Neither the limits of this sketch, nor the materials from which it is drawn, will admit of my giving a particular or correct account of the countries possessed by the Sikhs, or of their forms of government, manners, and habits: but a cursory view of these subjects may be useful, and may excite and direct that curiosity which it cannot expect to gratify.

The country now possessed by the Sikhs, which reaches from latitude 28° 40' to beyond latitude 32° N., and includes all the PenjÁb[67], a small part of MultÁn, and most of that tract of country which lies between the Jumna and the SatlÉj, is bounded, to the northward and westward, by the territories of the king of CÁbul; to the eastward, by the possessions of the mountaineer RÁjÁs of Jammu, NadÓn, and SrÍnagar; and to the southward, by the territories of the English government, and the sandy deserts of JasalmÉr and HÁnsyÁ HisÁr.

The Sikhs, who inhabit the country between the SatlÉj and the Jumna, are called MÁlawÁ Singh, and were almost all converted from the HindÚ tribes of JÁts and Gujars. The title of MÁlawÁ Singh was conferred upon them for their extraordinary gallantry, under the BaÍrÁgÍ Banda, who is stated to have declared, that the countries granted to them should be fruitful as MÁlwÁ, one of the provinces[68] in India. The principal chiefs among the MÁlawÁ Singhs, are, SÁheb Singh, of PatiÁlÁ; B'hangÁ Singh, of T'hÁnÉsur; B'hÁg Singh, of Jhind; and B'hailal Singh, of Keintal. Besides these, there are several inferior chiefs, such as GÚrÚdah Singh, Jud'h Singh, and Carm Singh; all of whom have a few villages, and some horse, and consider themselves independent; though they, in general, are content to secure their possessions by attaching themselves to one or other of the more powerful leaders.

The country of the MÁlawÁ Singh is, in some parts, fruitful: but those districts of it, which border on HÁnsyÁ and CarnÁl, are very barren; being covered with low wood, and, in many places, almost destitute of water. Sarhind was formerly the capital of this country; but it is now a complete ruin, and has probably never recovered the dreadful ravages of the BairÁgÍ Banda, who is stated not only to have destroyed its mosques, but to have levelled all its palaces and public buildings with the ground. PatiÁlÁ is now the largest and most flourishing town of this province, and next to it T'hÁnÉsur, which is still held in high religious veneration by the HindÚs; who have also a very high reverence for the river SeraswetÍ, which flows through this province. The territories of the chiefs of MÁlawÁ Singh are bounded to the N. W. by the SatlÉj; between which and the BÉyah, is the country called the JalÉndra Beit, or JalÉndra DÚÁb; the Sikhs inhabiting which are called the DÚÁbÁ Singh, or the Singhs who dwell between the rivers[69]. The country of JalÉndra DÚÁb, which reaches from the mountains to the junction of the SatlÉj and the BÉyah, is the most fruitful of all the possessions of the Sikhs; and is, perhaps, excelled in climate and vegetation by no province of India. The soil is light, but very productive: the country, which is open and level, abounds with every kind of grain. That want of water, which is so much felt in other parts of India, must be here unknown; as it is found every where in abundance, within two, or at furthest three, feet from the surface of the soil. The towns of JalÉndra and SultÁnpÚr are the principal in the DÚÁb.

The country between the BÉyah and RÁvÍ rivers is called BÁri DÚÁb, or MÁnj'hÁ; and the Sikhs inhabiting it are called MÁnj'hÁ Singh. The cities of Lahore and Amritsar are both in this province; and it becomes, in consequence, the great centre of the power of this nation. RanjÍt Singh, of Lahore; Fateh Singh[70], of AlluwÁl; and Jud'h Singh, of RÁmgadiÁ[71]; are the principal chiefs of this country.

The country of BÁri is said to be less fertile, particularly towards the mountains, than JalÉndra; but, as it lies on the same level, it must possess nearly the same climate and soil.

The inhabitants of the country between the RÁvÍ and ChanhÁb, are called D'harpÍ Singh, from the country being called D'harpÍ. The D'hanÍghÉb Singh are beyond the ChanhÁb[72], but within the JÉhalam river.

The Sind Singh is the term by which the inhabitants of the districts under the Sikhs, bordering on the Sind, are known; and NakÁi Singh is the name given to the Sikhs who reside in MultÁn. With the leaders of the Sikhs in these provinces, the extent of their possessions, or the climate and productions of the country under their rule, I am little acquainted. Those in MultÁn, as well as those settled on the river JÉhalam, are said to be constantly engaged in a predatory warfare, either with the officers of the AfghÁn government, or with Muhammedan chiefs who have jÁgÍrs in their vicinity.

The government of the Sikhs, considered in its theory, may, as has been before stated, be termed a theocracy. They obey a temporal chief, it is true; but that chief preserves his power and authority by professing himself the servant of the KhÁlsÁ[73], or government, which can only be said to act, in times of great public emergency, through the means of a national council, of which every chief is a member, and which is supposed to deliberate and resolve under the immediate inspiration and impulse of an invisible being; who, they believe, always watches over the interests of the commonwealth.

The nature of the power established by the temporal chiefs of the Sikhs, has been sufficiently explained in the narrative of their history. It will be necessary, before any account is given of the forms and actions of their GÚrÚ-matÁ, or great national council, which is intended to have a supreme authority over their federative republic, to take a view of that body of AcÁlÍs, or immortals, who, under the double character of fanatic priests and desperate soldiers, have usurped the sole direction of all religious affairs at Amritsar, and are, consequently, leading men in a council which is held at that sacred place, and which deliberates under all the influence of religious enthusiasm.

The AcÁlÍs[74] are a class of Sikh devotees; who, agreeably to the historians of that nation, were first founded by GÚrÚ GÓvind, whose institutes, as it has been before stated, they most zealously defended against the innovations of the BairÁgÍ Banda. They wear blue chequered clothes, and bangles, or bracelets of steel[75], round their wrists, initiate converts, and have almost the sole direction of the religious ceremonies at Amritsar, where they reside, and of which they deem themselves the defenders; and, consequently, never desire to quit it unless in cases of great extremity.

This order of Sikhs have a place, or BungÁ[76], on the bank of the sacred reservoir of Amritsar, where they generally resort, but are individually possessed of property, though they affect poverty, and subsist upon charity; which, however, since their numbers have increased, they generally extort, by accusing the principal chiefs of crimes, imposing fines upon them; and, in the event of their refusing to pay, preventing them from performing their ablutions, or going through any of their religious ceremonies at Amritsar.

It will not, when the above circumstances are considered, be thought surprising, that the most powerful of the Sikh chiefs should desire to conciliate this body of fanatics, no individual of which can be offended with impunity, as the cause of one is made the cause of the whole; and a chief, who is become unpopular with the AcÁlÍs, must not only avoid Amritsar, but is likely to have his dependants taught, when they pay their devotions at that place, that it is pious to resist his authority.

The AcÁlÍs have a great interest in maintaining both the religion and government of the Sikhs, as established by GÚrÚ GÓvind; as, on its continuance in that shape, their religious and political influence must depend. Should Amritsar cease to be a place of resort, or be no longer considered as the religious capital of the state, in which all questions that involve the general interests of the commonwealth are to be decided, this formidable order would at once fall from that power and consideration which they now possess, to a level with other mendicants.

When a GÚrÚ-matÁ, or great national council, is called, (as it always is, or ought to be, when any imminent danger threatens the country, or any large expedition is to be undertaken,) all the Sikh chiefs assemble at Amritsar. The assembly, which is called the GÚrÚ-matÁ, is convened by the AcÁlÍs; and when the chiefs meet upon this solemn occasion, it is concluded that all private animosities cease, and that every man sacrifices his personal feelings at the shrine of the general good; and, actuated by principles of pure patriotism, thinks of nothing but the interests of the religion, and commonwealth, to which he belongs.

When the chiefs and principal leaders are seated, the AdÍ-Grant'h and Dasama PÁdshÁh kÁ Grant'h are placed before them. They all bend their heads before these scriptures, and exclaim, WÁ! GÚrÚji kÁ KhÁlsa! WÁ! GÚrÚji ki Fateh! A great quantity of cakes, made of wheat, butter, and sugar, are then placed before the volumes of their sacred writings, and covered with a cloth. These holy cakes, which are in commemoration of the injunction of NÁnac, to eat and to give to others to eat, next receive the salutation of the assembly, who then rise, and the AcÁlÍs pray aloud, while the musicians play. The AcÁlÍs, when the prayers are finished, desire the council to be seated. They sit down, and the cakes being uncovered, are eaten of by all classes[77] of Sikhs: those distinctions of original tribes, which are, on other occasions, kept up, being on this occasion laid aside, in token of their general and complete union in one cause[78]. The AcÁlÍs then exclaim: "Sirdars! (chiefs) this is a GÚrÚ-matÁ!" on which prayers are again said aloud. The chiefs, after this, sit closer, and say to each other: "The sacred Grant'h is betwixt us, let us swear by our scripture to forget all internal disputes, and to be united." This moment of religious fervor and ardent patriotism, is taken to reconcile all animosities. They then proceed to consider the danger with which they are threatened, to settle the best plans for averting it, and to choose the generals who are to lead their armies[79] against the common enemy. The first GÚrÚ-matÁ was assembled by GÚrÚ GÓvind; and the latest was called in 1805, when the British army pursued HolkÁr into the PenjÁb.

The principal chiefs of the Sikhs are all descended from HindÚ tribes. There is, indeed, no instance of a Singh of a Muhammedan family attaining high power[80]: a circumstance to be accounted for from the hatred still cherished, by the followers of GÚrÚ GÓvind, against the descendants of his persecutors: and that this rancorous spirit is undiminished, may be seen from their treatment of the wretched Muhammedans who yet remain in their territories. These, though very numerous, appear to be all poor, and to be an oppressed, despised race. They till the ground, and are employed to carry burdens, and to do all kinds of hard labour: they are not allowed to eat beef, or to say their prayers aloud, and but seldom assemble in their mosques[81]; of which few, indeed, have escaped destruction. The lower order of Sikhs are more happy: they are protected from the tyranny and violence of the chiefs, under whom they live, by the precepts of their common religion, and by the condition of their country, which enables them to abandon, whenever they choose, a leader whom they dislike; and the distance of a few miles generally places them under the protection of his rival and enemy. It is from this cause that the lowest Sikh horseman usually assumes a very independent style, and the highest chief treats his military followers with attention and conciliation. The civil officers,—to whom the chiefs intrust their accounts, and the management of their property and revenue concerns, as well as the conduct of their negotiations,—are, in general, Sikhs of the KhalÁsa cast; who, being followers of NÁnac, and not of GÚrÚ GÓvind, are not devoted to arms, but educated for peaceful occupations, in which they often become very expert and intelligent.

In the collection of the revenue in the PenjÁb it is stated to be a general rule, that the chiefs, to whom the territories belong, should receive one half of the produce[82], and the farmer the other: but the chief never levies the whole of his share: and in no country, perhaps, is the Rayat, or cultivator, treated with more indulgence. Commerce is not so much encouraged; heavy duties are levied upon it by all petty rulers through whose districts it passes: and this, added to the distracted state in which the PenjÁb has been, from the internal disputes of its possessors, caused the rich produce of CÁsmÍr to be carried to India by the difficult and mountainous tract of Jammu, NadÓn, and SrÍnagar. The Sikh chiefs have, however, discovered the injury which their interests have suffered from this cause, and have endeavoured, and not without success, to restore confidence to the merchant; and great part of the shawl trade now flows through the cities of Lahore, Amritsar, and PatiÁlÁ, to HindÚstan.

The administration of justice in the countries under the Sikhs, is in a very rude and imperfect state; for, though their scriptures inculcate general maxims of justice, they are not considered, as the Old Testament is by the Jews, or the KorÁn by the Muhammedans, as books of law: and, having no fixed code, they appear to have adopted that irregular practice, which is most congenial to the temper of the people, and best suited to the unsteady and changing character of their rule of government. The following appears to be the general outline of their practice in the administration of justice.

Trifling disputes about property are settled by the heads of the village, by arbitration[83], or by the chiefs. Either of these modes, supposing the parties consent to refer to it, is final; and they must agree to one or other. If a theft occurs, the property is recovered, and the party punished by the person from whom it was stolen, who is aided on such occasions by the inhabitants of his village, or his chief. The punishment, however, is never capital[84]. Murder is generally revenged by the relations of the deceased, who, in such cases, rigorously retaliate on the murderer, and often on all who endeavour to protect him.

The character of the Sikhs, or rather Singhs, which is the name by which the followers of GÚrÚ GÓvind, who are all devoted to arms, are distinguished, is very marked. They have, in general, the HindÚ cast of countenance, somewhat altered by their long beards, and are to the full as active as the MahrÁtas; and much more robust, from their living fuller, and enjoying a better and colder climate. Their courage is equal, at all times, to that of any natives of India; and when wrought upon by prejudice or religion, is quite desperate. They are all horsemen, and have no infantry in their own country, except for the defence of their forts and villages, though they generally serve as infantry in foreign armies. They are bold, and rather rough, in their address; which appears more to a stranger from their invariably speaking in a loud tone[85] of voice: but this is quite a habit, and is alike used by them to express the sentiments of regard and hatred. The Sikhs have been reputed deceitful and cruel; but I know no grounds upon which they can be considered more so than the other tribes of India. They seemed to me, from all the intercourse I had with them, to be more open and sincere than the MahrÁtas, and less rude and savage than the AfghÁns. They have, indeed, become, from national success, too proud of their own strength, and too irritable in their tempers, to have patience for the wiles of the former; and they retain, in spite of their change of manners and religion, too much of the original character of their HindÚ ancestors, (for the great majority are of the HindÚ race,) to have the constitutional ferocity of the latter. The Sikh soldier is, generally speaking, brave, active, and cheerful, without polish, but neither destitute of sincerity nor attachment; and if he often appears wanting in humanity, it is not so much to be attributed to his national character, as to the habits of a life, which, from the condition of the society in which he is born, is generally passed in scenes of violence and rapine.

The Sikh merchant, or cultivator of the soil, if he is a Singh, differs little in character from the soldier, except that his occupation renders him less presuming and boisterous. He also wears arms, and is, from education, prompt to use them whenever his individual interest, or that of the community in which he lives[86], requires him to do so. The general occupations of the KhalÁsa Sikhs has been before mentioned. Their character differs widely from that of the Singhs. Full of intrigue, pliant, versatile, and insinuating, they have all the art of the lower classes of HindÚs, who are usually employed in transacting business: from whom, indeed, as they have no distinction of dress, it is very difficult to distinguish them.

The religious tribes of AcÁlÍs, ShahÍd, and Nirmala, have been noticed. Their general character is formed from their habits of life. The AcÁlÍs are insolent, ignorant, and daring: presuming upon those rights which their numbers and fanatic courage have established, their deportment is hardly tolerant to the other Sikhs, and insufferable to strangers, for whom they entertain a contempt, which they take little pains to conceal. The ShÁhÍd and the Nirmala, particularly the latter, have more knowledge, and more urbanity. They are almost all men of quiet, peaceable habits; and many of them are said to possess learning.

There is another tribe among the Sikhs, called the NÁnac Pautra, or descendants of NÁnac, who have the character of being a mild, inoffensive race; and, though they do not acknowledge the institutions of GÚrÚ GÓvind, they are greatly revered by his followers, who hold it sacrilege to injure the race of their founder; and, under the advantage which this general veneration affords them, the NÁnac Pautra pursue their occupations; which, if they are not mendicants, is generally that of travelling merchants. They do not carry arms; and profess, agreeably to the doctrine of NÁnac, to be at peace[87] with all mankind.

The Sikh converts, it has been before stated, continue, after they have quitted their original religion, all those civil usages and customs of the tribes to which they belonged, that they can practise, without infringing the tenets of NÁnac, or the institutions of GÚrÚ GÓvind. They are most particular with regard to their intermarriages; and, on this point, Sikhs descended from HindÚs almost invariably conform to HindÚ customs, every tribe intermarrying within itself. The HindÚ usage, regarding diet, is also held equally sacred; no Sikh, descended from a HindÚ family, ever violating it, except upon particular occasions, such as a GÚrÚ-matÁ, when they are obliged, by their tenets and institutions, to eat promiscuously. The strict observance of these usages has enabled many of the Sikhs, particularly of the JÁt[88] and Gujar[89] tribes, which include almost all those settled to the south of the SatlÉj, to preserve an intimate intercourse with their original tribes; who, considering the Sikhs not as having lost cast, but as HindÚs that have joined a political association, which obliges them to conform to general rules established for its preservation, neither refuse to intermarry[90] nor to eat with them.

The higher cast of HindÚs, such as BrÁhmens and CshatrÍyas, who have become Sikhs, continue to intermarry with converts of their own tribes, but not with HindÚs of the cast they have abandoned, as they are polluted by eating animal food; all kinds of which are lawful to Sikhs, except the cow, which it is held sacrilege to slay[91]. NÁnac, whose object was to conciliate the Muhammedans to his creed, prohibited hog's flesh also; but it was introduced by his successors, as much, perhaps, from a spirit of revenge against the Moslems, as from considerations of indulgence to the numerous converts of the JÁt and Gujar tribe, among whom wild hog is a favourite species of food.

The Muhammedans, who become Sikhs, intermarry with each other, but are allowed to preserve none of their usages, being obliged to eat hog's flesh, and abstain from circumcision.

The Sikhs are forbid the use of tobacco[92], but allowed to indulge in spirituous[93] liquors, which they almost all drink to excess; and it is rare to see a Singh soldier, after sunset, quite sober. Their drink is an ardent spirit[94], made in the PenjÁb; but they have no objections to either the wine or spirits of Europe, when they can obtain them.

The use of opium, to intoxicate, is very common with the Sikhs, as with most of the military tribes of India. They also take B'hang[95], another inebriating drug.

The conduct of the Sikhs to their women differs in no material respect from that of the tribes of HindÚs, or Muhammedans, from whom they are descended. Their moral character with regard to women, and indeed in most other points, may, from the freedom of their habits, generally be considered as much more lax than that of their ancestors, who lived under the restraint of severe restrictions, and whose fear of excommunication from their cast, at least obliged them to cover their sins with the veil of decency. This the emancipated Sikhs despise: and there is hardly an infamy which this debauched and dissolute race are not accused (and I believe with justice) of committing in the most open and shameful manner.

The Sikhs are almost all horsemen, and they take great delight in riding. Their horses were, a few years ago, famous; and those bred in the Lak'hi Jungle, and other parts of their territory, were justly celebrated for their strength, temper, and activity: but the internal distractions of these territories has been unfavourable to the encouragement of the breed, which has consequently declined; and the Sikhs now are in no respect better mounted than the MahrÁtas. From a hundred of their cavalry it would be difficult to select ten horses that would be admitted as fit to mount native troopers in the English service.

Their horsemen use swords and spears, and most of them now carry matchlocks, though some still use the bow and arrow; a species of arms, for excellence in the use of which their forefathers were celebrated, and which their descendants appear to abandon with great reluctance.

The education of the Sikhs renders them hardy, and capable of great fatigue; and the condition of the society in which they live, affords constant exercise to that restless spirit of activity and enterprise which their religion has generated. Such a race cannot be epicures: they appear, indeed, generally to despise luxury of diet, and pride themselves in their coarse fare. Their dress is also plain, not unlike that of the HindÚs, equally light and divested of ornament. Some of the chiefs wear gold bangles; but this is rare; and the general characteristic of their dress and mode of living, is simplicity.

The principal leaders among the Sikhs affect to be familiar and easy of intercourse with their inferiors, and to despise the pomp and state of the Muhammedan chiefs: but their pride often counteracts this disposition; and they appeared to me to have, in proportion to their rank and consequence, more state, and to maintain equal, if not more, reserve and dignity with their followers, than is usual with the MahrÁta chiefs.

It would be difficult, if not impracticable, to ascertain the amount of the population of the Sikh territories, or even to compute the number of the armies which they could bring into action. They boast that they can raise more than a hundred thousand horse: and, if it were possible to assemble every Sikh horseman, this statement might not be an exaggeration: but there is, perhaps, no chief among them, except RanjÍt Singh, of Lahore, that could bring an effective body of four thousand men into the field. The force of RanjÍt Singh did not, in 1805, amount to eight thousand; and part of that was under chiefs who had been subdued from a state of independence, and whose turbulent minds ill brooked an usurpation which they deemed subversive of the constitution of their commonwealth. His army is now more numerous than it was, but it is composed of materials which have no natural cohesion; and the first serious check which it meets, will probably cause its dissolution.