Mercury is the only planet that in color even suggests Mars, and for Mercury it can never be mistaken after one has once seen the two planets. Mercury, we know, is always very near the sun; but when visible at all is, even in that unfavorable situation, always as bright as a first-magnitude star. Mars is near the sun, to our view, only when it is approaching conjunction, and it is then so far from us that it always appears as a rather small star, and, while never insignificant, is, in this situation, quite inconspicuous even as compared with the rarely visible Mercury.

On seeing a planet, then, sufficiently high above the horizon to attract one’s attention, one may be sure that it is Mars if it is red, and equally sure that it is not Mars if it does not show this color. Under certain atmospheric conditions the sun, moon, and all the planets sometimes appear red when they are very near the horizon; but in this situation there is always something other than color that marks them.

If its color is not a sufficient mark by which to identify Mars, a still further difference between it and the stars is its markedly rapid movement. A single night will make a sufficient change in its position to show the planet as a wanderer. On an average, it travels over about four-tenths of a degree in the heavens in one day. This equals more than half the diameter of the moon, a change of position sufficiently great to be easily detected.

WHEN AND WHERE MARS MAY BE SEEN

Unlike Mercury and Venus, which are never far from the sun, and can be seen only for a comparatively short time either early in the morning or in the evening, and are never very high up in the skies, Mars may be situated so that it can be seen at any time of the night, and also at any distance from the sun. When it is in opposition it rises just as the sun sets, and is then in view all night. At this time it is nearer, larger, and brighter than at any other time in the particular revolution it is then making, and, consequently, is in the best position to be viewed by us that it will have during that revolution.

Oppositions differ, however, in different revolutions, and some show us the planet more splendidly brilliant than it appears at others. The oppositions at which Mars shows most brilliant take place, fortunately, in the summer and early autumn—the seasons which are most agreeable for outdoor observation. He is then traveling through that region of the sky, sparse in stars, that lies between Sagittarius and Aries; and, since the ecliptic there runs rather low in the sky, he can easily be observed at any time in the night without any neck-breaking postures.

These favorable oppositions occur in the summer because the earth is in line in the latter part of August with that point in the orbit of Mars where the planet makes its nearest approach to the sun. Oppositions never occur when Mars is exactly at that point; but they do occur when he is very near it, and at such times we see him in his greatest glory. This happens once every fifteen or seventeen years. But at any summer or early-autumn opposition Mars is not very far from this nearest point to the sun, so that at any oppositions during these seasons he is very brilliant and almost as bright as when he is at his best.

The earth is in line in the winter with that part of Mars’s orbit which carries him farthest from the sun, and at opposition then he is much less bright than at the summer oppositions. He is at the same time in those constellations which pass nearly overhead in the sky, and cannot be quite so comfortably seen at all times in the night as he can be in the summer. The very best and most brilliant oppositions occur in the latter part of August or in the early part of September; the least favorable ones occur in February. The others vary in brilliancy according to their distance from these favorable and unfavorable dates, all the summer ones being quite brilliant, and all the winter ones much less so. At any opposition, though, however unfavorable, the planet is much nearer to us and much brighter than when in conjunction.

It is worth one’s while, even at some inconvenience, to see Mars at whatever time he is in opposition, for he is a delight to the observer, and always notable in the part of the skies through which he is then passing. There are some aspects of the planet that are so charming at a winter opposition that it is a positive loss not to have seen him at such times. He is more isolated and conspicuous in the summer; but he fits well in that gay company of winter stars that shine more brilliantly than any others, and we can easily feel something akin to family pride as we watch him moving so graciously among them.

Mars makes a complete circuit of the skies, and comes back into the same position with relation to the sun and the earth on an average every seven hundred and eighty days, which makes his synodic period longer than that of any other planet. Owing to the great eccentricity of his orbit, and his consequent unequal motion in the various parts of it, the synodic period varies as much as thirty-five or thirty-six days. One cannot say, therefore, without computation of some length, just exactly how many days will elapse between any two single oppositions.

For mere purposes of naked-eye observation the variations in the synodic period of Mars do not make any difference, for the planet is in view practically all night for many nights before and after opposition, with changes of brightness too small to be noticed by an untrained eye. For at least two months at the time of opposition it has almost the same aspect to us. At that time it is always in the east early in the evening, and shines all night. For nearly nine months afterward it is visible and conspicuous in the evening sky, appearing each evening nearer and nearer to the western horizon, until finally, in a little more than a year after opposition, it passes behind the sun and becomes a morning star. But, as it then rises before the sun and passes across the heavens in the daytime, it is invisible to us. It is pleasant, however, at such times to know that as the sun passes across the skies in its daily journey Mars is up there, within a certain distance from it, making the same journey with it, beaming down upon us with the same lively light that it shows at night, and could be as well seen at any time but for the too dazzling rays of the sun.

Mars will be in conjunction in November of this year (1912), and will not be visible in the evening during 1913 until toward the end of the year. The next opposition after the publication of this book will occur in January, 1914. From that time until the following autumn the planet may be seen in the evening. In 1915 Mars will not be visible in the evening sky until late in the year. After November it will be in the east in the evening, rising earlier each evening, until at opposition, early in 1916, it will rise at sunset and will be visible in the evening during the entire summer and autumn of that year, but will not be extraordinarily bright. In 1917 it will be again invisible in the evening. In 1918 it will be in opposition in the early spring, and will shine in the evening all the rest of that year. It will not be visible in the evening in 1919, but will be in opposition again in the latter part of April, 1920, and will shine in the evening all of that year and the early part of the next, when it will again disappear from evening view and will not emerge again until it is nearing a fine opposition that will take place just at the beginning of the summer of 1922. The planet will then be in the constellation Scorpio, not far from Antares, and this will afford an excellent opportunity to see these two ruddy bodies near together.

In 1924 there will be an exceptionally brilliant opposition, which will occur during the last week of August, and the planet will then be about as brilliant as it ever appears, and will be very favorably situated for observation in the constellation Pisces. We shall then see Mars in the flame-like phase of his beauty, and he will dominate the evening sky during the whole of that summer. At oppositions such as this one Mars is more favorably situated for observation from the earth than any other heavenly body except the moon.

The next oppositions will take place the last week in October, 1926, in December, 1928, January, 1931, early March, 1935, the middle of May, 1937; and then we will have two more splendidly brilliant oppositions in July, 1939, and early October, 1941, respectively.

During the years that Mars does not appear in the evening we need not be deprived of a sight of the planet if we will look for it in the morning sky. A few months after conjunction it may be seen as a morning star, rising shortly before the sun. It rises earlier each morning, and hence can be seen each morning for a longer time. After its hour of rising has reached midnight it then passes into the evening sky and rises earlier each evening until it reaches opposition.

The movement of Mars among the stars, as we see it, is generally toward the east, and we can see by looking that it changes its place among the constellations in that direction, going from Aries to Taurus, from Taurus to Gemini, and so on. On each side of opposition, however, the planet appears for a few weeks to be moving westward among the stars. This is the retrograde motion which an outer planet appears to have when we are overtaking and passing it, and which has been explained in the chapters on the movements of the planets.

SIZE, ATMOSPHERE, AND TEMPERATURE

In size Mars is one of the smallest members of our solar family. Its mass is a little more than one-ninth that of the earth, and its entire surface is only about one-third as great as ours. It is the merest trifle more dense than Mercury, but only about sixty-six one-hundredths as dense as the earth. Its force of gravity is about thirty-six one-hundredths as powerful as that of the earth. A man weighing two hundred pounds here would be relieved of about one hundred and twenty-four pounds of his weight if transported to Mars, weighing there only seventy-six pounds, which would greatly increase his efficiency if he were in other respects the same.

It would necessarily follow that Mars, having such small force of gravity, could not long retain a heavy atmosphere, even if it had set out with such a one. No molecule of gas moving at a greater speed than three and thirteen-hundredths miles a second could be held by Mars in its atmosphere, and so much as it may have had of the rarer gases which move with great rapidity must have escaped long ago. But it did not begin life with an atmosphere heavy in proportion to that which the larger planets have. We have seen, in the case of Mercury, that being one of the small planets entails many restrictions in development. Such planets not only lose their atmosphere more quickly than the larger ones, but it is less dense to begin with. The atmosphere of Mars is probably no denser than we have at the tops of our highest mountains, more than likely not even so dense as that. There is some water vapor, and there are a few clouds most of the time; but in the main the atmosphere is so clear and thin that we can without any doubt see the actual surface of the planet. It is not certain that the clouds we see are formed from water vapor, as clouds of the ordinary kind are. It has been suggested that they may be simply dust-clouds. But this is as yet not much more than a suggestion, and nothing convincing has been offered to substantiate the idea. Even dust-clouds would need currents of air to create and carry them; so, whether dust or vapor, the presence of clouds implies an atmosphere.

The famous white polar caps, which furnish so many news items to the journals, are also of uncertain origin, and their true nature can be determined only by a fuller knowledge of the atmosphere of Mars. They appear in the winter season on the planet and disappear in its summer, so there seems to be no doubt that they are dependent in some way on the temperature in the polar regions of Mars. If they are hoar-frost or snow, they are condensations of water vapor; and, in that case, when they disappear there must be sufficient heat to melt them. It has been contended that the sun’s rays fall too obliquely on the poles of Mars to melt more than a few inches of snow, but that the caps may be light snow or frost, and thus capable of being dissolved by even such oblique rays of sunlight as they receive. Also it has been suggested that the deposit resembling snow may be carbon dioxide, which condenses into a white substance at a temperature more than a hundred degrees (-109° Fahr.) lower than is necessary to produce snow and melts at a correspondingly low temperature. What the nature of the phenomenon seen at the poles of Mars is depends largely upon what the temperature is; and the temperature in turn is dependent in some measure on the density and constitution of the atmosphere, as well as the planet’s distance from the sun.

The normal temperature of an unprotected body at the distance of Mars from the sun is about thirty-two degrees blow zero (Fahrenheit); and since we know Mars has no dense atmosphere to retain the heat it acquires, it is natural to suppose the existence there of a very low temperature, and one incompatible with our ideas of life and growth. The most favorable conclusions do not place the mean temperature higher than forty-eight degrees Fahrenheit. It is certain that the planet must be subjected to great extremes of temperature within its range, since its filmy robe of atmosphere cannot protect it to any extent from the direct rays of the sun during the day, nor prevent the heat from escaping with great rapidity at night; so that, whatever heat it may gain in the daytime, it probably loses much of it during the night. Until we know more of the constitution of the atmosphere of Mars we can know nothing certainly about its temperature beyond the fact that it is much colder than ours and more subject to variations. Anything much more definite than this is speculative at present. But with all the observation that is now given to Mars, and with the always increasing facilities for the work, many uncertainties regarding the planet are likely to be made clear before long. The spectroscope will probably be the final resort for facts concerning the atmosphere.

DISTANCE AND BRILLIANCY

Mars is, on an average, about one and a half times farther from the sun than we are. Its mean distance is, in round numbers, one hundred and forty-one million miles; but, since its orbit is very eccentric—more eccentric than that of any other of the planets except Mercury—its distance from the sun varies as much as twenty-six million miles. At its nearest the planet is a little more than one hundred and twenty-eight million miles from the sun. Its greatest distance from that luminary is one hundred and fifty-four million miles. At its mean distance something more than twelve and a half minutes are required for light to travel from the sun to the planet.

The sun becomes quite a medium-sized object as viewed from Mars, and must lose some of the majesty of aspect that it has to us. Its apparent diameter is about twenty-one minutes, which would make it less than two-thirds as large as we see it. The average amount of light and heat that it furnishes to that poor, lightly clad little planet is less than half as much as we receive, though when the planet is at perihelion the sun’s radiance is forty per cent. more powerful than when it is at its greatest distance from the source of these life-giving forces.

The eccentricity of the orbit of Mars is the cause also of his great variations in distance from us, and hence of his extreme changes in brilliancy. These changes are many times greater with reference to the earth than to the sun. At the planet’s nearest approach to us it comes a little nearer than thirty-five millions of miles. This is when it is in opposition in August. When opposition occurs in February, it is as much as sixty-two millions of miles from us; and when it is in conjunction, and on the other side of the sun from us, it is sometimes two hundred and forty-eight million miles distant. At his nearest approach light leaps over to us from Mars in about four minutes and eighteen seconds; at his greatest distance it cannot reach us in less than twenty-two minutes. The apparent mean diameter of Mars is about nine and fifty-six hundredths seconds, but varies from three and six-tenths seconds, when the planet is farthest away, to twenty-five seconds when it is nearest to us.

While Mars does not exhibit the phases of the inner planets Venus and Mercury, by showing a disc sometimes at half-full and sometimes at crescent it is sufficiently near us to be, in certain positions, gibbous, or to show a little less than a full face. When this occurs Mars is about half-way between opposition and conjunction, and the earth and the sun are so situated that we are slightly to one side of the fully illuminated face of Mars. This phase, however, is not sufficiently marked to make any material difference in the brilliancy of the planet. It is not apparent without the aid of a telescope.

From Mars the earth shows all the phases that Venus shows to us. When Mars is flaming down upon us in his position of greatest brilliancy we present to him a thin crescent. When he sees our full face we are on the opposite side of the sun from him. It would be necessary to have a more brilliant electrical illumination than any we have yet seen to lighten the dark side of the earth and exchange signals with Mars when we are nearest to him—if, indeed, our atmosphere would permit from Mars any view at all of the surface of the earth, which is not at all certain. In spite of its phases, the earth must shine on Mars at times in a very attractive way. It is not so bright, perhaps, as Venus is to us, nor as we are to Venus; but with our moon circling about us we may well be, when in a favorable situation, a very interesting double star, the distance between earth and moon appearing on Mars about equal to one-fourth of the apparent diameter of the moon.

DAY AND NIGHT, AND SEASONS

Owing to the undoubted permanent markings on the surface of Mars, astronomers have been able to determine the length of its day with much less likelihood of error than in the case of any other planet except the one on which we dwell. It rotates on its axis in twenty-four hours, thirty-seven minutes, and twenty-three seconds, which makes its day nearly forty minutes longer than ours. In our greed for all too fleeting time we may feel a little envy of these extra minutes, which would mean so much to us if added to our day. But they do not seem so important when we consider that while Mars is having six hundred and seventy of these days we are having six hundred and eighty-seven of ours, which, after all, seems to give us eighteen days more of time. Our attitude toward the situation depends upon the point of view.

The axis of Mars is inclined to its orbit about twenty-four degrees and fifty minutes. This is but little more than the inclination of the earth’s axis, which is twenty-three degrees and twenty-seven minutes. Mars, therefore, has seasons very much like ours. They are, however, slightly more marked than ours, because of the somewhat greater inclination of the axis of the planet; and they are nearly double the length of ours, because it takes Mars nearly two of our years to make its journey around the sun. Its seasons, then, are nearly six months long, while ours are but three. It has frigid, temperate, and torrid zones, practically the same as the earth has. Its greatest inequalities of season are caused by the eccentricity of its orbit. It is, like the earth, farthest away from the sun when it is summer in the northern hemisphere; and in this situation it travels so much more slowly than when it is near the sun that summer in its northern hemisphere is seventy-five days longer than the same season in the southern hemisphere. The northern summer and the southern winter are each three hundred and eighty days long, while the reverse seasons in each hemisphere are only three hundred and six days long. The northern summer is not only longer but also cooler than the southern, and the northern winter is shorter and warmer than the southern. Which hemisphere has the more favorable climate depends upon what is needed on Mars to maintain life. It may be that in this regard the shorter, hotter, southern summer is the best season the planet affords.

SURFACE ASPECTS OF MARS

Seen through a telescope, Mars is not so red as it appears to the naked eye. One of the best observers of it has compared it to an opal, and it surely has some of the qualities of an opal in the diversity of aspect that it shows to different observers from different points of view. No other planet has been so subjected to controversy over what appears on its surface. This is partly due to its being the only planet whose surface is without doubt open to our view and in a situation where it can be minutely studied, and partly to the fact that the controversy involves questions concerning life and intelligence, which are always of intense human interest. Matters of this vital sort are never accepted without dispute. That is one way of getting at the truth. In the intensity of the discussion the question of the existence of the phenomena and that of the meaning ascribed to them are sometimes unnecessarily made to depend upon each other. In the case of Mars it may well be that there is less difference of opinion as to what is really seen on its surface than as to the meaning of the phenomena.

There are recorded observations made of Mars as early as 272B.C., more than two thousand years ago, and it has been nearly two hundred and fifty years since the snow-caps were first seen. Through the telescope not only the snow-caps are plainly visible at the proper seasons, but there are also visible dark patches over the surface, showing a variety of color, and in certain parts changing somewhat as the seasons change. It is one of these patches, the outline of which suggests a somewhat twisted eye, that is known as the “eye of Mars.” The main surface of the planet is reddish yellow in color; the patches on it are variously described as gray, grayish green, or blue, colors which in combination could easily take on a tone of any of them according to the eye of the observer, and this portion of the planet’s surface does, in fact, show first one and then the other of them predominating.

When the planet’s differences of color were first observed, the reddish-yellow portion was supposed to be land, and the areas of varying bluish-green and gray were thought to be the waters of the ever-changing seas. A little after the middle of the last century some keen eyes saw a few streaks or markings of some sort across the land areas, and in 1877 a close study of the planet by an eminent Italian astronomer, Schiaparelli, brought to his view many greenish streaks, all directed toward the so-called seas, and sometimes seeming to intersect there. In publishing this discovery Schiaparelli called these streaks canalli, which is properly translated “channels,” but appeared in English as “canals.” Since “canal” with us means artificially constructed waterways, the discovery became at once one of universal interest; for artificial waterways mean human beings to construct them, and it was an intensely interesting thing to know that Mars was probably inhabited with beings at least somewhat after our own kind. It was a new world. The little planet became a topic of absorbing interest to all of us. And thus began the controversy over the habitability of Mars, and the meaning of its surface features, in which astronomers, seeking only for the truth, have taken a much more dignified part than they have sometimes been more or less sensationally represented as doing. The discoverer of the so-called canals himself believed them to be natural waterways cutting through the land after the manner of our straits and channels, and had very little to say in explanation of them. But his work gave a new impetus to the study of this little brother world of ours.

In our own country the observatory at Flagstaff is the one the best known among those doing research work on Mars; but it is not the only one. The observatory there is finely situated in the thin, clear atmosphere of Arizona, the mechanical facilities for such work are good, and there seems no doubt that there are there some observers who have eyes that were made for seeing. All that the sharp vision of Schiaparelli saw has been seen there, and much more. Several hundred canals have been discovered, and at certain seasons many of them have appeared to become double. Their courses have been followed, and their appearances and disappearances have been watched. Somewhere near six hundred of them have been mapped. According to these maps, the canals seem to be laid out with a geometrical precision such as nature is not likely to follow; they run across some regions that were formerly supposed to be water, and they have points of convergence every here and there, forming at such points large dark areas.

Naturally, when a person has discovered any new and curious phenomenon in nature he seeks to determine the exact meaning of it. It would have very little interest for him if he did not, and it would be a dry lot of facts that did not arouse a desire to do this. The interpretation put upon what has been seen at the observatory at Flagstaff is, in brief, about as follows:

The surface of Mars has no oceans or mountains. The reddish areas, which form the larger part of the surface, are deserts. The blue-green streaks are ribbons of vegetation along each side of artificially constructed waterways, which are of immense length and cross and recross each other until they somewhat resemble a network of lines over the desert surface of the planet, and are used for irrigating this arid region. The points where the canals converge and form the large dark spots are oases made by the water carried by the canals. The water is supplied by the melting of the caps of snow at the poles during the Martian summer, the expanding of the lines of vegetation seeming to occur at periods corresponding to the time required for the water of the melting snow to reach the oases. The presence of this vast system of artificial waterways covering a large part of the surface of Mars makes it seem probable that “Mars is inhabited by beings of some sort or other,” that these beings are not men such as we know anything about, but that “there may be a local intelligence equal to or superior to ours.”

These conclusions concerning what is seen on Mars are not held by any one to be completely proved, but are thought by their author to follow reasonably from the phenomena as observed. By persons of a different temperament they are regarded as too complete an explanation, particularly as the data upon which they are founded are not undisputed. Some of the best astronomers have not been able even to see the multitude of fine lines, much less to give any explanation of them. Others do not regard it as certain that they are so geometric in their outlines as to suggest anything more than cracks or clefts in the surface of Mars, such as might be made by nature, and consider that, instead of indicating life, human or other, they may be the marks of age, such as similar lines or cracks which have been observed on Mercury seem to be.

Also, it is not at all certain that there is sufficient water vapor in the slight atmosphere of Mars to furnish the snow necessary for this great irrigating system, nor the heat to melt it at the proper season. The natural temperature of Mars would be, as we have seen, very low, and unless it is modified in some way not yet indicated everything points to a frigidity too intense to permit the continuance of life and growth of any sort known to us.

These things must all be reckoned with before anything certain can be known of the surface of Mars. The difficulty of pronouncing upon the minute details is impressively indicated by Professor Moulton, who says that, even under the finest conditions and with the best telescopes, it is like viewing “a perfectly accurate relief map of the whole United States made on such a scale that it would be only three inches in diameter and held at a distance of three feet from the eye.” Under such a near limit of vision, we can well see that differences of opinion might arise.

The mere fact that some astronomers have not seen the lines on Mars does not mean that they deny their existence. Some eyes have greater defining power than others, as well as some telescopes, as every one knows. But while all the lines and patches of color that are claimed to have been seen on Mars doubtless have been seen by some persons, yet it is not necessary to accept the interpretation of them given by lively-minded observers when it is not convincing. There may be vegetation on Mars, and even intelligent beings. We do not know; and thus far there is not much to support, even by inference, the view that there are. If we want the truth, we are brought no nearer to it by giving full credence to a speculative theory simply because it is interesting and pleasant; and thus far all theories advanced as to the nature of the surface markings on Mars are speculations, though there is no doubt that the marks are there. It is pleasing, however, to contemplate the idea of there being on Mars, or on any other planet, an active intelligence of any sort resembling what we have here on earth, and it is not strange that such a wide-spread popular interest should attach to Mars, in view of what has been suggested by the markings on its surface.

THE SATELLITES OF MARS

Mars has a little family of two moons. Tiny little bodies they are, the smallest in the solar family except, perhaps, an occasional asteroid. Neither one of them is more than ten miles in diameter, and the two together are smaller than any other known satellite. They can only be seen when Mars is in opposition, and then only with a fairly large telescope. They were discovered in 1877, and named Phobos and Deimos, the names of the two attendants of the god of war. Phobos is the brighter and the nearer to the planet. It is less than four thousand miles from the surface of Mars; and on account of its being so near and the shape of Mars being a spheroid, like that of the earth, the little satellite can never be seen from Mars beyond sixty-nine degrees of latitude on each side of the equator. Within these limits it shows great activity. It makes a complete circuit around Mars in seven and a half hours; and this swift revolution, combined with the motion of Mars on its axis, makes Phobos seem to rise in the west and set in the east, pass over the heavens in less than twelve hours, and go through all its phases, from “new” to “full,” one and a half times every night. Its light is rather insignificant, being about sixty times less than we receive from our satellite; but, on the whole, it must be a rather gay and pleasant little moon.

Deimos is not any larger than Phobos, and not as bright; but it is slightly less difficult for us to see, because it is between two and three times farther away from Mars than Phobos is, and thus not so much lost in the light of the planet. It circles around Mars in a little more than thirty hours, and this, being only six hours more than Mars consumes in turning around on its axis, results in requiring more than two days for the satellite to pass from rising to setting. Between rising and setting it goes through its phases four times. It can be seen from all parts of Mars, but gives very little light to the planet—more than a thousand times less than our moon gives us.

The symbol of Mars is ?, a conventionalized figure representing a shield and a spear—implements of war appropriate for the use of the deity especially connected with warfare.

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