Æsthetic taste if we consider in the next place a most valuable and important black obtained from aniline. All chemists who studied the action of oxidizing agents, such as chromic acid, on aniline, from Runge in 1834 to Perkin in 1856, observed the formation of greenish or bluish-black compounds. After many attempts to utilize these as colouring-matters, success was achieved by John Lightfoot of Accrington near Manchester in 1863. By using as an oxidizing agent a mixture of potassium chlorate and a copper salt, Lightfoot devised a method for printing and dyeing cotton fabrics, the use of which spread rapidly and created an increased demand for the hydrochloride of aniline, this salt being now manufactured in enormous quantities under the technical designation of “aniline salt.” Lightfoot’s process was improved for printing purposes by Lauth in 1864, and many different oxidizing mixtures have been subsequently introduced, notably the salts of vanadium, which are far more effective than the salts of copper, and which were first employed by Lightfoot in 1872. In 1875-76 Coquillion and GoppelsrÖder showed that aniline black is produced when an electric current is made to decompose a solution of an aniline salt, the oxidizing agent here being the nascent oxygen resulting from the electrolysis. In these days when the generation of electricity is so economically effected, this process may become more generally used, and the coal-tar industry may thus be brought into relationship with another branch of applied science. Aniline black is seldom used as a direct colouring-matter; it is generally produced in the fibre by printing on the mixture of aniline salt and oxidizing compounds thickened with starch, &c., and then allowing the oxidation to take place spontaneously in a moist and slightly heated atmosphere. By a similar process, using a dye-bath containing the aniline salt and oxidizing mixture, cotton fibre is easily dyed. The black cannot be used for silk or wool, as the oxidizing materials attack these fibres, but for cotton dyeing and calico printing this colouring-matter has come seriously into competition with the black dyes obtained from logwood and madder. The use of aniline for this purpose, first rendered practicable by Lightfoot, is among the most important of the many wonderful applications of coal-tar products in the tinctorial industry.

The year 1863 witnessed the introduction of the first of a new series of colouring-matters which have had an enormous influence both on the art of the dyer as well as in the utilization of tar-products which were formerly of but little value. We can consider the history of some of these colours now, because the earliest of them was produced from aniline. The formation of a yellow compound when nitrous acid acts upon aniline was observed by several chemists prior to the date mentioned. In 1863 the firm of Simpson, Maule and Nicholson manufactured a yellow dye by passing nitrous gas into a solution of aniline in alcohol, and this had a limited application under the name of “aniline yellow.” Soon afterwards, viz. in 1866, the firm of Roberts, Dale & Co. of Manchester introduced a brown dye under the name of “Manchester brown”—this compound, which was discovered by Dr. Martius in 1865, having been produced by the action of nitrous acid on one of the diamidobenzenes. Ten years later Caro and Witt discovered an orange colouring-matter belonging to the same class, and the latter introduced the compound into commerce as “chrysoÏdine.” These three compounds are basic, and the first of them is no longer used as a direct dye because it is fugitive. ChrysoÏdine is still used to a large extent, and the brown—now known as “Bismarck brown”—is one of the staple products of the colour manufacturer at the present time. From this fragment of technological history let us now turn to chemical science.

The chemist whose name will always be associated with the compounds of this group is the late Dr. Peter Griess of Burton-on-Trent. He commenced his study of the action of nitrous acid on organic bases in 1858, and from that time till the period of his death in 1888, he was constantly contributing to our knowledge of the resulting compounds. In 1866, he and Dr. Martius established the composition of aniline yellow, and the following year Caro and Griess did the same thing for the Manchester brown. In 1877 Hofmann and Witt established the constitution of chrysoÏdine, the final outcome of all this work being to show that the three colouring-matters belonged to the same group. The further development of these discoveries has been one of the most prolific sources of new colouring-matters. A brief summary of our present position with respect to this group must now be attempted.

When nitrous acid acts upon an amido-derivative of a benzenoid hydrocarbon in the presence of a mineral acid, there is formed a compound in which the amido-group is replaced by a pair of nitrogen atoms joined together in a certain way, which is different to the mode of combination in the azines. This pair of nitrogen atoms is combined on the one hand with the hydrocarbon residue, and on the other with the residue of the mineral acid. The resulting compound is very unstable; its solution decomposes very readily, and generally has to be kept cool by ice. Freezing machines turning out large quantities of ice are kept constantly at work in factories where these produces are made. The latter are known as “diazo-compounds”—Griess’s compounds par excellence—and they are prepared on a large scale by dissolving a salt of the amido-base, generally the hydrochloride, in water with ice, and adding sodium nitrite. The result is a diazo-salt; aniline, for example, giving diazobenzene chloride, and toluidine diazotoluene chloride. Similarly all amido-derivatives of a benzenoid character can be “diazotised.” The importance of this discovery will be seen more fully in the next chapter. At present we are more especially concerned with aniline.

The extreme instability of the diazo-salts enables them to combine with the greatest ease with amido-derivatives and with other compounds. The very property which in the early days rendered their investigation so difficult, and which taxed the ingenuity of chemists to the utmost, has now placed these compounds in the front rank as colour generators. When a diazo-salt acts on an amido-derivative there is formed a compound which is more or less unstable, but which readily undergoes transformation under suitable conditions into a stable substance in which two hydrocarbon residues are joined together by the pair of nitrogen atoms. These products are dye-stuffs, known as “azo-colours,” and aniline yellow, Bismarck brown, and chrysoÏdine are the oldest known technical compounds belonging to the group. The parent substance is “azobenzene,” and these three colouring-matters are mono-, di- and triamido-azobenzene respectively.

A new phase in the technology of tar-products was entered upon when Witt caused a diazo-salt to act upon diamidobenzene. This was the first industrial application of Griess’s discovery. Azobenzene, which was discovered by Mitscherlich in 1834, and azotoluene are now manufactured by reducing nitrobenzene and nitrotoluene with mild reducing agents. These parent compounds are not in themselves colouring-matters, but they are transformed into bases which give rise to a splendid series of azo-dyes, as will be described subsequently. Let it be recorded here that these two compounds are to be added to the list of valuable products obtained from benzene and toluene. And it must also be remembered that the introduction of these azo-colours has necessitated the manufacture on a large scale of sodium nitrite as a source of nitrous acid. Without entering into unnecessary detail it may be stated broadly that this salt is made by fusing Chili saltpetre, which is the nitrate of sodium, with metallic lead, litharge or oxide of lead being obtained as a secondary product. Then again, the manufacture of Bismarck brown requires dinitrobenzene, this being made by the nitration of benzene beyond the stage of nitrobenzene. The brown is made by reducing the dinitrobenzene to diamidobenzene, and then treating a solution of the latter with sodium nitrite and an acid. The azo-colour is formed at once, and no special refrigeration is required in this particular case.

It has already been stated that the old aniline yellow of 1863 is no longer used on account of its fugitive character. In 1878 GrÄssler found that by the action of very strong sulphuric acid this azo-compound could be converted into a sulpho-acid in just the same way that magenta can be converted into acid magenta. Under the name of “acid yellow” this sulpho-acid is now used, not only as a direct yellow colouring-matter, but as a starting-point in the manufacture of other azo-dyes. The use of acid yellow for this last purpose will be dealt with again in the next chapter.

There is one other use for aniline yellow which dates from the year of its discovery, when Dale and Caro found that by adding sodium nitrite to aniline hydrochloride and heating the mixture, a blue colouring-matter is produced. The latter was introduced in 1864 under the name of “induline.” It was shown subsequently by the scientific researches of several chemists that the blue produced by Dale and Caro’s method results from the action of the aniline salt on the aniline yellow, which is formed by the action of the nitrous acid on the aniline and aniline salt. This explanation was proved to be correct in 1872 by Hofmann and Geyger, who prepared the colouring-matter by heating aniline yellow and aniline salt with alcohol as a solvent. These chemists established the composition and gave it the name of “azodiphenyl blue.” Later, viz. in 1883, the manufacture was improved by Otto Witt and E. Thomas, and the dye, under the old name of “induline,” is now largely manufactured by first preparing aniline yellow and then heating this with aniline and aniline salt. The colouring-matter as formed by this method is basic and insoluble in water; it is made acid and soluble by treatment with sulphuric acid, which converts it into a sulpho-acid. Induline belongs to the sober-tinted colours, and produces a shade somewhat resembling indigo. Closely related thereto is a bluish-grey called “nigrosine,” obtained by heating nitrobenzene with aniline, as well as a certain bluish by-product obtained during the formation of magenta, and known as “violaniline.”

It will be convenient here to pause and reflect upon the great industrial importance of the two coal-tar hydrocarbons upon which we have thus far concentrated our attention. Their uses are by no means exhausted as yet, but they have already been made to account for such a number of valuable products that the reader may find it useful to have the results presented in a collected form. This is given below as a chronological summary—