THE EARTH AS MODIFIED BY HUMAN ACTION. CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTORY.

Title: The Earth as Modified by Human Action

Author: George P. Marsh

Edition: 10

Language: English

Produced by Steve Harris, Charles Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team.

THE EARTH AS MODIFIED BY HUMAN ACTION.

A NEW EDITION OF MAN AND NATURE.

BY

GEORGE P. MARSH.

"Not all the winds, and storms, and earthquakes, and seas, and seasons of the world, have done so much to revolutionize the earth as MAN, the power of an endless life, has done since the day he came forth upon it, and received dominion over it."—H. Bushnell, Sermon on the Power of an Endless Life.

1874.

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

The object of the present volume is: to indicate the character and, approximately, the extent of the changes produced by human action in the physical conditions of the globe we inhabit; to point out the dangers of imprudence and the necessity of caution in all operations which, on a large scale, interfere with the spontaneous arrangements of the organic or the inorganic world; to suggest the possibility and the importance of the restoration of disturbed harmonies and the material improvement of waste and exhausted regions; and, incidentally, to illustrate the doctrine that man is, in both kind and degree, a power of a higher order than any of the other forms of animated life, which, like him, are nourished at the table of bounteous nature.

In the rudest stages of life, man depends upon spontaneous animal and vegetable growth for food and clothing, and his consumption of such products consequently diminishes the numerical abundance of the species which serve his uses. At more advanced periods, he protects and propagates certain esculent vegetables and certain fowls and quadrupeds, and, at the same time, wars upon rival organisms which prey upon these objects of his care or obstruct the increase of their numbers. Hence the action of man upon the organic world tends to derange its original balances, and while it reduces the numbers of some species, or even extirpates them altogether, it multiplies other forms of animal and vegetable life.

The extension of agricultural and pastoral industry involves an enlargement of the sphere of man's domain, by encroachment upon the forests which once covered the greater part of the earth's surface otherwise adapted to his occupation. The felling of the woods has been attended with momentous consequences to the drainage of the soil, to the external configuration of its surface, and probably, also, to local climate; and the importance of human life as a transforming power is, perhaps, more clearly demonstrable in the influence man has thus exerted upon superficial geography than in any other result of his material effort.

Lands won from the woods must be both drained and irrigated; river-banks and maritime coasts must be secured by means of artificial bulwarks against inundation by inland and by ocean floods; and the needs of commerce require the improvement of natural and the construction of artificial channels of navigation. Thus man is compelled to extend over the unstable waters the empire he had already founded upon the solid land.

The upheaval of the bed of seas and the movements of water and of wind expose vast deposits of sand, which occupy space required for the convenience of man, and often, by the drifting of their particles, overwhelm the fields of human industry with invasions as disastrous as the incursions of the ocean. On the other hand, on many coasts, sand-hills both protect the shores from erosion by the waves and currents, and shelter valuable grounds from blasting sea-winds. Man, therefore, must sometimes resist, sometimes promote, the formation and growth of dunes, and subject the barren and flying sands to the same obedience to his will to which he has reduced other forms of terrestrial surface.

Besides these old and comparatively familiar methods of material improvement, modern ambition aspires to yet grander achievements in the conquest of physical nature, and projects are meditated which quite eclipse the boldest enterprises hitherto undertaken for the modification of geographical surface.

The natural character of the various fields where human industry has effected revolutions so important, and where the multiplying population and the impoverished resources of the globe demand new triumphs of mind over matter, suggests a corresponding division of the general subject, and I have conformed the distribution of the several topics to the chronological succession in which man must be supposed to have extended his sway over the different provinces of his material kingdom. I have, then, in the introductory chapter, stated, in a comprehensive way, the general effects and the prospective consequences of human action upon the earth's surface and the life which peoples it. This chapter is followed by four others in which I have traced the history of man's industry as exerted upon Animal and Vegetable Life, upon the Woods, upon the Waters, and upon the Sands; and to these I have added a concluding chapter upon Man.

It is perhaps superfluous to add, what indeed sufficiently appears upon every page of the volume, that I address myself not to professed physicists, but to the general intelligence of observing and thinking men; and that my purpose is rather to make practical suggestions than to indulge in theoretical speculations more properly suited to a different class from that for which I write.

GEORGE P. MARSH.

December 1, 1868.

PREFACE TO THE PRESENT EDITION.

In preparing for the press an Italian translation of this work, published at Florence in 1870, I made numerous corrections in the statement of both facts and opinions; I incorporated into the text and introduced in notes a large amount of new data and other illustrative matter; I attempted to improve the method by differently arranging many of the minor subdivisions of the chapters; and I suppressed a few passages which teemed to me superfluous. In the present edition, which is based on the Italian translation, I have made many further corrections and changes of arrangement of the original matter; I have rewritten a considerable portion of the work, and have made, in the text and in notes, numerous and important additions, founded partly on observations of my own, partly on those of other students of Physical Geography, and though my general conclusions remain substantially the same as those I first announced, yet I think I may claim to have given greater completeness and a more consequent and logical form to the whole argument

Since the publication of the original edition, Mr. Elisee Reclus, in the second volume of his admirable work, La Terre (Paris, 1868), lately made accessible to English-reading students, has treated, in a general way, the subject I have undertaken to discuss. He has, however, occupied himself with the conservative and restorative, rather than with the destructive, effects of human industry, and he has drawn an attractive and encouraging picture of the ameliorating influences of the action of man, and of the compensations by which he, consciously or unconsciously, makes amends for the deterioration which he has produced in the medium he inhabits. The labors of Mr. Reclus, therefore, though aiming at a much higher and wider scope than I have had in view, are, in this particular point, a complement to my own. I earnestly recommend the work of this able writer to the attention of my readers.

George P. Marsh

Rome, May 1, 1878.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS VOLUME.

Amersfoordt, J.P. Het Haarlemmermeer, Oorsprong, Geschiedenis,
Droogmaking. Haarlem, 1857. 8vo.

Andresen, C.C. Om Klitformationen og Klittens Behandling og Bestyrelse.
Kjobenhavn, 1861. 8vo.

Annali di Agricoltura, Industria e Commercio. Pubblicati per cura del Ministero d'Agricoltura, Industria e Commercio. Faso i-v. Torino, 1862-'3. 8vo.

Arago, F. Extracts from, in Becquerel, Des Climate.

Arriani, Opera. Lipsiae, 1856. 2 vols. 12mo.

Asbjornen, P.Chr. Om Skoveno og om et ordnet Skovbrug i Norge.
Christiania, 1855. 12mo.

Aus der Natur. Die neuesten Entdeckungen auf dem Gebiete der
Naturwissenschaften. Leipzig, various years. 20 vols. 8vo.

Ave-Lallemant, K.C.B. Die Benutzung der Palmen am Amazonenstrom in der
Oekonomie der Indier. Hamburg, 1861. 18mo.

Babinet. Etudes et Lectures sur les Sciences d'Obsorvation. Paris, 1855- 1863. 7 vols. 18mo.

Baer, von. Kaspische Studien. St. Petersburg, 1855-1859. 8vo.

Barth, Heinrich. Wanderungen durch die Kustenlander des Mittelmeeres.
V.1. Berlin, 1849. 8vo.

Barth, J.B. Om Skovene i deres Forhold til Nationaloeconomien.
Christiania, 1857. 8vo.

Baude, J.J. Les Cotes de la Manche, Revue des Deux Mondes, 15 Janvier, 1859.

Baumgarten. Notice sur les Rivieres de la Lombardie; in Annales des
Ponts et Chaussees, 1847, 1er semestre, pp. 129-199.

Beckwith, Lieut. Report in Pacific Railroad Report, vol. Ii.

Becquerel. Des Climats et de l'Influence qu'exercent les Sols bolses et non-boises. Paris, 1858. 8vo.

——Elements de Physique Terrestre et de Meteorologie. Paris, 1847. 8vo.

Belgrand. De l'Influence des Forets sur l'ecoulement des Eaux Pluviales; in Annales des Ponts et Chaussees, 1854, ler semestre, pp. 1, 27.

Berg, Edmund von. Das Verdrangen der Laubwalder im Nordlichen
Deutschlande durch die Fichte und die Kiefer. Darmstadt, 1844. 8vo.

Bergsoe, A.F. Greve Ch. Ditlev Frederik Reventlovs Virksomhed som
Kongens Embedsmand og Statens Borger. Kjobenhavn, 1837. 2 vols. 8vo.

Berlepsch, H. Die Alpen in Natur-und Lebensbildern. Leipzig, 1862. 8vo.

Bianchi, Celestino. Compendio di Geografia Fisica Speciale d'Italia.
Appendice alla traduzione Italiana della Geog.-Fisica di Maria
Somerville. Firenze, 1861. (2d vol. of translation.)

Bigelow, John. Les Etats Unis d'Amerique en 1868. Paris, 1868. 8vo.

Blake, Wm. P. Reports in Pacific Railroad Report, vols. ii and v.

Blanqui. Memoire sur les Populations des Hautes Alpes; in Memoires de l'Academie del Sciences Morales et Politiques, 1843.

——Voyage en Bulgarie. Paris, 1843. 12mo.

——Precis Elementaire d'Economie Politique, suivi du Resume de l'Histoire du Commerce et de l'Industrie. Paris, 1857. 12mo.

Boitel, Amedee. Mise en valeur des Terres pauvres par le Pin Maritime. 2d edition. Paris, 1857. 8vo.

Bonnemere, Eugene. Histoire des Paysons depuis la fin du Moyen Age jusqu'a nos jours. Paris, 1856. 2 vols. 8vo.

Bottger, C. Das Mittelmeer. Leipzig, 1859.

Boussingault, J.B. Economie Rurale consideree dans ses Rapports avec la Chimie, la Physique, et la Meteorologie. 2d edition. Paris, 1851. 2 vols. 8vo.

Bremontier, N.T. Memoire sur les Dunes; in Annales des Ponts et
Chaussees, 1833, ler semestre, pp. 145, 228.

Brincken, J. von den. Ausichten uber die Bewaldung der Steppen des
Europaeischen Russland. Braunschweig, 1854. 4to.

Buttner, J.G. Zur Physikalischen Geographie; in Berghaus, Geographisches
Jabrbuch, No. iv, 1852, pp. 9-19.

Caimi, Pietro. Conni sulla Importanza e Coltura del Boschi. Milano, 1857. 8vo.

Cantegril, and others. Extracts in Comptes Rendus a l'Academie des
Sciences. Paris, 1861.

Castellani. Dell' immediata influenza delle Selve sul corso delle acqua.
Torino, 1818, 1819. 2 vols. 4to.

Census of the United States for 1860. Preliminary Report on, Washington, 1862. 8vo.

Cerini, Giuseppe. Dell' Impianto e Conservazione dei Boschi. Milano, 1844. 8vo.

Champion, Maurice. Les Inondations en France depuis le VIme Siecle jusqu'a nos jours. Paris, 1858, 1862. Vols. i-iv, 8vo.

Chateauvieux, F. Lullin de. Lettres sur l'Italie. Seconde edition,
Geneve, 1834. 8vo.

Chevandier. Extracts in Comptes Rendus a l'Academie des Sciences.
Juillet-Decembre, 1844. Paris.

Clave, Jules. Etudes sur l'Economie Forestiere. Paris, 1862. 12mo.—-La
Foret de Fontainebleau; Revue des Deux Mondes, 1 Mai, 1868.

Cooper, J. G. The Forests and Trees of Northern America; in Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the year 1860, pp. 416, 445.

Cotta, Bernhard. Deutschlands Boden. Leipzig, 1858. 2 vols. 8vo.—-Vorwort zu Paramelle's Quellenkunde. See Paramelle.—-Die Alpen. Leipzig, 1851. 8vo.

Coultas, Harland. What may be Learned from a Tree. New York, 1860. 8vo.

Courier, Paul-Louis. Oeuvres Completes. Bruxelles, 1838. 8vo.

Dana, James D. Manual of Geology. Philadelphia, 1863. 8vo.

Delamarre, L. G. Historique de la Creation d'une Richesse Millionaire par la culture des Pins. Paris, 1827. 8vo. D. Hericourt, A. F. Les Inondations et le livre de M. Valles; Annales Forestieres, December, 1857, pp. 310, 321. Paris.

Diggelen, B. P. G. van. Gruote Werken in Nederland. Zwolle, 1855. 8vo.

Dumas, M. J. La Science des Fontaines. 2me edition, Paris, 1857. 8vo.

Dumont, Aristide. Des Travaux Publics dans leurs Rapports avec l'Agriculture. Paris, 1847. 8vo.

Dwight, Timothy. Travels in New England and New York. New Haven, 1821. 4 vols. 8vo.

Emerson, George B. A Report on the Trees and Shrubs growing naturally in
Massachusetts. Boston, 1850. 8vo.

Emory, Wm. H., Col. Report of Commissioners of the United States and
Mexican Boundary Survey, vol. i, 1857.

Escourrou-Miliago, A. L'Italie a propos de l'Exposition Universelle de
Paris. Paris, 1856. 8vo.

Evelyn, John. Silva; or, a Discourse of Forest Trees. With Notes by A.
Hunter. York, 1786. 2 vols. 4to.

——Terra, a Philosophical Discourse of Earth. York, 1786. 4to. in vol. ii of Silva.

Feraud-Giraud. L. J. D. Police des Bois, Defrichements et Reboisements. Commentaire pratique sur les lois promulguees en 1859 et 1860. Paris, 1861. 8vo.

Ferrara, Francesco. Descrizione dell' Etna. Palermo, 1818. 8vo.

Feuillide, C. de. L'Algerie Francaise. Paris, 1856. 8vo.

Figuier, Louis. L'Annee Scientifique et Industrielle. Paris, 1862-'3. 12mo.

Finnboga Saga hins rama. Kaupmannahofn, 1812. 4to.

Foissac, P. Meteorologie mit Ruoksicht auf die Lehre vom Kosmos, Deutsch von A. H. Emsmann. Leipzig, 1859. 8vo.

Forchhammer, G. Geognostische Studien am Meeres-Ufer; in Leonhard und
Bronn's Neues Jabrbuch fur Mineralogie, Geognosie, Geologie, etc.
Jahrgang, 1841, pp. 1-38.

Fossombroni, Vittorio. Memorie Idraulico-Storiche sopra la
Val-di-Ohiana. Montepulciano, Sza edizione, 1835. 8vo.

Fraas, C. Klima und Pflanzenwelt in der Zeit. Landshut, 1847. 8vo.

Frisi, Paolo. Del Modo di regolare i Fiumi e i Torrenti. Lucca, 1762. 4to.

Fuller, Thomas. The History of the Worthies of England. London, 1662.
Folio.

Gilliss, J. M., Capt. United States Naval Astronomical Expedition to the
Southern Hemisphere. Washington, 1855. 2 vols. 4to.

Giorgini. Paper by; in Salvagnoli-Marchetti, Rapporto sul Bouificamento delle Maremme, App. v.

Girard et Parent-Duchatelet. Rapport sur les Puits fores dits Artesiens;
Annales des Ponts et Chaussees, 1833, 2me semestre, 818-844.

Graham, J. D., Lieut.-Col. A Lunar Tidal Wave in the North American
Lakes demonstrated. Cambridge, 1861. 8vo. pamphlet. Also in vol. xiv,
Proc. Am. Ass. for Adv. of Science for 1860.

Hakluyt, Richard. The Principal Navigations, Voyages, &c., of the
English Nation. London, 1598-'9. 8 vols. folio.

Harrison, W. An Historicall Description of the Iland of Britaine; in
Holinshed's Chronicles. Reprint of 1807, vol, i.

Hartwig, G. Dus Leben des Meeres. Frankfurt,1857. 8vo.

Haxthausen, August von. Transkaukasia. Leipzig, 1856. 2 vols. 8vo.

Henry, Prof. Joseph. Paper on Meteorology in its connection with Agriculture; in United States Patent Office Report for 1857, pp. 419-550.

Herschel, Sir J. F. W. Physical Geography. Edinburgh, 1861. 12mo.

Heyer, Gustav. Das Verhalten der Waldbuume gegen Licht und Schatten.
Erlangen, 1852. 8vo.

Hohenstein, Adolph. Der Wald sammt dessen wichtigem Einfluss auf das
Klima, &c. Wien, 1860. 8vo.

Humbolt, Alexander von. Ansichten der Natur. Dritte Ausgabe, Stuttgart und Tubingen, 1849. 2 vols. 12mo.

Hummel, Karl. Physische Geographie. Grax, 1835. 8vo.

Hunter, A. Notes to Evelyn, Silva, and Terra. York, 1786. See Evelyn.

Jacini, Stefano. La Proprieta Fondiaria e le Popolazioni agrioole in
Lombardia. Milano e Verona, 1857. 8vo.

Joinville. Histoire de Saint-Louis. Nouvelle Collection des Memoires pour servir a l'Histoire de France, par Michaud et Poujoulat. Tome i. Paris, 1836. 8vo.

Josselyn, John. New England Rarities. London, 1672. 12mo.

Knorr, E. A. Studien uber die Buchen-Wirthschaft. Nordhausen, 1863. 8vo.

Kohl, J. G. Alpenreisen. Dresden und Leipzig, 1849. 8 vols. 8vo.

——Die Marschen und Inseln der Herzogthumer Schleswig und Holstein.
Dresden und Leipzig, 1846. 3 vols. 8vo.

Kramer, Gustav. Der Fuciner-See. Berlin, 1839. 4to.

Krause, G. C. A. Der Dunenbau auf den Ostsee-Kusten West-Preussens. 1850. 8vo.

Kremer, Alfred von. AEgypten, Forschungen uber Land und Volk. Leipzig, 1863. 2 vols. 8vo.

Kriegk, G. L. Schriften zur allgemeinen Erdkunde. Leipzig, 1840. 8vo.

Ladoucette, J. C. F. Histoire, Topographie, Antiquites, Usages,
Dialectes des Hautes Alpes. Seconde edition, 1834. 1 vol. 8vo. and
Atlas.

Laestadius, Lars Levi. Om Mojligheten och Fordelen af allmanna
Uppodlingar i Lappmarken. Stockholm, 1824. 12mo.

Laestadius, Petrus. Journal for forsta aret af hans Tjenstgoring sasom
Missionaire i Lappmarken. Stockholm, 1831. 8vo.

——Fortsattning af Journalen ofver Missions-Resor i Lappmarken.
Stockholm, 1833. 8vo.

Lampridius. Vita Elagabali in Script. Hist., August.

Landgrebe, Georg. Naturgeschichte der Vulcane. Gotha, 1855. 2vols. 8vo.

Laurent, Ch. Memoires sur le Sahara Oriental au point de vue des Puits
Artesiens. Paris, 1859. 8vo. pamphlet. Also, in Mein de la Soc. des
Ingenieurs Civils, and the Bulletin de la Soc. Geologique de France.

Laval. Memoire sur les Dunes da Golfe de Gascogno; in Annales des Ponts et Ohaussees, 1847, 2mo semestre, pp. 218-268.

Lavergne, M. L. de. Economie Rurale de la France, depuis 1789. 2me edition, Paris, 1861. 12mo.

Le Alpi che cingono l'Italia. Parte 1er, vol. 1er. Torino, 1845. 8vo.

Lefort. Notice sur les travaux de Fixation des Dunes; in Annales des
Ponts et Ohaussecs, 1831, 2me semestre, pp. 320-382

Lenormant. Note relative a l'Execution d'un Puits Artesien en Egypte sous la XVIIIeme Dynastie; Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 12 Novembre, 1852.

Liber Albus: The White Book of the City of London. London, 1861. 4to.

Loftus, W. K. Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana. New York, 1867. 8vo.

Lombardini. Cenni Idrografi sulla Lombardia; Intorno al Sistema
Idraulico del Po; epitomized by Baumgarten in Annales des Ponts et
Chaussees, 1847, 1er semestre, pp. 129, 199; and in Dumont, Des Travaux
Publics, pp. 268, 335.

——Sui progetti intesi ad estendere l'irrigazione della Pianura del Po.
Politecnico. Gennajo, 1863, pp. 5-50.

Lorentz. Cours Elementaire de Culture des Bois, complete et publie par
A. Parade, 4me edition. Paris et Nancy, 1860. 8vo.

Lyell, Sir Charles. The Geological Evidence of the Antiquity of Man.
London, 1863. 8vo. Principles of Geology. New York, 1862. 8vo.

Mardigny, M de. Memoire sur les Inondations des Rivieres de l'Ardeche.
Paris, 1860. 8vo.

Marschand, A. Ueber die Entwaldung der Gebirge. Bern, 1840. 12mo. pamphlet.

Martineau. Endeavors after the Christian Life. Boston, 1858.

Martins. Revue des Deux Mondes, Avril, 1863.

Maury, M. F. The Physical Geography of the Sea. Tenth edition. London, 1861. 8vo.

Medlicott, Dr. Observations of, quoted from London Athenaeum, 1868.

Meguscher, Francesco. Memorie sulla migliore maniera per rimettere i
Boschi della Lombardia, etc. Milano, 1859. 8vo.

Mejdell, Th. Om Foranstaltninger til Behandling af Norges Skove.
Christiania, 1868. 8vo.

Mella. Delle Inondazioni del Mella nella notte del 14 al 15 Agosto, 1850. Brescia, 1851. 8vo. Meyer, J. Physik der Schweiz. Leipzig, 1854. 8vo.

Michelet, J. L'Insecte, 4me edition. Paris, 1860. 12mo.

——L'Oiseau, 7me edition. Paris, 1861. 12mo.

Monestier-Savignat, A. Etude sur les Phenomenes, l'Amenagement et la
Legislation des Eaux au point de vue des Inondations. Paris, 1858. 8vo.

Montluisant. Note sur les Dessechements, les Endiguements et les Irrigations; in Annales des Ponts et Chaussees, 1833, 2me semestre, pp. 281-294.

Morozzi, Ferdinando. Dello Stato Antico e Moderno del Fiume Arno.
Firenze, 1762. 4to.

Muller, K. Das Buch der Pflanzenwelt. Leipzig, 1857. 2 vols 12mo.

Nangis, Guillaume de. Extracts from, in Nouvelle Collection des Memoires pour servir par Michaud et Poujoulat. Vol. i. Paris, 1836.

Nanquette, Henri. Cours d'Amenagement des Forets. Paris et Nancy, 1860. 8vo.

Newberry, Dr. Report in Pacific Railroad Report, vol. vi.

Niebelunge-Lied, Der. Abdruck der Handschrift von Joseph von Lassburg.
Leipzig, 1840. Folio.

Niel. L'Agriculture des Etats Sardes. Turin, 1857. 8vo.

Pacific Railroad Report. Reports of Explorations and Surveys for a
Railroad Route to the Pacific. Washington, various years. 12 vols. 4to.

Palissy, Bernard, Oeuvres Completes, avec des Notes, etc., par Paul-
Antoine Cap. Paris, 1844. 12mo.

Parade, A. See Lorentz.

Paramelle, Abbe. Quellenkunde, Lehre von der Bildung und Auffindung der
Quellen; mit einem Vorwort von B. Cotta. Leipzig, 1856. 12mo.

Parish, Dr. Life of Dr. Eleazer Wheelock. 8vo. Parry, C.C. Report in
United States and Mexican Boundary Survey, vol.i.

Parthey, G. Wanderungen durch Sicilien und die Levante. Berlin, 1834. 2 vols. 12mo.

Piper, R.U. The Trees of America. Boston, 1858, Nos. i-iv. 4to.

Plini, Historia Naturalis, ed. Hardouin. Paris, 1729. 8 vols. folio.

Ponz, Antonio, Viage de Espana. Madrid, 1788, etc. 18 vols. 12mo.

Quatrefages, A. de. Souvenirs d'un Naturaliste. Paris, 1834. 2 vols. 12mo.

Reclus, Elisee. Le Littoral de la France; Revue des Deux Mondes, 15
Decembre, 1862.

Rentzsch, Hermann. Der Wald im Haushalt der Natur und der
Volkswirtschaft. Leipzig, 1862. 8vo.

Ribbe, Charles de. La Provence au point de vue des Bois, des Torrents et des Inondations. Paris, 1857. 8vo.

Ridolfi, Cosimo. Lezioni Orali. Firenze, 1862. 2 vols. 8vo.

Ritter, Carl. Einleitung zur allgemeinen vergleichenden Geographie.
Berlin, 1852. 8vo.

——Die Erdkunde im Verhaltnisa zur Natur und zur Geschichte des
Menschen. Berlin, various years. 19 vols. 8vo.

Rosa, G. Le Condizioni de' boschi, de' fiumi e de' torronti nella provincia di Bergamo. Politecnico, Dicembre, 1861, pp. 606, 621.

-Studii sui Boschi. Politecnico, Maggio, 1862, pp. 232, 238.

Rossmassler, C. A. Der Wald. Leipzig und Heidelberg, 1863. 8vo.

Roth, J. Der Vesuv and die Umgebung von Neapel. Berlin, 1857. 8vo.

Rozet, M. Moyens de forcer les Torrents des Montagnes de rendre une partie du sol qu'ils ravagent. Paria, 1856. 8vo. pamphlet.

Salvagnoli-Marchetti, Antonio. Memorio Economico-Statistiche sulle
Maremme Toscane. Firenze, 1846. 8vo.

——Raccolta di Documenti sul Bonificamento delle Moremme Toscane.
Firenze, 1861. 8vo.

——Rapporto sul Bonficamento delle Maremme Toscane. Firenze, 1859. 8vo.

——Rapporto sulle Operazioni Idrauliche ed Economiche eseguite nel 1859-'60 nelle Maremme Toscane. Firenze, 1860. 8vo.

Sandys, George. A Relation of a Journey begun An. Dom. 1610. London, 1627. Folio.

Schacht, H. Les Arbres, Etudes sur leur Structure et leur Vegetation, traduit par E. Morreu. Bruxelles et Leipzig, 1862. 8vo.

Schleiden, M. J. Die Landenge von Sues. Leipzig, 1858. 8vo.

——Die Pflanze und ihr Leben. Leipzig, 1848. 8vo.

Schubert, W. von. Resa genom Sverige, Norrige, Lappland, etc. Stockholm, 1828. 8 vols. 8vo.

Seneca, L. A. Opera Omnia quae supersont, ex rec. Ruhkopf. Aug.
Taurinorum, 1831. 6 vols. 8vo.

Simonde, J. E. L. Tableau de l'Agriculture Toscane. Geneve, 1801. 8vo.

Smith, Dr. William. A Dictionary of the Bible. London, 1860. 8 vols. 8vo.

——A. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. London, 1854, 1857. 2 vols. 8vo.

Smith, John. Historie of Virginia. London, 1624. Folio.

Somerville, Mary. Physical Geography. Fifth edition. London, 1862. 12mo.

Springer, John S. Forest-Life and Forest-Trees. New York, 1851. 12mo.

Stanley, Dr. Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church. London, 1863. 8vo.

Staring, W. H. De Bodem van Nederland. Haarlem, 1856. 2 vols. 8vo.

——Voormaals en Thans. Haarlem, 1858. 8vo.

Stevens, Gov. Report in Pacific Railroad Report, vol. xii.

Strain, Lieut. I.C. Darien Exploring Expedition, by J.T. Headley, in
Harper's Magazine. New York, March, April, and May, 1855.

Streffleur, V. Ueber die Natur und die Wirkungen der Wildbuche. Sitz. Ber. der M.N.W. Classe der Kaiserl. Akad. der Wis. February, 1852, viii, p. 248.

Strom, Ier. Om Skogarnas Vard och Skotsel. Upsala, 1853. Pamphlet.

Surell, Alexandre. Etude sur les Torrents des Hautes Alpes. Paris, 1844. 4to.

Tartini, Ferdinando. Memorio sul Bonificamento delle Maremme Toscane. Firenze, 1888. Folio. Thomas and Baldwin. Gazetteer. Philadelphia, 1855. 1 vol. 8vo.

Thompson, Z. History of Vermont, Natural, Civil, and Statistical.
Burlington, 1842. 8vo.

——Appendix to History of Vermont. Burlington, 1853. 8vo.

Titcomb, Timothy. Lessons in Life. New York, 1861. 12mo.

Treadwell, Dr. Observations of, quoted from Report of Commissioner of
Patents.

Trey, Paul. Etude sur le Reboisement des Montagnes. Paris et Toulouse, 1861. 8vo. pamphlet.

Tschudi, Friedrich von. Ueber die Landwirthschaftliche Bedeutung der
Vogel. St. Gallen, 1854. 12mo.

Tschudi, J.J. von. Travels in Peru. New York, 1848. 8vo.

Valles, M.F. Etudes sur les Inondations, leurs causes et leurs effets.
Paris, 1857. 8vo.

Valvasor, Johann Weichard. Die Ehre des Herzogthums Crain. Laybach,

1689. 4 vols. folio.

Van Lennep. Extracts from Journal of, in the Missionary Herald.

Vaupell, Chr. Bogene Indvandring i de Danske Skove. Kjobenhavn, 1857. 8vo.

——De Nordsjaellandake Skovmoser. Kjobenhavn, 1851. 4to, pamphlet.

Venema, G.A. Over het Dalen van de Noordelijke Kuststreken van ons Land.
Groningen, 1854. 8vo.

Villa, Antonio Giovanni Batt. Necessita dei Boschi nella Lombardia.
Milano, 1850. 4to.

Viollet, J.B. Theorie des Puits Artesiens. Paris, 1840. 8vo.

Waltershausen, W. Sartorius von. Ueber den Sicilianischen Ackerbau
Gottingen, 1863.

Webster, Noah. A Collection of Papers on Political, Literary, and Moral
Subjects. New York, 1843. 8vo.

Wessely, Joseph. Die Oesterreichischen Alpenlander und ihre Forste.

Wien, 1853. 2 vols. 8vo.

Wetzstein, J.G. Reisebericht uber Hanran und die Trachonen. Berlin,
1860. 8vo.
Wild, Albert. Die Niederlande. Leipzig, 1862. 2 vols. 8vo.

Wilhelm, Gustav. Der Boden und das Wasser. Wien, 1861. 8vo.

Williams, Dr. History of Vermont. 2 vols. 8vo.

Wittwer, W.C. Die Physikalische Geographie. Leipzig, 1855. 8vo.

Young, Arthur. Voyages en France, pendant les annees 1787, 1788, 1789, procedee d'une introduction par Lavergne. Paris, 1860. 2 vols. 12mo.

——Voyages en Italie et en Espagne, pendant les annees 1787, 1789.
Paris, 1860. 1 vol. 12mo.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY

Natural Advantages of the Territory of the Roman Empire—Physical Decay of that Territory—Causes of the Decay—Reaction of Man on Nature—Observation of Nature—Uncertainty of Our Historical Knowledge of Ancient Climates—Uncertainty of Modern Meteorology—Stability of Nature—Formation of Bogs—Natural Conditions Favorable to Geographical Change—Destructiveness of Man—Human and Brute Action Compared—Limits of Human Power—Importance of Physical Conservation and Restoration—Uncertainty as to Effects of Human Action

CHAPTER II.

TRANSFER, MODIFICATION, AND EXTIRPATION OF VEGETABLE AND OF ANIMAL SPECIES.

Modern Geography takes Account of Organic Life—Geographical Importance
of Plants—Origin of Domestic Vegetables—Transfer of Vegetable
Life—Objects of Modern Commerce—Foreign Plants, how
Introduced—Vegetable Power of Accommodation—Agricultural Products of
the United States—Useful American Plants Grown in Europe—Extirpation
of Vegetables—Animal Life as a Geological and Geographical
Agency—Origin and Transfer of Domestic Quadrupeds—Extirpation of Wild
Quadrupeds—Large Marine Animals Relatively Unimportant in
Geography—Introduction and Breeding of Fish—Destruction of
Fish—Geographical Importance of Birds—Introduction of
Birds—Destruction of Birds—Utility and Destruction of
Reptiles—Utility of Insects and Worms—Injury to the Forest by
Insects—Introduction of Insects—Destruction of Insects—Minute
Organisms

CHAPTER III.

THE WOODS.

The Habitable Earth Originally Wooded—General Meteorological Influence
of the Forest—Electrical Action of Trees—Chemical Influence of
Woods—Trees as Protection against Malaria—Trees as Shelter to Ground
to the Leeward—Influence of the Forest as Inorganic on
Temperature—Thermometrical Action of Trees as Organic—Total Influence
of the Forest on Temperature—Influence of Forests as Inorganic on
Humidity of Air and Earth—Influence as Organic—Balance of Conflicting
Influences—Influence of Woods on Precipitation—Total Climatic Action
of the Forest—Influence of the Forest on Humidity of Soil—The Forest
in Winter—Summer Rain, Importance of—Influence of the Forest on the
Flow of Springs—Influence of the Forest on Inundations and
Torrents—Destructive Action of Torrents—Floods of the
Ardeche—Excavation by Torrents—Extinction of Torrents—Crushing Force
of Torrents—Transporting Power of Water—The Po and its
Deposits—Mountain Slides—Forest as Protection against
Avalanches—Minor Uses of the Forest—Small Forest Plants and Vitality
of Seeds—Locusts do not Breed in Forests—General Functions of
Forest—General Consequences of Destruction of—Due Proportion of
Woodland—Proportion of Woodland in European Countries—Forests of Great
Britain—Forests of France—Forests of Italy—Forests of
Germany—Forests of United States—American Forest Trees—European and
American Forest Trees Compared—The Forest does not furnish Food for
Man—First Removal of the Forest—Principal Causes of Destruction of
Forest—Destruction and Protection of Forests by Governments—Royal
Forests and Game-laws—Effects of the French Revolution—Increased
Demand for Lumber—Effects of Burning Forest—Floating of
Timber—Restoration of the Forest—Economy of the Forest—Forest
Legislation—Plantation of Forests In America—Financial Results of
Forest Plantations—Instability of American Life

CHAPTER IV.

THE WATERS.

Land Artificially Won from the Waters—Great Works of Material
Improvement—Draining of Lincolnshire Fens—Incursions of the Sea in the
Netherlands—Origin of Sea-dikes—Gain and Loss of Land in the
Netherlands—Marine Deposits on the Coast of Netherlands—Draining of
Lake of Haarlem—Draining of the Zuiderzee—Geographical Effects
of—Improvements in the Netherlands—Ancient Hydraulic Works—Draining
of Lake Celano by Prince Torlonia—Incidental Consequences of Draining
Lakes—Draining of Marshes—Agricultural Draining—Meteorological
Effects of Draining—Geographical Effects of Draining—Geographical
Effects of Aqueducts and Canals—Antiquity of Irrigation—Irrigation in
Palestine, India, and Egypt—Irrigation in Europe—Meteorological
Effects of Irrigation—Water withdrawn from Rivers for
Irrigation—Injurious Effects of Rice-culture—Salts Deposited by Water
of Irrigation—Subterranean Waters—Artesian Wells—Artificial
Springs—Economizing Precipitation—Inundations in France—Basins of
Reception—Diversion of Rivers—Glacier Lakes—River Embankments—Other
Remedies against Inundations—Dikes of the Nile—Deposits of Tuscan
Rivers—Improvements in Tuscan Maremma—Improvements in Val di
Chiana—Coast of the Netherlands

CHAPTER V.

THE SANDS.

Origin of Sand—Sand now Carried to the Sea—Beach Sands of Northern
Africa—Sands of Egypt—Sand Dunes and Sand Plains—Coast Dunes—Sand
Banks—Character of Dune Sand—Interior Structure of Dunes—Geological
Importance of Dunes—Dunes on American Coasts—Dunes of Western
Europe—Age, Character, and Permanence of Dunes—Dunes as a Barrier
against the Sea—Encroachments of the Sea—Liimfjord—Coasts of
Schleswig-Holstein, Netherlands, and France—Movement of Dunes—Control
of Dunes by Man—Inland Dunes—Inland Sand Plains

CHAPTER VI.

GREAT PROJECTS OF PHYSICAL CHANGE ACCOMPLISHED OR PROPOSED BY MAN.

Cutting of Isthmuses—Canal of Suez—Maritime Canals in Greece—Canals
to Dead Sea—Canals to Libyan Desert—Maritime Canals in Europe—Cape
Cod Canal—Changes in Caspian—Diversion of the Nile—Diversion of the
Rhine—Improvements in North American Hydrography—Soil below
Rock—Covering Rock with Earth—Desert Valleys—Effects of
Mining—Duponchel's Plans of Improvement—Action of Man on the
Weather—Resistance to Great Natural Forces—Incidental Effects of Human
Action—Nothing Small In Nature