Some of the most useful dyes and the least known are to be found among the Lichens. They seem to have been used among peasant dyers from remote ages, but apparently none of the great French dyers used them, nor are they mentioned in any of the old books on dyeing. The only Lichen dyes that are known generally among dyers are Orchil and Cudbear, and these are preparations of lichens, not the lichens themselves. They are still used in some quantity and are prepared rather elaborately. But a great many of the ordinary Lichens yield very good and permanent dyes. The Parmelia saxatilis and P. omphaloides, are largely used in the Highlands & West Ireland, for dyeing brown of all shades. No mordant is needed, and the colours produced are the fastest known. "Crottle," is the general name for Lichens, in Scotland. They are gathered off the rocks in July and August, dried in the sun, and used to dye wool, without any preparation. The crottle is put into the dye bath with a sufficient quantity of water, boiled up and allowed to cool and then boiled up with the wool until the shade required is got. This may take from one to three or four hours, as the dye is not rapidly taken up by the wool. Other dyers use it in the following way:—A layer of crottle, a layer of wool, and so on until the bath is full; fill up with cold water and bring to the boil, and boil till the colour is deep enough. Some of the finest browns are got in this way. The wool does not seem to be affected by keeping it in the dye a long time. A small quantity of acetic acid put in with the Lichen is said to assist in exhausting the colour.

The grey Lichen Ramalina scopulorum, dyes a fine shade of yellow brown. It grows very plentifully on old stone walls, especially by the sea, and in damp woods, on trees, and on old rotten wood. Boil the Lichen up in sufficient water one day, and the next day put in the wool, and boil up again till the right colour is got. If the wool is left in the dye for a day or more after boiling, it absorbs more colour, and it does not hurt the wool, but leaves it soft and silky to the touch, though apt to be uneven in colour. Some mordant the wool first with alum, but it does not seem to need it.

The best known of the dye Lichens are Parmelia saxatilis, and Parmelia omphalodes, which are still largely used in Scotland and Ireland for dyeing wool for tweeds. The well known Harris tweed smell is partly due to the use of this dye.

Other Lichens also known for their dyeing properties are:—Parmelia caperata or Stone Crottle which contains a yellow dye, P. ceratophylla, or Dark Crottle, and P. parietina, the common wall lichen, which gives a colour similar to the colour of the lichen itself, yellowish brown. In Bancroft's "Philosophy of Permanent Colours" is to be found the following—"Besides the lichens, whose colour depends upon a combination with the ammonia, there are some which afford substantive colours, less beautiful indeed, but more durable, by merely boiling with water. One of these is the muscus pulmonarius of Caspar Bauhine, or the lichenoides pulmonium reticulatum vulgare marginibus peltiferus of Dillenius, called Rags and Stone Rags, in the northern parts of England, which, without any mordant, dyes a very durable dark brown colour upon white wool or cloth, and a fine lasting black upon wool or cloth which has previously received a dark blue from Indigo." The following occurs in an old Scottish history.—"There is one excresence gotton off the craigs which they call cork-lit, and make use thereof for litting, or dyeing a kind of purple colour." Another lichen, taken from trees in Scotland, was used for producing an orange tint, called Philamort. The tree lichen was called wood-raw, or rags, to distinguish it from stone lichen, or stone-raw. A deep red colour was got from the dull grey friable lichen, common on old stone walls, which was scraped off, with a metal scraper. The bright yellow lichen, growing on rocks and walls, and old roofs, dyes a fine plum colour, if the wool is mordanted first with Bichromate of Potash. There is a difficulty, however, in getting enough of this lichen to make the dyeing with it practicable.

The colour of the plant is no indication of the colorific power. That is often greatly modified by the conditions of its growth,—such as climate, elevation above the sea, nearness or distance from the sea, age, season when gathered, habitat. The best season for gathering most lichens, is late summer and autumn.

In Sweden, Scotland and other countries, the peasantry use a lichen, called Lecanora tartarea, to furnish a red or crimson dye.

In Shetland, the Parmelia saxatilis (Scrottyie) is used to dye brown. It is found in abundance on argillaceous rocks. It is considered best if gathered late in the year, and is generally collected in August. Immediately after being collected, an iron vessel is filled with it, and stale urine then poured over it, till the vessel is full. This is slowly boiled until the plant begins to assume a mucillaginous appearance, which generally takes place in about 2 hours. When taken off the fire, it has the consistence of a thin jelly, but it speedily hardens until it is nearly as thick as porridge, and its colour becomes a dark rusty grey. It is then folded in the cloth, layer by layer of Scrottyie and cloth alternately, and all is boiled for about 20 minutes, in soft water, in which a little alum has been dissolved. It is then taken off the fire and the cloth washed in cold water, when the process of dyeing is complete. The Scrottyie, taken from between the folds of the cloth, is used several times for dyeing, on being treated again in the same manner.

The plant used in Shetland for the red dye is the Lecanora tartarea. It is found abundantly on almost all rocks and also grows on dry moors, along with Cladonia sangiferina. (If a particle of the latter is allowed to be intermixed with the dye, it is supposed to be spoiled.) The lichen, and the dye made from it, are called Korkalett. This lichen is collected in May and June, and steeped in stale urine for about 3 weeks, being kept at a moderate heat all the time. The substance having then a thick and strong texture, like bread, and being of a bluish black colour, is taken out and made into small cakes of about ¾ lb. in weight, which are wrapped in dock leaves and hung up to dry in peat smoke. When dry it may be preserved fit for use for many years; when wanted for dyeing it is partially dissolved in warm water till of the consistence of Scrottyie, the dyeing proceeds in the same manner; 5 lbs. of korkalett being considered sufficient for about 4 Scotch ells of cloth. The colour produced is a light red. It is much used in the dyeing of yarn as well as cloth. The yarn is simply boiled in it without folding as in the case of cloth.[6]

LinnÆus mentions that a beautiful red colour may be prepared from Lichen pustulatus, Gyrophora pustulata. G. cylindrica is used by Icelanders for dyeing woollen stuffs a brownish green colour. In Sweden and Norway, Evernia vulpina is used for dyeing woollen stuffs yellow. Iceland moss, Cetraria Islandica, is used in Iceland for dyeing brown. Usnea barbata is collected from trees in Pennsylvania & used for an orange colour for yarn.

Lecanora tartarea (corcur of the Scottish Highlanders) dyes a claret. It is usually prepared by pounding the lichen and mixing it with stale chamberley, to which a little salt or kelp is added; this mixture is kept for several weeks, and frequently stirred; being then brought to the consistence of coarse paste, it is made up into balls, with a little lime or burnt shells, and is kept ready for use. When used, it is coarsely powdered and a small portion of alum is generally added.

A general method for using lichens is suggested by Dr. Westring of Sweden, in his "Experiments on Lichens for Dyeing Wools and Silks." He says:

"The Lichens should be gathered after some days of rain, they can then be more easily detached from the rocks. They should be well washed, dried and reduced to a fine powder: 25 parts pure river water are added to 1 of powdered lichen, and 1 part of fresh quick lime to 10 parts powdered lichen. To 10 lbs. lichen ½ lb. sal ammoniac is sufficient when lime and sal ammoniac are used together. The vessel containing them should be kept covered for the first 2 or 3 days. Sometimes the addition of a little common salt or salt-petre will give greater lustre to the colours."[7]

This method can be followed by anyone wishing to experiment with Lichens. Dr. Westring did not use a mordant as a rule. Where the same species of Lichen grows on both rocks and trees, the specimens taken from rocks give the better colours.

Orchil or Archil and Cudbear are substantive or non mordant dyes, obtained from Lichens of various species of Roccella growing on rocks in the Canary Islands and other tropical and sub-tropical countries. They used to be made in certain parts of Great Britain from various lichens, but the manufacture of these has almost entirely disappeared. They have been known from early times as dyes. They give beautiful purples and reds, but the colour is not very fast. The dye is produced by the action of ammonia and oxygen upon the crushed Lichens or weeds as they are called. The early way of producing the colour was by treating the Lichen with stale urine and slaked lime, and this method was followed in Scotland. Orchil is applied to wool by the simple process of boiling it in a neutral or slightly acid solution of the colouring matter. 3% Sulphuric acid is a useful combination. Sometimes alum and tartar are used. It dyes slowly and evenly. It is used as a bottom for Indigo on wool and also for compound shades on wool and silk. For cotton and linen dyeing it is not used. It is rarely used by itself as the colour is fugitive, but by using a mordant of tin, the colour is made much more permanent.

"Archil is in general a very useful ingredient in dyeing; but as it is rich in colour, and communicates an alluring bloom, dyers are often tempted to abuse it, and to exceed the proportions that can add to the beauty, without, at the same time, injuring in a dangerous manner the permanence of the colours. Nevertheless, the colour obtained when solution of tin is employed, is less fugitive than without this addition."[8]

Many of the British lichens produce colours by the same treatment as is used for producing Orchil. Large quantities were manufactured in Scotland from lichens gathered in the Shetland Islands and Western Highlands. This was called Cudbear. The species used by the Scottish Cudbear makers were generally Lecanora tartarea and Urceolaria calcarea; but the following lichens also give the purple colour on treatment with ammonia.—Evernia prunastri, Lecanora pallescens, Umbilicaria vellea, U. pustulata, Parmelia perlata; whilst several others give colours of similar character, but of little commercial value. The manufacture of Archil and Cudbear from the various lichens is simple in principle. In all cases the plant is reduced to a pulp with water and ammonia, and the mass kept at a moderate heat and allowed to ferment, the process taking two or three weeks to complete. The ammonia used to be added in the form of stale urine, and additions of slaked lime were made from time to time.[9] The general mode of treatment for the development from the dye lichens of orchil and cudbear consists of the following steps:—

• 1.—Careful washing, drying and cleaning, to separate earthy and other impurities.
• 2.—Pulverisation into a coarse or fine pulp with water.
• 3.—Regulated addition of ammonia of a certain strength and derived from various sources (putrid urine, gas liquor, etc.)
• 4.—Frequent stirring of the fermenting mass so as to ensure full exposure of every part thereof to the action of atmospheric oxygen.
• 5.—Addition of alkalis in some cases (e.g. potash or soda) to heighten or modify the colour; and of chalk, gypsum and other substances, to impart consistence. Various accessories are employed, e.g. the application of continued, moderate and carefully regulated heat during the process of fermentation.[10]

RECIPES FOR DYEING WITH LICHENS.

To dye Brown with Crotal.

For 6¼ lbs. (100 oz.) of wool. Dye baths may be used of varying strengths of from 10 to 50 oz. of Crotal. Raise the bath to the boil, and boil for an hour. A light tan shade is got by first dipping the wool in a strong solution of Crotal, a darker shade by boiling for half-an-hour, and a dark brown by boiling for two hours or so. It is better, however, to get the shade by altering the quantity of Crotal used. The addition of sufficient oil of vitriol to make the bath slightly acid will be an improvement. (A very small quantity should be used).

To Dye Red with Crotal.—

Gather the lichen off the rocks—it is best in winter. Put layers of lichen and wool alternately in a pot, fill up with water and boil until you get the desired tint. Too much crotal will make the wool a dark red brown, but a very pretty terra cotta red can be got. No mordant is required.

To Dye Pink from a bright yellow Lichen. (Parmelia parietina).

Mordant the wool with 3% of Bichromate of Potash, then boil with the lichen for 1 hour or more.

To Dye Brown from Crotal.

Boil the wool with an equal quantity of lichen for 1 or 1½ hours. No mordant is required.

To dye red purple from Cudbear & Logwood.

Dye with equal quantities of Cudbear and Logwood, the wool having been mordanted with chrome. A lighter colour is got by dyeing with 8 lbs. cudbear and ½ lb. logwood (for 30 lbs. wool).

To Dye Yellow on Linen with the Lichen Peltigera canina (a large flat lichen growing on rocks in woods).

Mordant with alum, (¼ lb. to a lb. of linen) boil for 2 hours. Then boil up with sufficient quantity of the lichen till the desired colour is got.

LIST OF LICHENS USED BY THE
PEASANTRY OF DIFFERENT
COUNTRIES FOR WOOL
DYEING.[11]

Shades of Red, Purple and Orange.

Roccella tinctoria. Orseille. Grows in the South of France, on rocks by the sea.

Lecanora tartarea. Crotal, Crottle, Corkur, Corcir, Korkir. Found in the Scotch Highlands and Islands, growing on rocks; used for the manufacture of Cudbear in Leith & Glasgow.

L. parella. Light Crottle, Crabs Eye Lichen. Found in Scotland, France, and England, on rocks and trees, formerly celebrated in the South of France in the making of the dye called Orseille d'Auvergne.

L. hÆmatomma.—Bloody spotted lecanora, Black lecanora. Found in Scotland on rocks and trees.

Umbilicaria pustulata.—Blistered umbilicaria. Found on rocks in Norway and Sweden.

Isidium corallinum. White crottle. Found on rocks in Scotland.

I. Westringii. Westring's Isidium. Norway and Sweden.

Urceolaria calcarea. Corkir, Limestone Urceolaria. Found in Scotland, Western Islands, Shetland and Wales, growing on limestone rocks.

U. Scruposa. Rock Urceolaria. Grows on rocks in hilly districts in England.

U. cinerea. Greyish Urceolaria. In England, on rocks.

Parmelia saxatilis. Crottle, stane-raw, Staney-raw, (Scotland). Scrottyie, (Shetland). Sten-laf, Sten-mossa, (Norway and Sweden). Found on rocks and stones in Scotland, Shetland, and Scandinavia. In winter the Swedish peasantry wear home made garments dyed purple by this lichen. By the Shetlanders it is usually collected in August, when it is considered richest in colouring matter.

P. omphalodes. Black Crottle, Cork, Corker, Crostil or Crostal, (Scotch Highlands). Arcel, (Ireland). Kenkerig, (Wales). Alaforel-leaf, (Sweden). Found on rocks, especially Alpine, in Scotland, Ireland, Wales and Scandinavia. One of the most extensively used dye-lichens. It yields a dark brown dye readily to boiling water, and it is easily fixed to yarns by simple mordants. It is stated to yield a red, crimson or purple dye.

P. caperata. Stone crottle, Arcel. Found in North of Ireland and Isle of Man, on trees. Said to dye yarn brown, orange and lemon yellow.

P. conspersa. Sprinkled parmelia. Found growing on rocks in England.

Evernia prunastri. Ragged hoary lichen. Stag's horn lichen. Found in Scotland, on trees.

Ramalina scopulorum. Ivory-like ramalina. Scotland, on maritime rocks. A red dye.

R. farinacea. Mealy ramalina. On trees in England.

Borrera ashney. Chutcheleera. India.

Solorina crocea. Saffron yellow solorina. In Scotland, on mountain summits. The colouring matter is ready formed and abundant in the thallus.

Nephroma parilis. Chocolate colored nephroma. Scotland, on stones. Said to dye blue.

Sticta pulmonacea. On trees.

Lecidea sanguinaria. Red fruited lecidea. In Scotland, on rocks.

Conicularia aculeata. var. spadicea. Brown prickly cornicularia. Canary Islands, Highland Mountains.

Usnea barbata. Bearded Usnea. Pennsylvania and South America. On old trees. Stated to dye yarn orange.

U. florida. Flowering Usnea. Pale greenish yellow or reddish brown.

U. plicata. Plaited usnea. On trees.

Shades of Brown

Cetraria Islandica. Iceland moss. Iceland heaths, and hills. It yields a good brown to boiling water, but this dye appears only to have been made available to the Icelanders.

Parmelia physoides. Dark crottle, Bjork-laf. Found in Sweden, Scotland & Scandinavia, on rocks and trees.

P. omphalodes. In Scandinavia and Scotland. Withering asserts that it yields a purple dye paler, but more permanent, than orchil; which is prepared in Iceland by steeping in stale lye, adding a little salt and making it up into balls with lime.

Sticta pulmonacea. Oak lung, Lungwort, Aikraw, Hazel-raw, Oak rag, Hazel rag, Hazel crottle, Rags. Found on trees in England, Scotland, North of Ireland, Scandinavia. It dyes wool orange and is said to have been used by the Herefordshire peasantry to dye stockings brown. Some species yield beautiful saffron or gamboge coloured dyes, e.g. S. flava, crocata, aurata.

For continuation of list see Appendix.