  In the first chapter we have traced the evolution of the formal element in music, the element through which it gradually attained coherence. We have seen that this element is an expression of that common sense which rules in all things; that the various expedients adopted in music as means of keeping the central idea before the listener, and, at the same time, providing him with sufficient variety to retain his interest, are dictated by that sense of fitness that operates everywhere in life. And these simple formal principles, so conceived, will be found to underlie the larger musical forms that will engage our attention in succeeding chapters. Let us always keep in mind that, while the psychological effect of music remains a considerable mystery, and the appreciation of great music must be a personal and individual act involving a certain receptivity and sensitiveness to musical impressions, yet the perception of the logic or sense in a piece of music is a long step towards understanding it, and one of the best means of cultivating that receptivity and sensitiveness. Folk-songs have been described by an eminent writer I. FOLK-SONGS AND ART SONGS.In order to distinguish between Folk-songs and songs like those of Schubert and Schumann, musicians call the latter "Art" songs. The folk-song is a naÏve product, springing almost unconsciously from the hearts of simple people, and not intended to convey any such definite expression of the meaning of the words as is conveyed in modern songs. While there are specimens A further distinguishing characteristic of the folk-song is that it is often composed in one of the old ecclesiastical "modes." These modes were old forms of the scale that existed before our modern harmonic system came into use. The following English folk-song, called "Salisbury Plain," is in the "Aeolian" mode. FIGURE IV. This song is written in the scale represented by the white keys of a pianoforte beginning on A, and the peculiarly quaint effect of it is due to the unusual intervals of that scale as compared with our common scale forms. There are various modes Folk-songs occupied a much more important place in the lives of the people who used them than is commonly supposed. When we consider that at the time the earliest of them were written few people could read or write, that books were printed in Latin, and that there were no newspapers, railways, or telegraphs, we can understand how large a part these old songs played in the scheme of life. The strolling singer was the newspaper of the time. Furthermore, the general illiteracy of the people made of the folk-song a natural vent for their feelings. With a limited vocabulary at their disposal, it was natural that they should use the song as a medium of expression for their joys and sorrows. Gesture was also part of their language, and in a modified way, as a means of expression, may be said to have performed something of the function of song. Many of the oldest melodies existed as an adjunct to dancing and religious ceremonials, and were, therefore, to some extent utilitarian. But so intimate was their relation to the ideas and feelings of the people who used them that, in spite of the crudeness and simplicity of the medium employed, the songs of the various nations are entirely distinct from each other, and to a remarkable degree express the characteristics of the people who produced them. The songs used with this chapter are chosen chiefly to illustrate the various methods (already described) of attaining variety and unity in music. If little space is devoted here to other considerations, the reader must bear in mind that our purpose is to lead him finally to as complete an appreciation as possible of the masterpieces of instrumental II. AN ENGLISH FOLK-SONG.In Figure V is shown the old English song "Polly Oliver." FIGURE V. This is a traditional song handed down without any record of its origin, from generation to generation. Its unknown composer has managed very deftly to make it hang together. A good deal is made, in particular, of the characteristic little motive of three notes which first occurs at the beginning of the third measure. This song presents a further element of form by means of which much variety is imparted to music. III. KEY AND MODULATION.It will be noticed that the first phrase of "Polly Oliver" (measures 1-5) moves about the tone E-flat and ends upon it with the effect of coming to rest, and that the second phrase (measures 5-9) similarly moves about and comes to rest on the tone B-flat. The last phrase (13-17), like the first, moves about E-flat. This moving about a certain tone, which is, so to speak, the center of gravity of the whole phrase, is called by musicians "being in the key of" that tone; and when the center of gravity changes, musicians say that the piece "modulates" from one key to another. Thus, this first phrase is in the key of E-flat, the second modulates to the key of B-flat, and the song later modulates back again to the key of E-flat. Here we have another very important principle in modern music, the principle A further element of form is found in "Polly Oliver," namely, the balance of phrases. This balance of phrases one against another is derived ultimately from the timed motions of the body in dancing, or from the meter of the four line verse to which the music was sung. And this balance of phrases, derived from these elemental sources, still dominates in the melodies of the great masters, although it is managed with constantly increasing freedom and elasticity, so that we find in modern music little of that sing-song mechanical regularity which we may note in most folk-songs and dances. IV. BARBARA ALLEN.Let us now examine another old English song, "Barbara Allen." FIGURE VI. In Scar-let Town where I was born, There was a fair maid dwellin', Made ev' - ry youth cry "well-a-day," Her name was Barbara Allen. All in the merry month of May, When green buds they were swellin', Young Jemmy Grove on his death bed lay For love of Barbara Allen. Then slowly, slowly she came up, And slowly she came nigh him, And all she said when there she came: "Young man, I think you're dying." When he was dead, and laid in grave, Her heart was struck with sorrow. "O mother, mother!—make my bed, For I shall die to-morrow!" She, on her death bed as she lay, Begg'd to be buried by him, And sore repented of the day That she did e'er deny him. "Farewell!" she said, "ye maidens all, And shun the fault I fell in. Henceforth take warning by the fall Of cruel Barbara Allen." This also is a traditional song. The words celebrate the emotion of unrequited love, a favorite subject with the old ballad writers. In the music, we shall find a further illustration of the use of the devices already referred to. We note first of all that there is throughout the melody a constant use of one rhythmic motive. This figure appears in the first four notes of the song, and is found at the beginning of every other measure save the fifth and the last. While these transpositions are not so literal as is that at the beginning of "Polly Oliver," they are nevertheless sufficiently close to serve the purpose of preserving unity while still providing variety. The tune is held together by this insistence on the motive; there is considerable variety in the melody Although "Barbara Allen" does not, strictly speaking, contain a modulation, since there is in the melody no note foreign to the key in which the song is written, yet the first and last phrases center round D, the key-note, while the second phrase (to the words "There was a fair maid dwellin'") centers round and comes to rest on A, thus producing the effect of a half pause, as if punctuated with a semicolon. A very important point should be noted in reference to these half pauses or modulations in a melody, namely, that they usually occur on the fifth note of the scale of the original key, called by musicians the "dominant." In the three songs we have considered thus far the second phrase has so ended. This modulation to the dominant is the most common one in music, and we shall often have occasion to refer to it in later chapters. Finally, a comparison of the third phrase of the music—"there was a fair maid dwellin'"—with the last—"her name was Barbara Allen"—will reveal a considerable similarity in both rhythm and melodic contour or curve. By means of this similarity, and by the return, in the last phrase, to the original key, our sense of proportion is satisfied and a certain logic is imparted to the tune. It should also be noticed that the melody is a perfect example of that balance of phrases already referred to, the two halves (1-5 and 5-9) being of precisely the same length. V. NATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS IN FOLK-SONGS."Barbara Allen" is like many other English tunes in being straightforward, positive, and, in a measure, unromantic. It lacks the soft, undulating, and poetic element to be observed in the Spanish folk-song (see Chapter I), but has a vigor and somewhat matter-of-fact quality characteristic of the race that produced it. The story was evidently popular in the olden time, as many versions of it with different music have been found all over England. All the important events of the times were celebrated in song. There were, for example, many songs about Napoleon and the danger of an invasion of England, such as "Boney's Lamentation." Songs were written about political affairs and about religion, and there were many dealing with popular characters such as Robin Hood. Celebrated criminals became the subjects of songs, while poaching and other lawless acts committed by the peasants—which in those days were punished with the greatest severity—were frequently used as the basis for the strolling singers' ballads. Such titles as "Here's adieu to all Judges and Juries," "The Gallant Poachers," and "Botany Bay" are frequently to be found. From a perusal of a large number of the old songs one gathers a quite comprehensive idea of the ways of life and the thoughts and feelings of the people of "Merrie England." A kind of rude philosophy seems to have evolved itself out of the mass of common sentiment. And the verses, rude as they are, have a characteristic directness and vigor that gives them a value of their own. Plain, definite narrative characterizes most of the English songs. The name of the hero and heroine are usually given with the greatest accuracy, as are all the other details of the story. One old English song, for example, begins as follows: "'Twas the eighteenth of August, The eighth month of the year." while another is entitled: "The Three Butchers; or, Gibson, Wilson, and Johnson." Still another begins: "Eli Sykes, in the town of Batley, Killed his sweetheart, Hannah Brooke." This quality is in marked contrast to the more romantic and poetic element to be found in the songs of many European nations. This energetic and straightforward quality in old English melodies does not prevent them from being beautiful; they are true to human nature and unspoiled by sophistry. VI. AN IRISH FOLK-SONG.Our next illustration is an Irish song called "The Flight of the Earls," one of the most beautiful of melodies. (See Figure VII.) In this illustration the curved lines represent the phrases and correspond to the lines of the poem, while the brackets show the larger formal structure of the melody, A being the statement, or clause of assertion, B the clause of contrast, and A the restatement. A mere glance at this music will show how certain phrases are used FIGURE VII. Certain details may be pointed out for the benefit of the student. The first phrase, ending on the note D (5), gives a sense of being poised for a moment before proceeding to the next note, D not being a point of rest such as is supplied by the C with which the second phrase ends—at 9. The same device is used at the end of the third phrase (13). The clause of contrast (9-13), while based on the rhythm This song justifies all that we have said about the poetic beauty of folk-songs. Within its short compass are contained elements of perfection that may well astonish those who look on folk-songs as immaterial to the development of the art of music. For this melody is as complete and perfect an expression of that natural idealism that seems to have animated human beings from the earliest times as is the present day music of our own ideals. VII. A GERMAN FOLK-SONG.The next illustration is a well known German folk-song called "Sister Fair." FIGURE VIII. This melody is one of great beauty and tenderness. Like many other German folk-songs, it is full of quiet sentiment, not over-strained, but sweet and wholesome. Quite a distinct charm is imparted to the first phrase of this melody by the use at the end of measure 2 of the little rhythmic figure that has already appeared at the beginning of the first and second measures. There is an unexpected charm in this shifting of a motive from one part of a measure to another. We shall see this device of musical construction in many of the larger works that are dealt with in later chapters. There are a great many beautiful German folk-songs which would be well worth study here did space permit. The student is referred to such collections as Reimann's "Das Deutsche Lied," where the best of them will be found. VIII. SUMMARY.In this brief study of folk-songs we have noted that the stream of pure native melody was independent of the art-song and followed its own natural channel, but that, in spite of its limitation, presents to us some well developed formal types. We have seen how important a part modulation plays in the plan of a piece of music, and how, by means of a change of key, a new kind of variety may be imparted to a melody. We have observed how closely the old songs reflect the characteristics of the people who produced them, and how intimate was the connection between the songs—with the verses to which they were set—and the thoughts and feelings of those who used them. In studying the German folk-song we have observed a subtle element of form, namely, the shifting of a motive from one part of a measure to another. In the next chapter we shall take up the study of simple polyphonic pieces, such as have already been referred to in dealing with the round, "Three Blind Mice." SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLATERAL READING. Parry: "The Evolution of the Art of Music," Chapter III; Grove's "Dictionary of Music and Musicians," articles "Song" and "Form." FOOTNOTES: |
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