CULTIVATION OF THE CHINCHONA-PLANTS IN THE NEILGHERRY HILLS, UNDER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF MR. McIVOR.

In previous chapters detailed accounts have been given of the proceedings connected with the collection of chinchona plants and seeds in South America, their conveyance to India, and the selection of suitable sites for their cultivation. It now only remains to record the progress of this important experiment in the Neilgherry hills during the last year, and to offer some remarks on the contemplated measures connected with its future management. A very valuable Report by Mr. McIvor, on the same subject, will be found in an Appendix.

It is a subject of congratulation that the Government should have at their disposal the services of one so admirably fitted for the post of Director of chinchona cultivation as Mr. McIvor. This gentleman has superintended the Government gardens at Ootacamund for fourteen years, and their beauty as well as their usefulness are due to him;[499] while his periodical visits to the Conolly teak plantations have been productive of the most valuable results,[500] and he has successfully introduced a great number of English and other plants into the Neilgherry hills.[501] Mr. McIvor combines with his attainments as a scientific gardener great practical experience, and a thorough acquaintance with the climates, soils, and flora of the hills. He has long taken a deep interest in the question of the introduction of chinchona-plants into India, and he brought the subject to the notice of Lord Harris, then Governor of Madras, as long ago as 1855. Since that time he has made himself master of the subject by a study of every work of any importance which has appeared in Europe within the last thirty years;[502] while the practical knowledge which he has acquired of the requirements of chinchona-plants during the fifteen months that he has now superintended their cultivation, in addition to his previous qualifications, makes him fitter than any other person that could be found for the direction of this most important experiment.

In July 1861 Mr. McIvor was appointed Superintendent of chinchona cultivation by the Madras Government, with full and entire control over the operations, in direct communication with the Government, and subject to no interference from any intermediate authority.[503] Orders to the same effect were sent out to Madras by the Secretary of State for India in Council on July 2nd, 1861, and the same orders were repeated both to the Governor-General and to the Governor of Madras, in despatches dated February 1862. It was above all things important that Mr. McIvor's position, in connexion with the chinchona experiment, should be authoritatively defined, in order to protect him from attempts at interference, which have been as vexatious as they have been unnecessary, and which have more than once threatened to render success impossible. These dangers are now, fortunately, at an end; and the interest taken by Sir William Denison, the present Governor of Madras, in a measure calculated to confer so great a benefit on the people of India, ensures to it a fair trial, and is one of the best guarantees of ultimate success.

Mr. McIvor's zeal and ability, his intimate knowledge of his profession, of the Neilgherry hills, and of all questions bearing on the subject of chinchona-plants, and his acquirements as a scientific as well as a practical gardener, justify the confidence which has thus been placed in him by the Secretary of State in Council, and by the Madras Government. He has also had the advantage of personal intercourse, for weeks together, with Mr. Cross, Mr. Weir, and myself, after we had explored and carefully examined the chinchona forests in South America; but his subsequent experience in the cultivation of the plants under his charge has furnished him with means of observation which now gives his opinion greater weight than those of persons whose knowledge is derived from books, from short visits to the plantations in Java, or even from personal examination of the South American forests.

In offering my opinion on the best method of cultivating the chinchona-plants, I have the satisfaction of knowing that my conclusions substantially agree with those of Mr. McIvor—mine being founded on experience gained in the chinchona forests, and his on careful observation of the plants which he has reared in India. That these views should be concurred in by Dr. Weddell, Mr. Howard, and Mr. Spruce, is most satisfactory, as it supplies an additional presumption of their correctness.

I will now proceed to give an account of the progress of the chinchona cultivation in the Neilgherry hills. The first batch of seeds, being those of the "grey-bark" species from Huanuco, arrived at Ootacamund on the 13th of January, 1861, and those of the "red-bark" followed in the end of February. On the 7th of April 463 plants of C. succirubra and six of C. Calisaya reached their destination on the Neilgherry hills in very good condition, considering the length of time they had been in Wardian cases, and thus the experiment was fairly commenced.

The first sowing, which took place in January, was not very successful, because Mr. McIvor was induced to use too retentive a soil, having been misled by the treatment of seeds adopted in Java; and only 3 to 4 per cent. germinated. The second sowing took place early in March, the soil used being of a much freer nature, half composed of burned earth; and 15 to 25 per cent. germinated. Encouraged by this result, Mr. McIvor used a soil composed entirely of burned earth for the third sowing, which took place in the beginning of April, and included the seeds of the "red-bark" species. Of this sowing 60 per cent. germinated, and of the seeds of C. micrantha 90 per cent. It is to be remembered that all these seeds were collected in the South American forests some months before, and that they had passed through the perils of several climates, and a voyage of many thousands of miles.

In May all the plants of C. succirubra had taken fairly to the soil, and were in a healthy and flourishing condition, those of C. Calisaya were doing well, but recovering more slowly from the effects of the voyage, and the seedlings were growing fast. The temperature given to the plants was 60° in the morning, rising to 75° in the day, with plenty of light and air; this treatment having proved to be best adapted for their rapid growth. Of course they would grow higher if shaded, and consequently drawn up, according to the erroneous plan adopted in Java; but this is not what is wanted, and, by giving them plenty of light and air, they grew into fine strong plants, as broad as they were long.

It was found that the chinchonÆ are remarkably impatient of any damp at their roots, all the species thrive better in rough and open than in fine soil, and there is reason to believe that they will bear a much drier climate than we originally supposed.

During the autumn of 1861 the work of propagation, by means of cuttings and layers, progressed rapidly; and, whereas in June 1861 we only had 2114 chinchona-plants of valuable species at Ootacamund, in January the number was increased to 9732 plants. The layers of C. succirubra root sufficiently to be removed in five weeks, and cuttings in two months; layers of the "grey-bark" taking a little longer time to root, or about six weeks. Mr. McIvor has also made the important discovery that chinchonÆ strike freely from eyes, and make beautiful plants exactly like strong seedlings. These eyes will give about eight fine strong plants for one that is obtained from cuttings, which is a great advantage while there is not much wood in the young plants. In October Mr. McIvor reduced the temperature of one of the propagating houses to 55° at night, and 65° during the day; and, under this treatment, which is also probably advantageous to the bark, the plants appeared to grow faster, and the leaves became a very beautiful bright green. The thickness of the bark, in the plants of C. succirubra, is very remarkable, having been in some instances nearly one-seventh of an inch last January, and in the smaller stems the average thickness of the bark considerably exceeds that of the wood. Mr. McIvor attributes the unusual thickness of the bark to the presence of a large number of healthy leaves, exposed to bright light. These leaves throw back into the bark a large quantity of highly elaborated matter. The experience of a year's cultivation convinced Mr. McIvor that, although the most suitable elevation and climate differs with the various species, yet that they all require a rich, rough, and very open soil. In September the erection of a new propagating house for chinchona-plants, in the Government gardens at Ootacamund, was sanctioned, which was completed early in December. It is 63 feet long by 21 broad, and will hold about 8000 plants.

The Dutch Government in Java, at the request of the Government of India, arranged to forward some chinchona-plants of the species cultivated in that island to Calcutta; and accordingly 100 of C. Calisaya, 300 of C. Pahudiana, and 7 of C. lancifolia were transmitted. Of these 48 of C. Calisaya, 4 of C. lancifolia, and 250 of C. Pahudiana arrived at Ootacamund on the 20th of December, 1861. In exchange for these plants a supply of C. succirubrÆ, and a proportionate number of the other species, will be sent to Java, "not more in return for the valuable accession actually received to our stock of plants of C. Calisaya, than in acknowledgment of the very courteous and liberal spirit evinced by the Dutch authorities."[504] At about the same time Mr. McIvor also sent 100 plants of C. succirubra and 50 of each of the "grey-bark" species to Calcutta, with a view to the establishment of a chinchona plantation in the Sikkim or Bhotan hills.

The plants which arrived from Java were drawn and weak, and had evidently been grown without sufficient light. They were all more or less affected by rot at their roots, and many of the roots were covered with fungi. A few of the plants of C. Calisaya died, but the others recovered under Mr. McIvor's watchful care.

A large parcel of seeds of C. Condaminea, probably of two varieties (Chahuarguera and Uritusinga), and a smaller packet of seeds of C. crispa, were despatched from England in January, and arrived at Ootacamund in March, 1862. By this time Mr. McIvor had discovered the best method of treatment for chinchona-seeds. He sows in very sandy soil; and while so much water is never given as to make the particles of soil adhere to each other, yet the soil is kept in a uniform medium state of moisture. In this way the seeds not only germinate soon, but come up very strong. There is every reason to expect that a good per-centage of these seeds will germinate,[505] and that a large number of these, the earliest known of all the valuable chinchona species, will soon be growing luxuriantly in the upper sholas of the Neilgherry hills. Mr. Howard has also presented the Government with a plant of C. Uritusinga of Pavon (C. Condaminea, H. and B.), six feet high, which he had raised from seed sent to him from Loxa. This precious plant was embarked on board the steamer on the 4th of March, 1862, and arrived at Ootacamund early in April.

Thus, after two anxious years, we now have all the valuable species of chinchonÆ mentioned in the second chapter, safely established in Southern India. In the following tabular statement will be seen at a glance the number of species, the number of each species, the number of plants last February, their monthly increase since June, their monthly growth, and their present dimensions. The number is now increasing at the rate of several thousands every month. The imported plants of C. succirubra have already produced some thousands by propagation; and in December the seedlings had attained a size sufficient to give wood for propagation, the first of them having even then produced a few hundred plants.

From the total number of 10,157 chinchona-plants must be deducted 425 of the worthless C. Pahudiana sent from Java, leaving a total of 9732 of valuable species on the 1st of February, with the number rapidly increasing. The increase was not so large as it otherwise would have been during the first two months of 1862, owing to the supply of a number of plants to Java, and the transmission of others to Calcutta, with a view to the formation of a plantation in the Bengal hills, and of sixteen to Mr. Maltby for the Rajah of Travancore.

It is exceedingly satisfactory to compare these results with those of the Dutch cultivators in Java. After six years they only had (exclusive of the C. Pahudiana, which is quite worthless) 8454 chinchona-plants of valuable species;[507] whereas in rather less than one year Mr. McIvor has reared 9732, without counting several hundreds which he has transmitted to Java, Calcutta, and Travancore. The Dutch have only introduced two good species, while we have obtained nine, exclusive of the four plants of C. lancifolia presented by the Dutch authorities. Thus, the average increase of valuable species of chinchona-plants in Java between 1854 and 1860 being at the rate of 1409 a year, the results attained in India have been nearly seven times as great as those of the Dutch cultivators. These facts are not mentioned in any spirit of undue exultation, but in order to show that it is not advisable slavishly to follow the methods of cultivation adopted by the Dutch, as two gentlemen, in official positions, who have recently visited the plantations in Java, appear to imagine. On the contrary, a system of cultivation diametrically opposed to that of the Dutch has enabled Mr. McIvor to achieve his present success; and the sites for plantations have been selected and prepared, not with any reference to the erroneous and comparatively unsuccessful systems pursued in Java, but on the principle of carefully comparing the elevations, temperature, amount of humidity, and of exposure of the mountains where the different valuable species of chinchona thrive in South America, with analogous situations in the hills of Southern India.

The important process of planting out has now commenced in the Neilgherry hills, and it has been a subject of careful consideration whether the chinchona-plants should be grown under dense shade, under the partial shade of forest-trees, or quite in the open: in other words—what are the elevations and amounts of exposure best suited to the growth of the plants, and the development of their alkaloids?

In Java the chinchona-plants were at first established at far too low an elevation, in a wretched soil, and exposed to the full glare of the sun. Dr. Junghuhn, the present Superintendent, went to the other extreme, and, though the proper elevation has been ascertained, yet the error has been committed of forming the plantations in the dense shade of the forest, with the intention of allowing some trees to be drawn up in search of light, without a branch for thirty or forty feet, and of cutting them down for their bark in about forty years, and of grubbing up others in search of imaginary quinine in their roots.[508] I understand that this plan has at last been found to be erroneous, and that Dr. Junghuhn now directs all the trees in the vicinity of the chinchona-plants to be cut down, though faith is still maintained in the quinine-yielding roots of the worthless C. Pahudiana.[509]

If the thing was not sufficiently evident in itself, the appearance of the barks sent from Java to the Exhibition of 1862 is quite enough to prove that chinchona-plants ought not to be cultivated under the shade of forest-trees. The question of the proper amount of exposure to which each species should be subjected is, however, one which requires very careful consideration; as upon its correct solution depends the most important point of all, namely the method of cultivation which will be most profitable, and most suitable to the operations of private enterprise.

Mr. McIvor commenced experiments in planting out in the spring of 1861. In April he planted out three plants of C. succirubra, two under shade, and one in an open spot surrounded by brushwood and undergrowth. On the 29th of the same month the S.W. monsoon set in, and the plants under dense shade assumed a weak climber-like habit, and were injured from the leaves being cut to pieces by the constant drip from the forest-trees;[510] while the plant shaded by the brushwood continued in the most luxuriant state of health, with its leaves uninjured. In September 1861, six plants of different species were planted out in cleared spots on the highest and most exposed points of the Neddiwuttum site, and all of these have not only borne the cold and drought without injury, but their growth has never even been checked, and at present they are in the finest possible state of health. Their leaves are of the deepest green, some of them measuring 12 inches by 9.

Between May and August fifteen "red-bark" plants were planted out at Ootacamund. The unusual cold of December checked the growth of these plants, but did not injure them in the least, and the leaves still keep their deep-green colour, and measure from 7 to 9 inches.[511]

Early in January 1862, the formation of a nursery was commenced at Neddiwuttum, large enough for 300,000 or 400,000 ChinchonÆ; and 2400 were planted out. 150 acres are to be planted, at the Neddiwuttum site, during the year; of which 75 acres will be planted under various degrees of shade from forest-trees, in order to ascertain the results of this method by actual experiment; and 75 quite in the open, the young plants being protected from the direct rays of the sun by artificial shade during the first year or two. The original stock will be retained in the gardens at Ootacamund, for the purpose of propagation, and the propagated plants will be used for stocking the nurseries and plantations.

With regard to the question of whether the chinchonÆ should be planted out in dense shade of forest-trees or in the open, it will be well to recapitulate some of the information which has been collected in their native habitat in South America.

In the forests of Caravaya I observed that the plants of C. Calisaya, when in dense shade, were tall and weak, with few branches, and without any sign of ever having flowered or fruited. When very slightly shaded, as on the ridge of rocks above the Yanamayu, or scarcely at all, as on the precipice of Ccasa-sani, they spread more, have a more healthy appearance, and are covered with capsule-bearing panicles; while the most thriving and healthy-looking young plant that I met with, was growing in the open, without any shade whatever. It is quite certain that an abundance of light and air is an absolute necessity for the full development of the alkaloids in the bark of C. Calisaya, and that the trees must either grow at the edge of the forests, or else find their way to the light, by overtopping all other trees: otherwise, as is too often the case, they assume a weakly, straggling habit under the baneful influence of dense shade.

Dr. Weddell is of opinion that, during the first year or two, the soil and trunks of young trees of C. Calisaya should be protected from the direct influence of the scorching sun, as he had observed that plants so exposed generally appeared to have a stunted growth. He refers of course to the Josephiana or shrub variety of C. Calisaya, but their dwarfed habit must be attributed to the less fertile soil of the open grass-land in which they grow, and partly also to the great altitude, and consequently cold climate, rather than to effects of exposure to light and air.

With respect to the "red-bark" species, there cannot be a doubt that they should be planted in the open. On this point Mr. Spruce's observations are quite conclusive. He says—"The trees standing in open ground, pasture, cane-field, &c., are far healthier and more luxuriant than those growing in the forest, where they are hemmed in and partially shaded by other trees; and while many of the former had flowered freely, the latter were, without exception, sterile. This plainly shows that, although the red-bark may need shade whilst young and tender, it really requires (like most trees) plenty of air, light, and room, wherein to develop its proportions."[512]

The "grey-bark" species all bear the marks of exposure to free air, cold, and sunshine; and the overspreading thallus of various GrapideÆ on their barks indicates that the trees have grown in open situations, exposed to rain and sunshine.[513]

The C. Condaminea trees, in the neighbourhood of Loxa, grow sometimes in little clumps, and sometimes solitary, but always in dry situations.[514] Dr. Seemann, who visited Loxa when serving on board H.M.S. Herald, informs me that those which he saw, bearing ripe fruit, were on the edge of thickets, entirely exposed to the influence of air and sunshine.

Dr. Weddell assures me that he would never recommend that any of the chinchona-trees should be planted in the dense shade of the forest, as in such a situation the greater number would evidently soon be smothered. He is of opinion that the ChinchonÆ, in India, should be planted in open ground; but he considers it important that the trunks and soil should be shaded during the first year or two. He proposes to effect this object either by planting the chinchonas at convenient distances in a quincunx, alternately with some more fast-growing trees, which might be cut away when no longer required;[515] or by planting the chinchonas themselves close enough to oblige each other to run up, sufficient space and air being gradually provided by judicious pruning and thinning out. The former method might be a good one if it were not for the faster-growing trees taking up a great proportion of the nourishment from the soil, which would be more profitably reserved for the chinchonas; and probably the efficient shading of the trees, while young and tender, will be more easily and effectually provided for by simple artificial means.

Mr. Howard, the author of 'Nueva Quinologia de Pavon,' whose knowledge on all questions connected with chinchona-plants is not surpassed by that of any botanist in Europe, is clearly of opinion that they should be planted in the open, without shade from other trees, and that they should be cultivated as shrubs; when their branches will yield an ample and remunerative supply of bark.

On the other hand, Dr. Junghuhn, in Java, has planted his chinchonÆ under the dense shade of forest-trees, where they must necessarily be watery and unhealthy, where they will not flower or bear fruit, and where he does not expect that they will yield quinine for fifty years, when he contemplates the entire demolition of the plantations by felling all the trees. Now, if such a system as this is to be adopted in India, the chinchona-plants might as well never have been introduced. The plantations would be a wasteful expense to Government, with a remote chance of some profit, forming but a small fraction of the outlay, about twice in a century; and the idea of chinchona cultivation ever being undertaken by private enterprise, on this system, is quite out of the question; for what planter in his senses would commence the cultivation of a product which would yield him no return for forty or fifty years?

When planted in the open chinchonÆ grow luxuriantly, yield abundant supplies of seed, and form fine thick bark, which, owing to the free exposure of the leaves to the influence of light and fresh air, contains a large per-centage of alkaloids; while, in the shade of forest-trees, they run up into tall, weak, straggling plants, with little chance of either bearing fruit, or elaborating much quinine in their bark, until, after nearly half a century, some of them at length overtop the other trees, and reach that essential sunshine of which they had been so long deprived.

I not only think, with Mr. Spruce, Dr. Weddell, Mr. Howard, Mr. McIvor, and Mr. Cross, that the chinchona-plants must be planted in the open, and freely exposed to the influence of fresh air and sunshine; but I am most strongly of opinion that, if the opposite system was unfortunately adopted, it would have been far better if the expense and trouble of introducing these precious trees into India had never been incurred.

It is true that, when planted in the forest, the chinchonÆ will look well to the casual observer, and that their cultivation can be conducted without skill or care, as all will be left to nature; while, in open ground, it will require great skill and constant attention to get the young trees over the first year or two. The cleared ground will be exposed to the full effects of evaporation and radiation, and much judicious management will be necessary in applying artificial shade, and in adopting other precautions. The open spaces should not, I think, be of very great extent, without being broken up by clumps or irregular lines of trees; and care must be taken that the supplies of moisture and of water are not prejudiced by too much felling. But these details may safely be left to Mr. McIvor, who now has the assistance of two well-instructed English gardeners, named Batcock and Lyall; and he will be able to obtain uniform and constant yearly supplies of bark, without any damage to the trees, which, when once full-grown, will thrive luxuriantly, and yield abundance of seeds.

The most suitable positions for chinchona-plants, as regards elevation and climate, having been pointed out, and the best method of treatment with respect to exposure being decided in favour of planting out in open ground, two other questions remain to be discussed which are intimately connected with the above,—namely, the conditions under which the largest per-centage of febrifugal alkaloids will be formed in the bark,[516] and the method of cultivation which is likely to yield the largest and most remunerative supplies of bark in the shortest time.

One well-established fact, which is proved by universal experience, is that all the species of chinchona-trees produce the thickest bark and the largest per-centage of alkaloids when growing at the highest elevation at which they respectively flourish. Thus, all other circumstances being favourable, the C. Calisaya and C. succirubra species will yield more profitable crops when growing at an elevation of 6000 feet, than at one of 5000 feet. The shrubby varieties of chinchonÆ are specially good when their stunted growth is owing to the altitude of the locality.[517] Mr. Spruce ascertained, with regard to the "red bark," that the greater the height at which the tree grows, the larger is the proportion of alkaloids contained in the bark;[518] and that, although the trees growing nearest the plain were generally much larger, yet their bark was by no means so thick in proportion to their diameter as in trees higher up. He adds that, in cutting down trees in the hot plains, he has often been struck with the thinness of the bark compared to that of trees growing in temperate climates.[519]

There are several other conditions under which the largest amount of alkaloids is formed in chinchona-barks, which are as yet little understood. Dr. Karsten suggests that the content of alkaloids in the same species of chinchona-trees, growing in different ravines, is affected by unceasing mists in one, and constant sunshine resting on the vegetation in the other; the former impeding, and the latter promoting, the formation of quinine.[520] In the Loxa region a great difference has been noticed in the bark of C. Condaminea, according as the tree has grown on the sides of the mountains most exposed to the rays of the morning or of the evening sun: and Mr. Spruce remarks of the "red-bark" trees that the ridges on which they grow all deviate from an easterly and westerly direction, and that the trees are far more abundant on their northern than on their southern slopes. The northern and eastern sides of the trees had also borne most flowers, and scarcely a capsule ripened on their southern and western sides, except on one tree of more open growth than the rest. This phenomenon is due to the fact that the trees receive more sunshine from the north and east, during the summer mornings,[521] the afternoons being usually foggy.

All these points will receive careful attention from Mr. McIvor, in conducting the cultivation; and his observations will soon enable him to decide many points connected with the formation of quinine in the bark, and to ascertain the most advantageous conditions under which the plants should be cultivated.

The sites have been selected at Neddiwuttum and Dodabetta with reference to the similarity of elevation and climate in those localities to the native mountains of the species which it is intended to cultivate in them, and because they have plenty of deep loamy soil. It has also been determined that the best method of cultivation will be found in planting out the chinchonÆ in the open, for reasons already given; and not only will the luxuriant and healthy growth of the plants be provided for by this treatment, but it is also essential for the formation of an abundant supply of alkaloids in their bark. This process depends on the vigorous action of the leaves, and the healthful condition of the leaves is due to a sufficient supply of sunshine. Dr. Lindley says,—"It is to the action of leaves,—to the decomposition of their carbonic acid, and of their water; to the separation of the aqueous particles of the sap from the solid parts that were dissolved in it; to the deposition thus effected of various earthy and other substances, either introduced into plants as silex or metallic salts, or formed there, as the vegetable alkaloids; to the extrication of nitrogen; and, probably, to other causes as yet unknown—that the formation of the peculiar secretions of plants, of whatever kind, is owing. And this is brought about principally, if not exclusively, by the agency of light. Their green colour becomes intense, in proportion to their exposure to light within certain limits."[522]

Under cultivation the chinchona-plants must either be raised in their shrubby form in the open, or as tall trees under the shade of the forest. The latter system, which has been adopted by Dr. Junghuhn in Java, is defended on the ground that, in their natural localities in the Andes, the chinchonÆ "grow in damp forests overshadowed by trees." There are two things to be said against this. Firstly, that it is not the case; for though it is true that some species of chinchonÆ do grow in damp shady forests, yet they never flourish in such positions, but only when supplied with plenty of light and air; and secondly, even if it was the case, such an argument would be worth nothing. In their wild state, and in localities where they are indigenous, all plants find certain conditions which are favourable to their perfect development; but they have to struggle for existence with a multitude of neighbours. Every condition is not supplied by Providence for the special behoof of one particular genus, and, in virgin forests, all trees suffer more or less from being overcrowded and overshadowed. But under cultivation the case is different. The cultivator endeavours to combine all the conditions best calculated to ensure the perfect development of a particular plant, and does not subject it to the baneful influences of too much shade, merely because it suffered from overshading in its wild state. Mr. McIvor has very aptly illustrated this point, by mentioning that Bruce found wheat growing wild in Upper Egypt, struggling for existence with rushes and other weeds. An English farmer would be surprised if he was told to sow his wheat in the hedges, instead of in the fields, because in its wild state it is found amongst weeds and briars!

The facts that it will be necessary to wait for thirty years before any return can be expected; and that it will have a most injurious effect on the formation of alkaloids in the bark, are sufficient arguments against planting the chinchonÆ in the shade of the forest, and waiting for them to run up until the survivors overtop the surrounding trees. It has been necessary to bring these points prominently forward, because attempts have been made to introduce the erroneous system, adopted by the Dutch cultivators, into India.

We now come to the other alternative, that of raising the chinchonÆ in their shrubby form, on plantations in open clearings, with plenty of fresh air and sunshine. It is the system of cultivation which I, in common with Mr. Howard and Mr. McIvor, consider to be the most likely to lead to successful results, because it is the only one by which remunerative harvests of bark can be obtained year by year, without injuring the plants.

Two questions require consideration before adopting this method: first, whether the chinchonÆ in their shrubby form will yield a sufficient annual supply of febrifugal alkaloids to make the cultivation remunerative; and secondly, whether it will be possible to take the required quantity of bark every year, without checking the growth of the trees.

The trunk or tabla bark naturally yields a much larger per-centage of alkaloids than the canuto or small bark of branches; but as a supply of the former could only be obtained once in forty years, and then at the cost of destroying the plantations, while the latter will yield an annual harvest without any injury to the trees, this point is not of much consequence.[523]

The fact is that very little tabla or trunk-bark comes from South America, and that nearly the entire bark trade is supplied by quill-bark from the branches of shrubs. Some Calisaya bark from Bolivia, some "red bark," and "West-coast Carthagena," from the trunks of C. Palton, arrive in the form of large slabs of tabla-bark; but a great deal of the Calisaya and succirubra bark, the whole of the "crown-bark" from Loxa, and all bark from other quarters, is found only in the form of quills from small branches. I have measured several of the quills which come into the London market, and find that none of them have bark equal in thickness to that already attained by some of the young plants reared by Mr. McIvor at Ootacamund.[524] These quills are evidently taken from small shrubs, and they yield a very good per-centage of quinine. Several samples of quill Calisaya bark, sold in London in March 1862, contained four per cent. of quinine. Their bark was one-eighth of an inch thick, and the quills were just under an inch in circumference. In a cultivated state the yield will of course be much greater, and Mr. Howard, judging from the usual yield of quill-bark, is of opinion that a large produce may be annually realised by growing the chinchonÆ as shrubs.[525]

In cultivating the chinchonÆ in rows on cleared plantations it will probably be found advisable to grow them to a height of ten or twelve feet, and about twelve feet from each other, so that they may be able to spread out until they are nearly as broad as they are long; and they should be induced to branch as near the ground as possible. A certain number of the branches should be lopped annually for the quinine harvest; shoots would immediately be thrown out below the cuts, from which one or two should be selected to take the place of the lopped branch; and in about six years the new branches, thus formed, would be sufficiently grown to be again removed. In the mean while the same operation would have been going on with other branches, and thus an annual harvest of quill-bark may be obtained for any number of years. Mr. McIvor considers that this treatment will ensure a quick, uniform, and constant supply of bark; and if the lopping and pruning is judiciously conducted, the trees will be benefited rather than injured by the annual removal of a few branches.[526] Chinchona-plants, like oaks and willows, might also be cultivated as pollards.

By cultivating the chinchona-plants on these principles, forming plantations in cleared open ground, giving the plants plenty of light and air, and obtaining annual harvests of quill-bark from the shrubs, quinine-yielding chinchona-bark will become an article of commerce within eight years from the first introduction of the plants into India. After the first harvest the supply will rapidly increase. Extensive Government plantations of the different species at Neddiwuttum and Dodabetta on the Neilgherries, will be in a position to supply any number of chinchonÆ for private enterprise, and it is to be hoped that the Government will establish other chinchona nurseries on the Pulney hills, in Coorg, and eventually on the Anamallays.

As quinine-yielding bark is a more valuable product than coffee, there is every reason to believe that, as soon as the Government plantations are proved to be successful, many planters will undertake the cultivation; and I understand from Mr. McIvor that several persons have already expressed a desire to give the chinchonÆ a trial, and that he expects to be able to distribute plants by June 1862.[527] Thus another important product will be added to the resources of India, while the Government will have an abundant and cheap annual supply of the most indispensable of all medicines to Europeans in tropical climates, which is now only obtained at immense expense, and in quantities quite insufficient to meet the demand.

In a commercial point of view the introduction of chinchona-plants into India is likely to prove very beneficial, by adding another valuable article of export to the numerous products of that favoured land; but an equal if not a greater result will be derived from this important measure, in the naturalisation of these healing plants in a country the inhabitants of which suffer so severely and constantly from intermittent and other fevers. From motives of humanity, as well as from personal interest, every coffee-planter, as I have before said, ought to cultivate a few rows of chinchona-plants in the upper part of his clearing. Even if it is not intended to rear them on account of their commercial value, yet such a measure recommends itself as a duty, in order to have a supply of this inestimable febrifuge constantly at hand for the use of those who are employed on the plantations.

Many of the natives are already fully aware of the febrifugal virtues of Peruvian bark, and it is to be hoped that, in all the hill-districts where there is a suitable elevation and climate, they will grow chinchona-trees in their gardens, just as is now generally done with coffee in all the villages in Coorg. For the use of the natives there will be no necessity to go to the expense and trouble of extracting the alkaloids, as the green fresh bark is itself very efficacious. After the natives have once used this unfailing remedy, and experienced the power it has over the fevers from which they suffer, they will, like Dr. Poeppig in the wilds of Peru, approach the beautiful healing trees with warm feelings of gratitude,[528] their fame will spread far and wide, and the cultivation of chinchonÆ will, I trust, be extended to its utmost limit throughout the peninsula of India.

So far as my observations extended, the impression which I had previously received, that the natives can with difficulty be induced to undertake the cultivation of any new plants to which they have not been accustomed, was not confirmed. Not to mention the potato, maize, tobacco, and capsicums, which originally came from America, and are now generally cultivated in India, it is a fact that in Wynaad upwards of 2000 acres are taken up for coffee cultivation by the natives; and in Coorg, where coffee was only introduced about six years ago, I scarcely saw a single hut to which a small coffee-garden was not attached. The extent to which the cassava (Jatophra Manihot), only lately introduced, is now cultivated in Travancore, is quite remarkable; and there is every reason to suppose that the natives will be equally ready to cultivate a plant possessing such extraordinary febrifugal powers as the chinchona, the value of which they will soon appreciate.

Thus will the successful cultivation of the quinine-yielding chinchona-plants confer a great and lasting benefit upon the people of India, as well as upon the commerce of the whole world; and the concluding words of Dr. Weddell's Introduction[529] may, therefore, with strict propriety, be applied to Mr. McIvor and his assistants: "Reste la ressource de la culture, et il faut l'employer. S'il est un arbre digne d'Être acclimatÉ, c'est certes le Quinquina; et la postÉritÉ bÉnirait ceux qui auraient mis À exÉcution une semblable idÉe."

While speaking of the incalculable value of quinine-yielding chinchona-plants, it must be understood that I include those of the "grey-bark" species, which yield chinchonine; and it is the more important to dwell upon this, because a sentence in the Introduction to Mr. Howard's valuable work is perhaps calculated to give a different impression.[530] It is true that chinchonine will not command so remunerative a price in the London market; yet it produces effects on the system precisely analogous to quinine. To stop intermittent fever, doses of chinchonine require to be one-third larger than doses of quinine; but it is absolutely certain that the former is as good a febrifuge as the latter, and it costs infinitely less. Planters will of course, in the first instance, undertake the cultivation of those species which yield quinine, such as C. succirubra, C. Condaminea, C. lancifolia, and C. Calisaya; but the grey-bark species will yield barks which will afford valuable supplies to the Government hospitals; and their naturalisation all over the plateau of the Neilgherries and other hill districts will be a great boon to the natives. Hereafter the latter species will well repay the outlay and labour of cultivation. Even now there is a great demand for chinchonine; the chinchonidine of C. Condaminea is considered by Mr. Howard to be scarcely if at all inferior to quinine, and Dr. J. Macpherson thinks so highly of the value of chinchonine that he considers it to be of little importance whether the species introduced into India are rich in quinine or chinchonine. This gentleman speaks from experience acquired by long practice in the East Indies.[531]

The following is a table of the largest amount of alkaloids extracted from, and the price in the London markets of the barks of species of chinchonÆ now introduced into India:—

Under cultivation the barks may be expected to yield a much larger per-centage of alkaloids than they ever do in their wild state.