KERMES.

Kermes, or Kerms, from which is got the "Scarlet of Grain" of the old dyers, is one of the old insect dyes. It is considered by most dyers to be the first of the red dyes, being more permanent than cochineal and brighter than madder. In the 10th century it was in general use in Europe. The reds of the Gothic tapestries were dyed with it, and are very permanent, much more so than the reds of later tapestries, which were dyed with cochineal. Bancroft says "The Kermes red or scarlet, though less vivid, is more durable than that of cochineal. The fine blood-red seen at this time on old tapestries in different parts of Europe, unfaded, though many of them are two or three hundred years old, were all dyed from Kermes, with the aluminous basis, on woollen yarn."

Kermes consists of the dried bodies of a small scale insect, Coccus ilicis, found principally on the ilex oak, in the South of Europe. It is said to be still in use in Italy, Turkey, Morocco and other places.

William Morris speaks of the "Al-kermes or coccus which produces with an ordinary aluminous mordant a central red, true vermilion, and with a good dose of acid a full scarlet, which is the scarlet of the Middle Ages, and was used till about the year 1656, when a Dutch chemist discovered the secret of getting a scarlet from cochineal by the use of tin, and so produced a cheaper, brighter and uglier scarlet."

Kermes is employed exactly like cochineal. It has a pleasant aromatic smell which it gives to the wool dyed with it.

The following recipe for its use is from an old French dye book:—

20 lbs. of wool and ½ a bushel of bran are put into a copper with a sufficient quantity of water, and suffered to boil half-an-hour, stirring every now and then. It is then taken out to drain. While the wool is draining the copper is emptied and fresh water put in, to which is added about a fifth of sour water, four pounds of Roman Allum grossly powdered and two pounds of red Tartar. The whole is brought to boil, and that instant the hanks are dipped in, which are to remain in for two hours, stirring them continually. When the wool has boiled two hours in this liquor, it is taken out, left to drain, gently squeezed and put into a linen bag in a cool place for five or six days and sometimes longer. This is called leaving the wool in preparation. After the wool has been covered for five or six days, it is fitted to receive the dye. A fresh liquor is then prepared, and when it begins to be lukewarm, take 12 oz. of powdered Kermes for each pound of wool to be dyed, if a full and well coloured scarlet is wanted. If the Kermes was old and flat, a pound of it would be required for each pound of wool. When the liquor begins to boil, the yarn, still moist, (which it will be, if it has been well wrapped in a bag and kept in a cool place) is put in. Previous to its being dipped in the copper with the Kermes, a handful of wool is cast in, which is let to boil for a minute. This takes up a kind of scum which the Kermes cast up, by which the wool that is afterwards dipped, acquires a finer colour. The handful of wool being taken out, the prepared is put in. The hanks are passed on sticks continually stirring and airing them one after the other. It must boil after this manner an hour at least, then taken out and placed on poles to drain, afterwards wrung and washed. The dye still remaining in the liquor may serve to dip a little fresh parcel of prepared wool; it will take some colour in proportion to the goodness and quality of the Kermes put into the copper.

Another Recipe for Dyeing with Kermes.—The wool is first boiled in water along with bran for half-an-hour (½ bushel of bran for 20 lbs. of wool) stirring it from time to time. Drain. Next boil for 2 hours in a fresh bath with a fifth of its weight of alum and a tenth of Tartar. Sour water is usually added. It is then wrung, put into a bag and left in a cool place for some days. The Kermes is then thrown into warm water in the proportion of 12 oz. to every pound of wool. When the liquor boils, a handful of waste wool is thrown in, to take up the dross of the Kermes, and removed. The wool is then put in and boiled for an hour. It is afterwards washed in warm water in which a small quantity of soap has been dissolved. Then washed and dried.

COCHINEAL

The dried red bodies of an insect (Coccus Cacti) found in Mexico are named Cochineal.

Recipes for Dyeing.

1). Scarlet for Wool.

For each pound of wool put 20 quarts of water. When the water is warm, add 2 oz. Cream of Tartar, 1½ drachms of powdered Cochineal. When the liquor is nearly boiling, put in 2 oz. of Solution of Tin (which the Dyers call Composition for Scarlet). As soon as it begins to boil, the wool, which has been wetted, is dipped and worked in the liquor for an hour and a half. A fresh liquor is then prepared, 1½ oz. of starch is put in and when the water is warm 6½ drachms of Cochineal. When nearly boiling 2 oz. of solution of tin is put in. It must boil, and then the wool is put in and stirred continually for 1½ hours. It is then taken out, wrung and washed. The Scarlet is then in its Perfection.

2). Cochineal for Cotton.

Prepare 50 lbs. of cotton with 15 lbs. Sumach, 10 lbs. Alum. Dye with 2¼ lbs. of Cochineal. Leave for 24 hours in the Sumach; lift; winch 2 to 3 hours in a hot solution of Alum; wash in two waters, then boil up the cochineal; put off the boil, enter cotton & winch till colour be full enough; then wash and dry.

3). Orange Red for Wool.

• 1). Mordant wool with Alum.
• 2). Dye in a bath of weak Fustic. Wash and Dry.
• 3). Put into cold water, Cream of Tartar, Tin, Pepper and Cochineal. When warm, enter the wool and boil.

4). Pink with Cochineal for Wool.

(For 60 lbs. wool). 5 lbs. 12 oz. alum. Boil and immerse wool for 50 minutes. Then add 1 lb. Cochineal and 5 lbs. cream of tartar. Boil and enter wool while boiling, till the required colour is got.

5). Scarlet for Wool.

(For 100 lbs.) 6 lbs. of Tartar are thrown into the water when warm. The bath is stirred briskly and when hot ½ lb. powdered cochineal is added and well mixed. Then 5 lbs. of clear solution of Tin is carefully mixed in. When it is boiling the wool is put in and moved briskly. After 2 hours it is taken out, aired and washed.

The second bath. When the water is nearly boiling 5¾ lbs. of powdered cochineal is put in. A crust will form on the surface which will open in several places. Then 13 to 14 lbs. of solution of tin is poured in. After this is well mixed, the wool is entered and stirred well. Boil for an hour, then wash and dry.

These two processes can be done together with good result. The colour can be yellowed by fustic or turmeric. More tartar in the second bath increases the colour. The scarlet may be brightened by common salt. Alum will change the scarlet to crimson, the wool being boiled in a solution of it for one hour.

6). Crimson for Wool.

Mordant with 2½ oz. alum and 1½ oz. tartar for every lb. of wool. Then dye with 1 oz. cochineal. Solution of tin is sometimes added. Also salt.

7). Violet for Wool.

Mordant with 2 oz. alum for 1 lb. wool. Dye with 1 oz. cochineal and 1 oz. of solution of iron in which the wool is kept till the shade is reached.

8). Scarlet with Cochineal, for Wool.

(For 100 oz. clean wool). Put 6 oz. Oxalic acid, 6 oz. Stannous Chloride (Tin Crystals), 8 oz. powdered cochineal in a bath containing about half the quantity of water required to cover wool. Boil 10 minutes, then add sufficient water to cover wool. Enter the wool, work well in the dye and boil for ¾ hour, after which take out the wool, wash and dry.

9). Purple, for Wool.

(For 2½ lbs. wool). Mordant with Bichromate of Potash, 1½ oz. in 10 gallons of water. Dye with 6 to 8 oz. cochineal. With alum mordant (4 oz.) a crimson colour is got. With tin mordant (2 oz.) a scarlet. With iron mordant (2 oz.) a purplish slate or lilac.

10). Scarlet, for Wool.

Mordant the wool for 1 to 1½ hours with 6% stannous chloride and 4% cream of tartar. Wash. Dye with 5 to 12% of ground cochineal for 1 to 1¼ hours. To dye the wool evenly, enter it in both the mordant and the dye when the water is warm, and raise gradually to boiling.

11). Scarlet, for Wool.

Fill the dye bath half full of water, add 6 to 8% of Oxalic acid, 6% of stannous chloride and 5 to 12 per cent. ground cochineal, boil up for 5 to 10 minutes, then fill up the dye bath with cold water. Introduce the wool, heat up the bath to the boiling point in the course of ¾ to 1 hour and boil ½ hour. Washing between mordanting and dyeing is not absolutely essential. The addition of tartar up to 8 per cent. increases the intensity and yellowness of the colour.

In order to obtain bright yellow shades of scarlet it is usual to add a small proportion of some yellow dye to the bath.

Wool mordanted with 10 per cent. of Copper sulphate and dyed in a separate bath with cochineal gives a reddish purple, or claret colour.

With ferrous sulphate as mordant very good purplish slate or lilac colours can be got. Mordant and dye in separate baths. Use 8 per cent. of ferrous sulphate and 20 per cent. of tartar.

12). Crimson for Silk.

Mordant the silk by working for ½ hour in a concentrated solution of alum, then leave to steep over night. Wash well and dye in a fresh bath containing 40 per cent. of cochineal. Enter the silk at a low temperature and heat gradually to boiling.

13). Scarlet for Silk.

After boiling and washing, the silk is first slightly dyed with yellow by working it for ¼ hour at 50°C., in a weak soap bath containing about 10 per cent. of Annatto; it is then well washed. Mordant the silk by working it for ½ hour, then steeping it over night in a cold solution of 40 per cent. of nitro-muriate of tin. Wash and dye in a fresh bath with a decoction of 20 to 40 per cent. of cochineal and 5 to 10 per cent. cream of tartar. Enter the silk at a low temperature and heat gradually to boiling. Brighten in a fresh bath of cold water, slightly acidified with tartaric acid. Good results can also be obtained with the single bath method with cochineal, stannous chloride and oxalic acid.

With the use of iron mordants very fine shades of lilac may be obtained on silk with cochineal.

LAC DYE.

Like Cochineal and Kermes, Lac is a small scale insect, Coccus lacca. It is found in India, Burmah and other Eastern countries; it was introduced into England in 1796.

The method of dyeing with lac is very much the same as with cochineal; it yields its colour less readily however, and should be ground into a paste with the tin solution employed and a little hydrochloric acid and allowed to stand for a day before using. It is said to be a faster dye than cochineal, but is often used in combination with it, being a fuller colour though not so bright.

A good fast scarlet is produced by the following recipe:—For 100 lbs. wool. 8 lbs. lac, previously ground up with part of the tin spirits, 5 lbs. cochineal, 5 lbs. tartar, 20 lbs. tin spirit.

MADDER.

Madder consists of the ground up dried roots of a plant, (Rubia tinctorum) cultivated in France, Holland, and other parts of Europe, as well as in India. Madder is not much used for silk dyeing, but for wool, linen and cotton it is one of the best dyes. It is also used largely in combination with other dyes to produce compound colours. When used for cotton the colour is much improved by boiling in a weak solution of soap after the dyeing. The gradual raising of the temperature of the dye bath is essential in order to develop the full colouring power of madder; long boiling should be avoided, as it dulls the colour. If the water is deficient in lime, brighter shades are got by adding a little ground chalk to the dye bath, 1 to 2 per cent.

Berthollet distinguishes two kinds of madder red on cotton, one of which is given in No. 4. The other is the well-known Turkey red or Adrianople red, a very difficult and complicated dye, but one of the most permanent dyes known. Madder reds are said to be not so beautiful as those from Kermes, lac or cochineal, but my experience has been that with care, the finest reds can be got with madder.

Birch leaves are used in Russia to improve the colour of madder. They are added to the dye bath.

Recipes for use of Madder.

1). Red for Wool.

For 100 oz. (6¼ lbs.) wool.

Mordant 8 oz. Alum and 2 oz. Tartar. Boil the wool in the mordant for one hour and wash in cold water. Dye: 50 oz. Madder. Enter the mordanted wool, raise to boil and boil gently for one hour. Wash thoroughly in cold water and dry. If the water is very soft, a small quantity of lime or chalk added to the dye bath improves the shade. Alder bark or alder leaves added to the dye bath darkens the colour. The best results are obtained when the dye bath is maintained just under the boiling point.

2). Reddish brown for Wool.

Mordant with 3% bichromate of potash and dye with Madder. Good results can be got by the single bath method. (See page 14, No. 3.)

3). Brownish red for Wool.

Mordant the wool with 6 to 8 per cent. of alum and 5 to 7 per cent. of tartar. Dye with 60 to 80% of Madder. Begin the dyeing at about 40°C., and raise the temperature of the bath gradually to 80° to 100°C., in the course of an hour, and continue the dyeing about an hour. Wash and dry. The colour can be brightened by adding a small proportion of stannous chloride to the mordant or it can be added to the dye bath towards the end of the dyeing.

Brighter shades are got by keeping the temperature at about 80°C., and prolonging the dyeing process. After dyeing, the colour can be brightened by working the wool at 70°C., in a weak soap bath, or a bath containing bran.

4). Bright red for Cotton.[16]

(For 22 lbs.). The cotton must be scoured, then galled in the proportion of 1 part of nut galls to 4 of cotton, and lastly alumed in the proportion of 1 of alum to 4 of cotton. To the solution of alum is added one twentieth of solution of soda ley (½ lb. ordinary soda to 1¾ pints water). It is then dried slowly and alumed again. Then dried slowly again. The more slowly the drying takes place the better the colour. The cotton is then ready to be dyed.

Heat the water of the dye bath as hot as the hand can bear; mix in 6½ lbs. madder and stir carefully. When thoroughly mixed, put in the cotton & work for ¾ hour without boiling. Take it out & add about a pint of soda ley. The cotton is then returned to the bath and boiled for 15 to 20 minutes. It is then brightened by passing it quickly thro' a tepid bath with a pint of ley in it. It is then washed and dried.

5). Bright Orange red for Wool.

For 1 lb. scoured fleece, mordant with 4 oz. alum and 1 oz. cream of tartar. Dissolve the mordant, enter the wool and raise to boiling point and boil for 1 hour. Allow the wool to cool in the mordant. Then wring out and put in a linen bag in a cool place for 4 or 5 days. Soak 8 oz. madder over night in water and boil up before using. Put into dye bath, enter wool when warm, bring gradually to the boil and boil for ¾ hour.

6). Bright Red For Wool.

Mordant 1 lb. wool with 5 oz. of Alum, and 1 oz. of Tartar; leave to drain and then wring out; put into a linen bag and leave in a cool place for several days. (The wool should still be damp when taken out to dye; if it is dry, damp with warm water). If the Tartar is increased a cinnamon colour is got. Dye with ½ lb. of madder for every pound of wool. The water should not boil, but kept just below boiling for an hour; then boil up for 5 minutes before taking out and washing.

With sulphate of copper as a mordant, madder gives a clear brown bordering on yellow (one part of sulphate of copper and 2 parts of madder).

7). Red for Silk.

The silk is mordanted over night with alum, by steeping it in a cold concentrated solution; wash well and dye in a separate bath with 50 per cent. of madder. Begin dyeing at a low temperature and gradually raise to 100°C. The addition of bran tends to give brighter colours. A small quantity of Sumach could be added if a fuller colour is wanted. After dyeing, wash and then brighten in a boiling solution of soap, to which a small percentage of stannous chloride has been added. Afterwards wash well.

By mordanting with Copperas, either alone or after an Alum bath, violet and brown shades can be got.

8). Red with Madder for Wool.

Pound up carefully without heating some roots of madder. Mordant the wool with Alum, adding some cayenne pepper. Dye with the madder, adding cream of tartar to the dye bath. Birch leaves improve the colour.

9). Madder Red for Cotton.

Take a piece of white cotton, about 20 yards. Melt in some water 1 lb. of potash; boil the cotton in this for 20 minutes, then rinse it. Put 4 lbs. of the best Sumach in the copper and fill it up with boiling water, and boil for 10 minutes. Put to cool and work the cotton well in this for an hour. Take it out and give it a scalding hot alum and sugar of lead bath for half-an-hour; rinse in two waters; put it back in the sumach for half-an-hour; then alum again for 20 minutes. Rinse. Put 2 lbs. of madder into hot water and boil gently for a few minutes. Put in the cotton, work well and boil for half-an-hour gently. After, give it a hot alum for 20 minutes, and rinse. Put 1 lb. fresh madder in the copper, put in the cotton and boil for 20 minutes. Then wash.

10). Red for Cotton.

Scour the cotton. Then gall in the proportion of 1 of gall nuts to 4 of cotton. Then alum in the proportion of 1 of alum to 4 of cotton, with a little soda and tartar added. Dissolve the alum, etc., and put in the cotton, and boil half-an-hour. Cool down and ring out. Then dry slowly. Repeat the aluming. Put madder into water and when hot dip in cotton for ½ hour, keeping it under boiling point, then boil up for ¼ hour and wash. Dry.

11). Madder Red for Cotton & Linen.

(For 1 lb.) 1st Mordant.—Boil 1 oz. ground gall nuts in 5 quarts of water for ½ hour. Put in thread and soak for 24 hours. Dry.

2nd Mordant.—Melt 2 oz. of alum, ? oz. of Turmeric, and ½ oz. of gum Arabic in two quarts of water, over a slow fire. Let cool. Melt 1 oz. soda, 1 oz. arsenic, ¼ oz. potash (crushed) in a bath, and when dissolved, add the alum, turmeric and gum Arabic mixture. Stew ½ hour. Put in thread, which should be covered with the liquid, and let it soak for 24 hours. Dry.

1st. Bath.—Put 2 oz. Madder into 10 quarts of water, heat up to boiling but do not let it boil. Put in thread and stir well for 1 hour.

2nd. Bath.—Put 3 oz. Madder in 10 quarts of water; treat as in first bath, from which the thread should be taken and put straight into the 2nd. bath. Stir for 1 hour. Soak for 24 hours; wash and dry.

3rd. Bath.—Put 3 oz. Madder in 10 quarts water; repeat the process described for 2nd. bath. The thread should be washed in cold water & lastly in warm water in which a little soft soap has been dissolved. When drying do not wring the skeins as this is likely to make the colour uneven.

There are a few other red dyes of minor importance which should be mentioned.

BRAZIL WOODS, various leguminous trees, including lima, sapan and peach wood, dye red with alum and tartar, and a purplish slate colour with bichromate of potash. They are not fast colours.

Some old dyers used Brazil wood to heighten the red of madder.

CAMWOOD, BARWOOD, SANDALWOOD or SANDERSWOOD, are chiefly used in wool dyeing, with other dye woods such as Old Fustic, and Logwood for browns. They dye good but fugitive red with bichromate of potash, or alum.

RED from LADIES BEDSTRAW.

The crushed roots of this plant are used. Mordant the wool with either alum or bichromate of potash. The red with alum is an orange red, with chrome, a crimson red. Make the dye bath with 30 to 50% of bedstraw roots and boil the mordanted wool in it for an hour.

RED for COTTON.

For 10 lbs. cotton boil 3 lbs. Sumach, let the cotton steep in this over night: wring out and work in red spirits (1 gill to a gallon of water). Wring out and wash well. Boil up 3 lbs. limawood (or Brazil or Peach wood) and 1 lb. fustic. Work the cotton in this ½ hour, as warm as the hand can bear; add 1 gill red spirits and work 15 minutes longer. Wash.