Travels in Peru and India / While Superintending the Collection of Chinchona Plants and Seeds in South America, and Their Introduction into India.

APPENDIX C.

NOTES ON THE PRINCIPAL PLANTS EMPLOYED IN INDIA, ON ACCOUNT OF THEIR REAL OR SUPPOSED FEBRIFUGE VIRTUES. BY ALEXANDER SMITH, ESQ.

The following enumeration of Indian febrifuge plants, though, from the limited time at my disposal, not so complete as could be wished, will serve to give an idea of the great variety of indigenous plants used by the natives of India in the treatment of the different kinds of fevers so prevalent in that country. European physicians of the present day rely to a great extent upon the invaluable products of the Chinchonas, as the most certain remedies for these disorders; but a couple of centuries ago, when quinine and the kindred alkaloids were undreamt of, and when even Peruvian Bark, or, as it was then called, "Countess' Bark" or "Jesuits' Bark," was scarcely known, and its source a jealously guarded secret, their ancestors made use of a much greater number of substances, and highly extolled the febrifuge properties of many of our native wild plants. Most of these, however, are now known to be of little use and are discarded from the modern practice of physic, though amongst rustic practitioners, or herb-doctors, they still to a certain degree enjoy their ancient reputation. We must not therefore be surprised that the native doctors of the East, whose knowledge of chemistry and the allied sciences is as limited as was that of our old herbalists, should in like manner ascribe powerful properties to the barks, roots, stems, and other parts of plants which in reality possess as little value in a medical point of view, as the indigenous plants at one time used in our own country.

It must not, however, be imagined from these remarks that all the plants mentioned below are known to be completely devoid of medicinal properties. Some of them possibly possess qualities of the greatest value, and, were they properly tested by the enlightened science of the present day, might yield products useful either as tonics or febrifuges, or prove otherwise valuable. But the great majority are comparatively valueless, and their supposed virtues merely the result of fancy.

Alex. Smith.

Kew, Surrey, April 5th, 1862.

RANUNCULACEÆ.

Thalictrum foliolosum, D. C.

The bitter roots of this Himalayan species of Meadow Rue are used by the natives in intermittent fevers, and have, according to O'Shaughnessy, been experimented upon by European practitioners, and found serviceable not only as a febrifuge, but as a tonic in convalescence from acute diseases. The plant is an erect, branching perennial, three or more feet high, with large quadripinnate leaves composed of numerous small leaflets. It is common throughout the Himalayas, and is called "Pelijuree" or "Shuprak" by the natives.

Coptis Teeta, Wall.

Several bitter roots are called "Teeta" in the Bengal bazaars. Those of the present plant are brought down from the Mishmee Mountains on the northern borders of Assam, and are consequently called "Mishmee Teeta." They are usually packed in little baskets about two inches wide, made of strips of rattan-cane. In the Scinde bazaars they are called "Mahmira," and they are likewise said to be imported from China under the name of "Sou-line" or "Chyn-len," but the plant is not known to be a native of that country. They have an intensely bitter taste, and the native doctors esteem them very highly as a tonic and stomachic. M. Virey says that a decoction of them is a powerful febrifuge, but O'Shaughnessy states that in experiments made in the Indian hospitals they did not seem to exercise any febrifuge virtues, though their tonic properties were very manifest. The roots of an allied American species (Coptis trifolia, Salisb.) are used throughout the United States and Canada as a tonic, under the name of "Gold Thread."

Aconitum, sp. pl.

The roots of several species of Aconite, common in the Himalayas, are reputed to possess febrifuge properties, but the identification of the particular species is very uncertain. Amongst others the most virulent kind of "Bikh" or "Bish," that yielded by the Aconitum ferox, Wall., is said to be thus employed and also in chronic rheumatism; and likewise the "Bikhma" of Hamilton, supposed to be the Aconitum palmatum, Don. The little tuber-like roots called "Atees" or "Butees," much esteemed for their bitter tonic properties, are afforded by the Aconitum heterophyllum, Wall.

MAGNOLIACEÆ.

Michelia Champaca, Linn.

Several of the MagnoliaceÆ are known to possess powerful febrifuge virtues, particularly the Magnolia glauca, Linn., and other American species, the bark and fruits of which are greatly used in intermittent fever. Among the Indian species, the only one reputed to possess similar virtues is the "Champa" (Michelia Champaca, Linn.), O'Shaughnessy remarking that, after several trials, its bark appeared to him to possess the properties attributed to the Magnolia glauca. It, however, contains tannin and gallic acid, both of which are absent in the American bark. The Champa grows to a large size, has ovate-lanceolate leaves from eight to ten inches long and two to four broad, and bears exceedingly fragrant yellow or orange-coloured flowers, which the Hindus offer to their deities.

BERBERIDACEÆ.

Berberis Lycium, Royle.

According to the learned investigations of the late Dr. Royle, it would appear that this species of Barberry afforded the ?????? ??d???? of Dioscorides. At the present day an extract of the sliced root, stem, and branches is prepared in Nipal and the Dhoon, and employed by the native doctors in diseases of the eyes, for which purpose the drug was also valued by the physicians of old. It is known in Bengal by the name of "Rusoot" or "Rasot," and in Scinde by that of "Ruswul." Employed as a substitute for Chinchona bark this extract has been found to be a most valuable remedial agent in common and tertian agues, checking the fever in three days. The skin is invariably moist during its action. The plant is a small stiff shrub with twiggy, pale-barked branches armed with conical tripartite spines, and bearing clusters of small obovate-lanceolate leaves, either entire or with spiny teeth along the edges.

MENISPERMACEÆ.

Tinospora cordifolia, Miers (= Cocculus cordifolius, D. C., and Menispermum cordifolium, Willd.).

A tall, climbing shrub with rough corky bark, and broad, heart-shaped, pointed leaves from two to four inches long, upon stalks of about the same length; common in woods throughout the peninsula of India and in Ceylon, and known in the former country by the name of "Guluncha" or "Gurcha," and amongst the Cinghalese by that of "Rassakinda." All parts of the plant have a bitter taste, and an infusion of the young stems and leaves is highly esteemed by the native physicians as a febrifuge medicine, and also as a tonic, while in some districts it is looked upon as a certain cure for poisonous snake-bites. Ainslie says that the bruised plant is put into the water drunk by the Brahmins at some of their religious ceremonies.

Tinospora crispa, Miers (= Cocculus crispus, D. C., and Menispermum crispum, Linn.).

This is closely allied to the above, and is known by the same name, "Guluncha." It has smooth bark, more oval and less heart-shaped leaves on shorter stalks. Like the last it is greatly valued in the treatment of intermittent fever; but the natives in Silhet consider that it is more efficacious when found climbing upon mango-trees. It is found in Silhet and Pegu, and in several of the Indian islands.

Cissampelos Pareira, Linn.

The woody stems of this widely spread tropical plant are used in a variety of diseases, and amongst others in fevers, but it is principally valued for its antilithic properties, on account of which it is admitted into our Pharmacopoeias under the name of Pareira-brava. It is a tall, hard-wooded climber, indigenous to the tropics of both hemispheres, and is found in all parts of India. In Ceylon, where it is also used as a fever medicine, it is called "Deyamitta."

CAPPARIDACEÆ.

Gynandropsis pentaphylla, D. C. (= Cleome pentaphylla, Linn.).

A decoction of the little black seeds of this plant is considered useful in typhus fever, and in convulsive affections. The plant is called "Vaylee" in the Tamul language; "Hurhuriya" in Bengalese; "Caraila" by the Hindus; and "Waila" by the Cinghalese. It is an annual plant, a foot or more in height, with hairy stems, and palmately divided leaves usually with five, but sometimes with seven or only three segments.

CratÆva Nurvala, Ham. (= CratÆva Tapia, Burm.).

A small tree, fifteen to twenty feet high, common on the banks of rivers on the Malabar coast and in Mysore, producing an astringent bark, a decoction of which is prescribed as a tonic in both intermittent and typhus fevers. The Sanscrit name of the plant is "Varuna," and it is the "Nurvala" of Rheede's Hortus Malabaricus, according to Hamilton, who says that the real name of the plant in the Malabar dialect is "Vala," the prefix "Nur" (water) merely denoting the localities in which the tree is found.

MORINGACEÆ.

Moringa pterygosperma, Gaertn. (= Hyperanthera Moringa, Vahl.).

Well known in India as the Horse-radish tree, on account of its roots possessing a pungent odour and biting aromatic taste similar to those of our common horse-radish, for which they are substituted by European residents in both the East and West Indies. They are also used medicinally by the native doctors as a stimulant in paralysis and intermittent fevers, and are also considered valuable as a rubefacient. "Morunghy," from which the generic name adopted by modern botanists has been derived, is the Tamul name; and "Sujna" or "Salijuna," the Hindu. It is a small tree, seldom more than twenty feet high, and has large compound three-times pinnated leaves, and axillary bunches of whitish flowers, producing long pendulous three-sided fruits, containing numerous winged seeds, which some authors regard as the source of the celebrated Ben-oil.

CARYOPHYLLACEÆ.

Mollugo Cerviana, Ser. (= Pharnaceum Cervianum, Linn.).

This little herb is used as a medicine in fevers in Ceylon, where it is called "Pat-paadagan;" and as the plant is also found in the Indian peninsula, it is most probably employed in a similar manner by the Hindu doctors. The order to which it belongs is remarkable for little besides the presence of saponine in several species.

MALVACEÆ.

Sida acuta, Burm. (= Sida lanceolata, Retz.).

The roots of this have an intensely bitter taste, and their infusion, in conjunction with ginger, is prescribed in cases of intermittent fever, for which they have also been tried in the Indian hospitals, but without satisfactory results, though they were found to possess some medicinal virtues as a tonic. The plant is called "Pata" in Sanscrit; and "Malaytanghie" in Tamul. It is a shrub with narrow lance-shaped, pointed leaves, coarsely toothed along the edges, and either smooth or sprinkled with bristly hairs, especially on the veins underneath.

Pavonia Zeylanica, Cav. (= Hibiscus Zeylanicus, Linn.).

A tall annual plant, with variable leaves, the lower ones being roundish heart-shaped, and the upper deeply three to five lobed, and whitish or pale-red flowers. It is called "Sittamootie" in Tamul, and an infusion of the root is administered in fevers, but Ainslie states that it does not appear to possess any virtues.

OLACACEÆ.

Olax Zeylanica, Linn.

A small tree, native of Ceylon and of some parts of India, yielding a foetid, salt-tasted wood, which is employed in putrid fevers. The Cinghalese, who call the tree "Malla," eat the leaves in their curries.

AURANTIACEÆ.

Ægle Marmelos, Corr. (= CratÆva Marmelos, Linn.).

The Bengal Quince-tree. Almost every part of this tree is used medicinally by the native Indian doctors. In fever cases a decoction of the bark of the root, and also of the stem, is employed, but when the latter is used it is generally combined with a great variety of other substances. The expressed juice of the leaves, diluted with water, is also administered in incipient fevers and colds. The fruit is a valuable remedy in diarrhoea and dysentery, and has been successfully employed in those complaints by medical men in this country. It is a tree of moderate size, with its young branches furnished with sharp spines, and has ternate or rarely pinnate leaves, and axillary panicles of few large fragrant flowers. It has a great number of vernacular names. In Hindustanee and Bengalee it is called "Bael, BÊl, or BÊla;" in Telinga, "Maredoo;" in Tamul, "Willamarvum;" in Malayan, "Tanghula," &c.

MELIACEÆ.

Azadirachta Indica, A. de Juss. (= Melia Azadirachta, Linn.).

The bitter astringent bark of this tree, the Neem or Margosa tree of India, is considered by the native doctors to be a most valuable tonic and febrifuge, and it has been successfully employed as a substitute for Chinchona-bark by English physicians in India. A bitter principle called Azadirine has been obtained from it. Other parts of the tree are likewise reputed to possess medicinal properties: the bitter oil obtained from the pericarp being employed as an anthelmintic, and the olive-like fruit itself in leprosy, while the leaves are universally used in India for poultices. The Neem forms a large ornamental tree, and has pinnate leaves with unequal-sided smooth leaflets sharply toothed at the edges, and loose axillary panicles of bluish flowers. "Neem" or "Nim" is its Hindustanee and Bengalee name; "Nimba," in Sanscrit; "Vaypun" or "Vapan," in Tamul; and "Kohomba," in Cinghalese.

CEDRELACEÆ.

Cedrela Toona, Roxb.

The Toon-tree grows to a large size, and yields a valuable reddish timber, resembling some kinds of mahogany. It has abruptly pinnate leaves composed of from six to twelve pairs of opposite, usually entire, smooth leaflets of an ovate-lanceolate shape; and its flowers are small, yellowish, and sweet-scented, and are disposed in terminal drooping panicles. Toon bark is powerfully astringent, but is said to be devoid of bitterness. It is much esteemed in the treatment of intermittent fever, though seldom administered alone, but generally prescribed in combination with the excessively bitter seed of the Guilandina Bonducella. The flowers yield a yellow dye, but the colour is not permanent.

Soymida febrifuga, A. de Juss. (= Swietenia febrifuga, Roxb.).

The specific name of this tree indicates its use as a medicine in fevers. The part employed is the bark, which is of a reddish colour and has a very bitter, slightly astringent, but not unpleasant taste. It was long ago highly recommended as a substitute for Peruvian bark by several English doctors in India, and appears to possess considerable medicinal virtues, though Ainslie found that when given in large doses it deranged the nervous system, occasioned vertigo and subsequent stupor. The tree is called "Shemmarum" by the Tamuls; "Soimido" by the Telingas (whence the generic name adopted by botanists); and "Rohuna" by the Bengalese. It is a very large, hard-wooded tree, with abruptly pinnate leaves composed of from three to six pairs of opposite, oval-oblong blunt leaflets; and produces large panicles of small yellowish flowers towards the points of the young branches.

The bark of another large Indian tree belonging to this order, the "Chikrassee" of the Bengalese (Chickrassia tabularis, A. de Juss.), is a powerful astringent, but, like the Toon bark, devoid of bitterness.

OXALIDACEÆ.

Averrhoa Bilimbi, Linn.

A syrup prepared with the juice of the excessively acid gherkin-like fruits of the Bilimbi is used by the native doctors in the treatment of fevers, as also is a conserve of the flowers. The Bilimbi is a small tree, with unequally pinnate leaves, which, like those of the well-known sensitive plant, are irritable and close their leaflets together when touched. Its fruits are commonly used for pickling by Europeans, both in the East and in the West Indies.

XANTHOXYLACEÆ.

Toddalia aculeata, Pers. (= Scopolia aculeata, Smith).

Powerful stimulating properties are ascribed to all parts of this plant. The fresh bark of its root is administered by the Telinga physicians, who call the plant "Conda cashinda," for the cure of the kind of remittent fever known by the name of "hill fever," from its being caught in the jungles of the Indian hills. It is a moderately tall shrub with prickly stems and branches, alternate, trifoliate, smooth leaves marked with numberless pellucid dots, and usually having prickles on their stalks and on the midribs of the leaflets; and its flowers, which are whitish and strong scented, are borne in simple or compound racemes. Its Cinghalese name is "Koodoomirris-wel."

SIMARUBACEÆ.

Samadera Indica, Gaertn.

All parts of this tree partake of the excessively bitter qualities common to the order. The decoction of the rasped wood has recently been extensively and successfully employed in Ceylon, in the treatment of intermittent fever, and is recommended to be given in combination with Myrobalan galls. The wood is of a pale colour, resembling quassia-wood, and is very light. The tree is indigenous to Ceylon, and also to the Indian peninsula, and is the "Karin-njotti" of Rheede. It attains a considerable size, and has oblong-elliptical, alternate leaves, and long, pendulous, compressed flower-stalks, divided at the top into a many-flowered umbel. The bark, called "Niepa bark," also possesses febrifugal properties.

RHAMNACEÆ.

Zizyphus Jujuba, Lam. (= Rhamnus Jujuba, Linn.)

The root of this common Indian tree is a reputed febrifuge, and an infusion of it, combined with some warm seed, is said to be employed as such in the Moluccas, while the bark is used in diarrhoea. It is a small tree, with prickly branches, usually having the spines in pairs, and elliptical or oblong obtuse leaves, covered on the under side, as also are the branches, with dense short tawny tomentum, and it bears small greenish-yellow flowers, which produce roundish, yellow, edible fruits about the size of cherries. Its Sanscrit name is "Vadari," and its Bengalese "Kool."

LEGUMINOSÆ.

Cassia Fistula, Linn. (= Cathartocarpus Fistula, Pers.).

The black, sweet-tasted pulp contained in the long cylindrical pipe-like pods of this common tropical plant is well known as a gentle laxative medicine; and its roots are reputed to be an excellent febrifuge. It is the "Sonali" of the Bengalese, the "Amultas" of the Hindus, and the "Ahalla" of the Cinghalese, and is a moderately large tree, with very long pinnate leaves, and loose drooping racemes of bright-yellow fragrant flowers.

Guilandina Bonducella, Linn. (= CÆsalpinia Bonducella, Fleming).

The seeds and bark, but particularly the former, have an intensely bitter taste, and are supposed to possess powerful tonic virtues. The seeds, called Bonduc nuts, are lead or ash coloured and most excessively hard. Their cotyledons, powdered and combined with spices or other medicinal substances, are prescribed with beneficial results in intermittent fever. The root is also said to be a good tonic in dyspeptic complaints; in fact, all parts of the plant are reputed to possess medicinal properties. The plant is a prickly, trailing shrub, with abruptly twice-pinnate leaves, each pinna consisting of from five to eight pairs of oval leaflets, and bears racemes of rusty-yellow flowers. The Tamuls call it "Kalichikai;" the Telingas "Getsakaia;" the Hindus "Cat-caleyi" and "Natacaranja;" and the Cinghalese "Koombooroo-wel." It is a common plant throughout the tropics of both hemispheres.

Phaseolus trilobus, Roth. (= Dolichos trilobus, Linn.).

Ainslie says that "this plant was brought to Dr. F. Hamilton in Bahar, where he was informed by the Vytians of that district that the fresh herb was given in decoction in cases of irregular fever." It is a procumbent, spreading, herbaceous plant, with leaves composed of three roundish, entire, or three-lobed leaflets on long stalks, and bears a few pea-like flowers at the ends of long ascending stalks.

Ormocarpum sennoides, D. C. (= Hedysarum sennoides, Willd.).

A shrub with glutinous hairy shoots, unequally pinnate leaves, and short axillary racemes bearing a few pea-like flowers, producing jointed pods. The decoction of the roots of this shrub, which is called "Caat Morungie" in the Tamul language, and "Adivie moonaga" in Telinga, is prescribed by the native physicians as a tonic and stimulant in fevers, and a liniment made of the powdered bark and sesamum oil is applied externally in paralysis and lumbago.

COMBRETACEÆ.

Terminalia tomentosa, W. et A. (= Terminalia alata, Roth.).

This is a large tree with deeply-cracked bark, and nearly opposite, linear, oblong, obtuse leaves, somewhat cordate at the base, crenulate, and clothed with pubescence underneath. It is the "Peea-sal" or "Usan" of the Bengalese; the "Nella madoo" of the Telingas; and the "Aans" of the Hindus. The reddish-brown, cracked bark has a strong but not unpleasant astringent taste, and is classed amongst the febrifuge medicines by the native doctors: powdered and mixed with oil it is employed in apthÆ.

MYRTACEÆ.

Syzygium caryophyllifolium, D. C. (= Calyptranthes caryophyllifolia, Willd.).

"Nawel" of the Tamuls; "Nereddie" of the Telingas; and "Madang" of the Cinghalese. The thick, brownish-coloured bark of this tree has an astringent, slightly aromatic taste, and a decoction of it is sometimes prescribed by native doctors in fevers and bowel complaints, and is also employed as a wash for foul ulcers. It has been recommended as a tanning substance, but it does not possess sufficient astringency to render it suitable for that purpose. The tree has smooth, entire leaves of an oblong-lanceolate shape and attenuated at the base, and bears cymose panicles of flowers upon the old branches, producing little edible fruits about the size of peas.

BARRINGTONIACEÆ.

Barringtonia racemosa, Roxb. (= Eugenia racemosa, Linn.).

"Cadapum" (Tam.); "Kamtee" (Tel.); and "Deya-midella" (Cing.). Ainslie says that the reddish-coloured bark of the Cadapum is supposed to possess virtues similar to those of Chinchona bark. Medicinal properties are also ascribed to the root and seed, both of which have a bitter though not unpleasant taste. It is a large tree, with cuneate-oblong, acuminate, serrulate leaves, crowded together towards the ends of the branches, and long pendulous racemes of large flowers, producing ovate, bluntly quadrangular fruits.

CUCURBITACEÆ.

Zanonia Indica, Linn.

Mr. Thwaites says that the Cinghalese value this plant as a febrifuge, and call it "Wal-rasakinda." It is also found in India, and is the "Penar-valli" of Rheede's Hortus Malabaricus. The plant is a climber, supporting itself by means of tendrils, and has alternate, elliptical, pointed leaves, slightly cordate at the base, and axillary racemes of flowers.

Trichosanthes cucumerina, Linn.

This is another cucurbitaceous plant much used by the Cinghalese as a febrifuge, and from the experiments made with it in the hospitals at Badulla it appears to possess considerable efficacy. It is astringent and contains a bitter principle, which it yields to boiling water, and is therefore recommended to be used in the form of an infusion, made with the dried stem and leaves. The plant is called "Doommaala" by the Cinghalese, and is very common both in Ceylon and India. It is an annual climbing plant, with three-cleft tendrils, and broadly-cordate, angular or lobed leaves toothed along the edges. Its seeds are used in bowel complaints.

UMBELLIFERÆ.

Hydrocotyle Asiatica, Linn.

The Asiatic Pennywort has recently been discovered to be a valuable remedy in leprosy, scrofula, venereal, and other complaints. The native doctors, however, have hitherto considered it serviceable only in bowel complaints and fevers, administering it in the form of an infusion of the toasted leaves in combination with fenugreek. It has a bitter, pungent, disagreeable taste, and when bruised gives off a peculiar offensive odour. The active principle of the plant is said to be due to a thick pale-yellow oil or extract, which has been called Vellarine, from the Tamul name of the plant, "Vullarei." Its Telinga name is "Babassa;" its Hindu, "Thulkura;" and its Cinghalese, "Heen-gotookola." By the latter people it is used as an anthelmintic. Though named Asiatica by botanists, it is by no means confined to that continent, but is spread very generally throughout the tropics. It has creeping stems, and tufts of roundish kidney-shaped leaves.

CHINCHONACEÆ.

Hymenodyction excelsum, Wall. (= Cinchona excelsa, Roxb.)

Roxburgh supposed this tree to belong to the same genus as the Peruvian barks, but no species of true Chinchona has ever been found wild in the Eastern hemisphere. The present tree grows to a large size and yields a thick bark, the inner coatings of which possess the bitterness and astringency of the real Peruvian bark, especially when fresh; but the bitterness, though more durable, is not so quickly communicated to the taste. It is called "Bundaroo" by the Telingas.

COMPOSITÆ.

Verbesina cinerea, Less. (= Conyza cinerea, Linn.).

A low-growing annual plant, widely spread throughout the tropics of the old world, and considered by the Hindus to possess medicinal virtues, a decoction of the entire herb being administered in febrile affections in order to promote perspiration. It is the "Seera shengalaneer" of the Tamuls, and the "Gherutti Kamma" of the Telingas.

Aucklandia Costus, Falc.

In an elaborate memoir upon this plant, Dr. Falconer has shown it to be the source of the celebrated "Costus" of the ancients, which was previously referred to the Costus Arabicus, Linn. (= Costus speciosus, Sm.), a plant belonging to the order ZingiberaceÆ. It is a gregarious herbaceous plant with a perennial root sending up annual erect stems six or seven feet high, bearing large, somewhat lyrate pinnatifid leaves. Costus-root is collected in large quantities in Cashmere, but the only use made of it there is for perfuming bales of shawls, and thus protecting them from insects, the great bulk of it being exported to China and Persia, in both of which countries it is highly esteemed as a medicine, the Persian doctors regarding it as an efficacious remedy in nearly all the ills human nature is heir to. Ainslie says that the native practitioners in India prescribe an infusion of it as a stomachic and tonic, and also in the advanced stages of typhus fever. In Cashmere it is called "Koot," which agrees with the Arabic "Koost:" in Bengal it is known by the name of "Putchuk."

Emilia sonchifolia, D. C. (= Cacalia sonchifolia, Linn.).

"Shudimudi" of the Bengalese, or "Kadoo-para" of the Cinghalese. An annual, with erect or spreading, branching stems, and variously shaped leaves, the lower ones being usually lyrate, and the upper more or less amplexicaul, with blunt or sharp auricles. On the Malabar coast the native practitioners, according to Rheede, consider a decoction of this plant to possess antifebrile qualities.

EBENACEÆ.

Diospyros Embryopteris, Pers. (= Embryopteris glutinifera, Roxb.).

An American species of Diospyros (D. Virginiana, Linn.) is employed as a febrifuge by rustic practitioners in the United States, and O'Shaughnessy states that the bark of the present tree has been given in India, but with doubtful results, in the treatment of intermittent fevers. It is well known as the Gaub-tree, and the viscid, excessively astringent juice of its fruit is used for tanning, and for paying the seams of boats. It is a middle-sized tree, with long elliptic-lanceolate, smooth, coriaceous leaves, and whitish flowers.

APOCYNACEÆ.

Ophioxylon serpentinum, Willd.

"Chivan amelpodi" in Tamul; "Chota Chand" in Hindostanee; "Chandra" in Bengalee; "Patalganni" in Telinga; and "Aikawaireya" in Cinghalese. The root of the Chandra is very bitter, and is administered by the Telinga and also by the Javanese doctors in the form of a decoction, as a remedy in fever cases. It is one of the numberless supposed remedies for the bites of venomous snakes, but, as in many other similar instances, its virtues are fanciful, and its great reputation is probably ascribable to the old doctrine of signatures, the plant being a climber and having a twining stem.

Wrightia antidysenterica, R. Br. (= Nerium antidysentericum, Linn.).

The bark of this species of Wrightia is included in some European works on Materia Medica under the name of Tellicherry or Conessi bark. It has long enjoyed a high reputation in India as a tonic and febrifuge; but other parts of the plant likewise appear to possess similar properties, a decoction of the long oat-like seeds being employed in ardent fever. The bark is also given in dysentery. Among the Tamuls it goes by the name of "Veppalei," while the Hindus call it "Curayia," and the Telingas "Pala codija." It is a small tree producing a white ivory-like wood, which has been tried for engraving purposes, but found unsuitable on account of it not being of even quality throughout. It has obovate-oblong, shortly acuminate, smooth leaves, and nearly terminal corymbs of jasmine-like flowers.

ASCLEPIADACEÆ.

Calotropis gigantea, R. Br. (= Asclepias gigantea, Linn.).

Various parts of the Yercum-plant have long been employed for medicinal purposes by the native doctors, and experiments made by Anglo-Indian practitioners have proved that the inner bark of the root, called Mudar bark, is a valuable remedy in leprosy, and that it may also be given with advantage in several other complaints, including intermittent and other fevers. An elastic gum and a valuable fibre are also obtained from the plant. There are two varieties of Yercum, one with white and the other with purple flowers, the former forming a tree fifteen or twenty feet high, and the latter a shrub.

LOGANIACEÆ.

Strychnos Nux-Vomica, Linn.

According to Roxburgh the exceedingly bitter wood of the Nux Vomica is employed as a remedy in fevers of the intermittent kind, and also for the cure of snake-bites, when that of the next species cannot be obtained. The poisonous bark is commonly sold in the Indian bazaars in place of the febrifuge "Rohuna bark," which is in reality the produce of Soymida febrifuga. It is the false Angostura bark of our Materia Medica. Nux Vomica seeds have also been administered with some benefit in intermittent fever. The Strychnos Nux-Vomica forms a small tree, has oval, entire, shining leaves, strongly marked with from three to five longitudinal nerves, and bears small corymbs of greenish-white flowers.

Strychnos colubrina, Linn.

The "Naga musadi" of the Telingas, or "Koochilaluta" of the Bengalese. The wood of this species is greatly esteemed by the natives as a remedy for snake-bites, and is also given in cases of intermittent fever. It is a climbing shrub with thick woody tendrils, elliptic-oblong, blunt-pointed, three-nerved leaves, and small corymbs of yellowish flowers.

GENTIANACEÆ.

Ophelia Chirata, Griseb. (= Gentiana Chirayta, Roxb., and Agathotes Chirayta, Don.).

The name "Chirata" or "Chirayta," by which this plant is commonly known in India, is derived from the Sanscrit "Kirataticta." The dried stems of the Chirata have long been famed amongst the natives of India as a tonic and febrifuge; and they have also gained considerable reputation amongst European practitioners in India, who, however, have found them to be more efficacious in the cure of intermittent fever when employed in combination with the seeds of the Guilandina Bonducella, mentioned above. It is an annual plant, two or three feet high, with smooth round stems and opposite, ovate or somewhat cordate, acuminate leaves, marked with from five to seven nerves, and bears yellow flowers. Chirata is included in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia.

Ophelia angustifolia, Don. (= Swertia angustifolia, Ham.).

The stems of this species are called "Pukaree Chirata" in the Himalayas, and are substituted for the true Chirata. The species is distinguished by its stems being somewhat four-sided, by its much narrower, sharper-pointed, obscurely three-nerved, short-stalked leaves, and by its white, violet-spotted flowers. Both this and the true Chirata are natives of the Himalayas.

Ophelia elegans, Wight.

It has recently been discovered that the stems of this South Indian species are made up into bundles in the same manner as the Himalayan Chiratas, with which they have hitherto been confounded in the bazaars. The plant, however, has a different native name, being called "Salaras" or "Salajit" by the inhabitants of the Pulney hills; but it is considered equally efficacious as a febrifuge. It has obsoletely four-sided stems, narrow, ovate-lanceolate, sessile, three-nerved leaves, tapering to a slender point, and beautiful pale-blue flowers.

SALVADORACEÆ.

Salvadora, sp.

A decoction of the bark of a species of Salvadora is recommended by Hindu doctors in cases of low fever, and as a tonic. Great confusion, however, exists among the species of this genus, and it is therefore uncertain which one is thus employed. Ainslie mentions Salvadora Persica, but it is very doubtful whether that species is found in any part of India.

CORDIACEÆ.

Cordia Myxa, Linn.

Tonic and febrifuge properties are ascribed to the bark of this tree, it being, according to Horsfield, one of the chief remedies used in fevers by the Javanese, who call it "Kendal." It is a small tree with rounded branches, ovate leaves, smooth on the upper surface but roughish underneath, and usually terminal panicles of flowers, producing yellow, sweet-tasted pulpy fruits about the size of cherries. In the Tamul language it is called "Vidi marum;" "Nekra" in Telinga; "Lesura" in Hindostanee; and "Loloo" in Cinghalese.

SOLANACEÆ.

Solanum xanthocarpum, Schrad. et Wendl. (= Solanum Jacquini, Willd.).

There are two varieties of this plant, one of which was formerly considered a distinct species, and named Solanum Jacquini. All parts of the latter variety are used medicinally, and it is one of the fever remedies employed by the Cinghalese, who call it "Kattoo-wel-battoo." It is a decumbent, spreading annual plant, armed with numerous long white prickles, and has sinuately-pinnatifid prickly leaves. The Tamuls call it "Kandung Kattiri."

SCROPHULARIACEÆ.

Picrorhiza Kurrooa, Royle.

A small perennial herbaceous plant found in Kemaon, at Gossain-than, and other parts of the Himalayan mountains, where its roots, which are called "Hooling" in Tibet, and have a powerful bitter taste, are used as a febrifuge by the natives, and also sent down to the bazaars of Bengal, where they form one of the many bitter roots sold under the name of "Teeta." The plant grows about six inches high, and has scarcely any stem, its leaves all rising from the summit of the thick root, and also its flower-stalks, which are five or six inches high, and bear a dense spike of small bluish flowers at the top.

Herpestis Monnieria, Humb. (= Gratiola Monnieria, Linn.)

The Cinghalese consider this plant to possess febrifuge virtues: they call it "Loonoo Weela." In India its expressed juice is mixed with petroleum, and used as a topical application in rheumatism. It is a little creeping plant, common in moist places throughout the tropics of both hemispheres, and has obovate-cuneate leaves, bearing solitary long-stalked pale-blue flowers in their axils. The Bengalese call it "Adha birni," and the Telingas "Sambrani-chittoo."

ACANTHACEÆ.

Andrographis paniculata, Nees ab Essen. (= Justicia paniculata, Burm.).

This is the celebrated Creyat, the principal ingredient in the famous bitter tincture called drogue amÈre, so highly esteemed in India for its tonic and stomachic properties, and also as a febrifuge. The entire plant is employed, the intensely bitter principle being found in all parts of it. It is an annual, with stiff quadrangular stems from one to two feet high, bearing smooth lanceolate leaves, attenuated at the base. In the Telinga language it is called "Nella vemoo;" in Bengalese, "Kala-megh;" in Hindustanee, "Calapnath;" and in Tamul, "Kiriat," hence the common Indian name of the plant, Creat or Creyat.

Justicia Adhatoda, Linn. (= Adhatoda Vasica, Nees ab Essen.)

The flowers, leaves, and roots have a bitterish and somewhat aromatic taste, and are supposed to possess antispasmodic properties. An infusion of them, especially of the flowers, is given to prevent the return of rigour in intermittent fever. In Ceylon it is used as an expectorant for children. The Bengalese call the plant "Bakus;" the Tamuls, "Adhatodey;" the Cinghalese, "Paawetta;" the Telingas, "Adasara;" and in Sanscrit it is called "Vasica" or "Uroos." It forms a tree fifteen or twenty feet high, with elliptic oblong leaves, attenuated to both ends, and pale-coloured flowers with purple stripes and rusty spots.

LABIATÆ.

Ocimum sanctum, Linn.

The Tamul physicians prescribe a decoction of the root of this common Indian species of Basil in fever cases, and the juice of the leaves in catarrhal affections. The Brahmins consider the plant sacred to Vishnu, and cultivate it in the vicinity of temples, while the Malays strew it upon the graves of their departed friends. The whole plant generally has a purplish tinge, and grows about a foot high: it has long-stalked, downy, oval leaves, toothed along the edges, and small pale-purple flowers. Its Tamul name is "Toolasee;" its Bengalese, "Kala-toolsee;" and its Cinghalese "Madooroo-tallu."

Anisomeles Malabarica, R. Br. (= Nepeta Malabarica, Linn.).

"Pemayrutie" of the Tamuls; "Moga beerakoo" of the Telingas; and "Bootan Kooshum" in Sanscrit. A shrub, 2 to 5 feet high, clothed with short tomentum, and having oblong-lanceolate leaves, narrowed at the base, and purplish flowers disposed in distant whorls. The leaves are bitter, astringent, and somewhat aromatic, and are given in infusion in the later stages of dysentery and in intermittent fevers. Patients suffering under the last-mentioned disease are also made to inhale the vapour rising from an infusion of the whole plant, in order to induce a copious perspiration.

Geniosporum prostratum, Benth. (= Ocimum prostratum, Linn.).

A small herb used as a febrifuge by the natives of the Madras presidency. It has a prostrate stem and numerous hispid branches, bearing small oblong-lanceolate, serrated leaves, and long spike-like racemes of very small flowers.

Roylea elegans, Wall. (= Phlomis calycina, Roxb., and Ballota cinerea, Don.).

According to the late Dr. Royle, after whom the genus is named, this plant is employed as a febrifuge in the Himalayas, where it is called "Putkuroo." It is a much-branched, erect shrub from three to five feet high, having the branches clothed with ash-coloured tomentum, and bearing ovate, sharp-pointed, coarsely toothed leaves, slightly cordate at the base. Its flowers vary from white to pale-rose colour.

VERBENACEÆ.

Premna serratifolia, Linn. (= Premna integrifolia, Linn.).

The warm, bitterish-tasted root of this plant is prescribed in decoction by the native practitioners as a gentle stomachic and cordial in fevers. It has an agreeable odour. The tree is called "Moonnee" by the Tamuls; "Ghebboonellie" by the Telingas; and "Middee-gass" by the Cinghalese. Its trunk and large branches are armed with spines, and its leaves are ovate or oval, entire or toothed towards the top, of a shining green above and paler underneath.

Vitex trifolia, Linn.

Different parts of this plant are employed medicinally, in various ways and for various diseases, by native doctors in India and also in Java. The part used as a remedy for intermittent fever is the leaves, which are powdered and taken in water. Pillows stuffed with them are used to cure cold in the head, and headache. It is a decumbent shrub, with the branches, under side of the leaves, and inflorescence mealy-white. There are two varieties: one with trifoliate and the other with simple leaves. Its Tamul name is "Neer-noochie;" its Telinga, "Neela vavilie;" and its Hindustanee, "Nisindha," or "Seduari."

Vitex Negundo, Linn.

This species is considered to have medicinal properties similar to but weaker than the last. The decoction of the root has a pleasant bitter taste, and is administered in cases of intermittent and typhus fever. In Tamul it is called "Noochie;" in Telinga, "Wayalakoo;" in Hindustanee, "Nisunda;" and in Cinghalese, "Sooddoo-nikka." It is a more erect shrub than the last, and its leaves are all compound, consisting of from three to five entire or toothed or deeply pinnatifid leaflets, covered with white meal underneath, as also are the branches and flowers.

NYCTAGINACEÆ.

Boerhaavia diffusa, Linn. (= Boerhaavia procumbens, Roxb.).

The roots of several species of Boerhaavia are employed medicinally by the natives of various parts of the world. In India those of the present have the reputation of being antifebrile, and Ainslie also says that the native practitioners include them amongst their laxative medicines. This plant is a herbaceous perennial with decumbent, smooth, or rarely pubescent stems and leaves, the latter varying very much in shape. Among the Bengalese it is known by the name of "Gadha-poorna;" and it is the "Pittasooddopala" of the Cinghalese. Its leaves are eaten as a potherb.

EUPHORBIACEÆ.

Tragia cannabina, Willd.

"Sirroo canchorie" in the Tamul; and "Doolya-gunda" in the Telinga language. The root of this plant has a pleasant odour when fresh: the native doctors consider it to possess diaphoretic and alterative qualities, and they prescribe an infusion of it in ardent fever. It is an erect shrub, about four feet high, with hispid stems and leaves, the latter being divided into three sinuated lobes. Roxburgh says that the hairs on this plant sting as bad as those of the common nettle.

PIPERACEÆ.

Chavica Betle, Miq. (= Piper Betle, Linn.).

This affords the celebrated Betle leaves, so extensively employed as a masticatory in the East. Ainslie says that the warm juice of the leaves is prescribed by the native doctors as a febrifuge, in the quantity of a small spoonful twice daily.

Piper nigrum, Linn.

Black pepper has long been known to possess febrifuge powers: an infusion of it in some kind of spirit is a popular remedy for preventing the return of the paroxysms in intermittent fevers. The root, however, is the part used by the native doctors in India, and is administered in the form of a decoction. Piperin, one of the constituents of pepper, has been said to be a more certain and speedy febrifuge than the chinchona alkaloids, but O'Shaughnessy says that after repeated and careful trials he found it was not of the least utility. The Tamul name of the plant is "Shuvium."

ZINGIBERACEÆ.

Curcuma longa, Linn.

The uses of the various kinds of Turmeric for dyeing purposes and as a condiment, particularly for the preparation of curry-powder, are well known, both in this country and to the natives of India; but the latter consider that it also possesses medicinal virtues, and give it as a stimulant and tonic in intermittent fever and some other diseases. European practitioners at one time regarded it as useful in jaundice.

LILIACEÆ.

Allium sativum, Linn.

Ainslie says that the Hindus express a stimulating oil from common garlic, which they prescribe internally in ague to prevent the recurrence of the paroxysms, and use externally in paralytic and rheumatic affections. Garlic is called "Vullay poondoo" in Tamul; "Lassun" in Hindostanee; and "Lasuna" in Sanscrit.

ORONTIACEÆ.

Acorus Calamus, Linn.

The rhizomes of the common Sweet-Flag are well known in some parts of England as a cure for ague, and the natives of the East are well aware of their virtues in this respect. Indian practitioners also reckon it valuable in the "indigestions, stomach-aches, and bowel affections of children," so much so, indeed, that, according to Ainslie, "there is a penalty incurred by any druggist who will not open his door in the middle of the night and sell it if demanded." The Bengalese call it "Shwet buch;" the Cinghalese, "Wadakaha;" and the Hindus, "Bach."

Pothos scandens, Linn.

The native practitioners use this plant in putrid fevers. It is an epiphyte with slender rooting stems adhering to the branches of trees like ivy, and has entire, lanceolate, smooth, coriaceous leaves, tapering upwards to a point and blunt and rounded at the base, where they are articulated with the winged stalk.

GRAMINACEÆ.

Andropogon muricatus, Retz.

The fragrant aromatic roots of this grass, called Cuscus or Vetivert, are only employed for perfumery purposes in this country, but in India they are well known as the material of which window and door screens are made, and the native doctors, moreover, consider them to possess medicinal virtues, prescribing an infusion of them as a diaphoretic and gentle stimulant in some kinds of fever. "Vittie" is the Tamul name of the plant, and "Vayr" in the same language signifies root, and, by combining and corrupting these, Europeans have formed the word Vetivert; while its other European name, Cuscus, is derived from the Persian "Khus-Khus." In Hindustanee it is called "Useer;" and in Sanscrit "Viratara."

Andropogon Iwarancusa, Roxb.

The natives administer an infusion of the roots of this grass, combined with pepper, in fevers, of both the continued and intermittent kind. It has a bitter, warm, pungent taste, and fragrant odour. The specific name is derived from the Bengalee and Hindustanee, which is variously spelt "Ibharankusha," "Iwarankusha," "Kurankusha," or "Iwarancussa."

Andropogon Calamus-aromaticus, Royle.

According to Royle, this is the ???a?? ??aat???? of the ancient Greeks, and the Sweet-cane or Calamus of the Bible. When chewed it has a strong taste of ginger, whence it is commonly called Ginger-grass. The native doctors give an infusion of it as a stomachic and febrifuge; and they also prepare from it a very fragrant aromatic oil, which they esteem very highly as a liniment in chronic rheumatism. This is sent to this country as grass-oil, or ginger-grass oil, and is sold by our perfumers as oil of geranium or spikenard.

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