[1] Book of Llan Daf.

[2] Dr. Hugh Cameron Gillies in Home Life of the Highlanders, Glasgow, 1911, pp. 85 et seq.

[3] A pestle or stone was used to pound grain in hollowed slabs or rocks before the mechanical mill was invented.

[4] Primitive Man.

[5] Men of the Old Stone Age (1916), pp. 240-1.

[6] British Museum—A Guide to the Antiquities of the Stone Age, p. 76 (1900).

[7] Miller had adopted the "stratification theory" of Professor William Robertson of Edinburgh University, who, in his The History of America (1777), wrote: "Men in their savage state pass their days like the animals round them, without knowledge or veneration of any superior power".

[8] Custom and Myth (1910 edition), p. 13. Lang's views regarding flints are worthless.

[9] The last division of the Tertiary period.

[10] It must be borne in mind that the lengths of these periods are subject to revision. Opinion is growing that they were not nearly so long as here stated.

[11] Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, Vol. XLIII, 1913.

[12] For principal references see The Races of Europe, W. Z. Ripley, pp. 172 et seq., and The Anthropological History of Europe, John Beddoe (Rhind lectures for 1891; revised edition, 1912), p. 47.

[13] That is, the tall representatives of the CrÔ-Magnon races.

[14] Men of the Old Stone Age, pp. 335-6.

[15] Myths of the New World, p. 163.

[16] Cults of the Greek States, Vol. V. p. 243.

[17] Budge, Gods of the Egyptians. Vol. I, p. 203.

[18] De Groot, The Religious System of China, Book I, pp. 216-7.

[19] Ibid., Book I, pp. 28 and 332.

[20] I am indebted to the AbbÉ Breuil for this information which he gave me during the course of a conversation.

[21] Budge, Gods of the Egyptians, Vol. I, p. 358. These scarabs have not been found in the early Dynastic graves. Green malachite charms, however, were used in even the pre-Dynastic period.

[22] The Myths of the New World, p. 294. According to Bancroft the green stones were often placed in the mouths of the dead.

[23] Laufer, Jade, pp. 294 et seq. (Chicago, 1912).

[24] Men of the Old Stone Age, pp. 297-8.

[25] Primitive Man (Proceedings of the British Academy, Vol. VII).

[26] Les Grottes de Grimaldi (Baousse-Rousse), Tome I, fasc. II—GÉologie et PalÉontologie (Monaco, 1906), p. 123.

[27] Prehistoric Britain, pp. 142-3.

[28] London, 1917.

[29] Shells as Evidence of the Migrations of Early Culture, pp. 84-91.

[30] G. A. Reisner. Early Dynastic Cemeteries of Naga-ed-Der, Vol. I, 1908, Plates 6 and 7.

[31] Jackson's Shells, pp. 128, 174, 176, 178.

[32] Dr. Alexander Carmichael, Carmina Gadeiica, Vol. II, pp.247 et seq. Mr. Wilfrid Jackson, author of Shells as Evidence of the Migrations of Early Culture, tells me that the "blue-eyed limpet" is our common limpet—Patella vulgata—the Lepas, Patelle, Jambe, Œil de boue, Bernicle, or Flie of the French. In Cornwall it is the "Crogan", the "Bornigan", and the "Brennick". It is "flither" of the English, "flia" of the Faroese, and "lapa" of the Portuguese. A Cornish giant was once, according to a folk-tale, set to perform the hopeless task of emptying a pool with a single limpet which had a hole in it. Limpets are found in early British graves and in the "kitchen middens". They are met with in abundance in cromlechs, on the Channel Isles and in Brittany, covering the bones and the skulls of the dead. Mr. Jackson thinks they were used like cowries for vitalizing and protecting the dead.

[33] Breasted, Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, p. 130.

[34] Hamlet, V. i.

[35] Men of the Old Stone Age, pp.304-5.

[36] A Red Sea cowry shell (Cyproea minor) found on the site of Hurstbourne station (L. & S. W. Railway, main line) in Hampshire, was associated with "Early Iron Age" artifacts. (Paper read by J. R. le B. Tomlin at meeting of LinnÆan Society, June 14, 1921.)

[37] For references see my Myths of Crete and Pre-Hellenic Europe, pp.30-31.

[38] Notes to Thalaba, Book V, Canto 36.

[39] Henry V, V, iii, 6.

[40] For other examples see Mr. Legge's article in Proceedings of the Society of Biblical ArchÆology, 1899. p. 310.

[41] The AbbÉ Breuil, having examined the artifacts associated with the Western Scottish harpoons, inclines to refer to the culture as "Azilian-Tardenoisian". At the same time he considers the view that Maglemosian influence was operating is worthy of consideration. He notes that traces of Maglemosian culture have been reported from England. The AbbÉ has detected Magdalenian influence in artifacts from Campbeltown, Argyllshire (Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries in Scotland, 1921-2).

[42] Eirikr Magnusson in Notes on Shipbuilding and Nautical Terms, London, 1906.

[43] Pronounced ma-haw'-baw'-rata (the two final a's are short).

[44] The Orkneyinga Saga, p. 182, Edinburgh, 1873, and Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, Vol. VIII.

[45] Clement Reid, Submerged Forests, pp. 45-7. London, 1913.

[46] The dates of the greatest disasters on record are 1421, 1532, and 1570. There were also terrible inundations in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and in 1825 and 1855.

[47] It was not necessarily barbarous because metal weapons had not been invented.

[48] Submerged Forests, p. 120.

[49] The Cairo Scientific Journal, Vol. III. No. 32 (May, 1909), p. 105.

[50] Antiquity of Man in Europe, p. 274, Edinburgh, 1914. The term "Neolithic" is here rather vague. It applies to the Azilians and Maglemosians as well as to later peoples.

[51] Breasted, A History of Egypt, pp. 96-7.

[52] Wollaston, Pygmies and Papuans (The Stone Age To-day in Dutch New Guinea), London, 1912, pp. 53 et seq.

[53] Westervelt, Legends of Old Honolulu, pp. 97 et seq.

[54] Lyell, Antiquity of Man, p. 48.

[55] CÆsar's Gallic War, Book III, c. 13-15.

[56] Agricola, Chap. XII.

[57] Smith, Roman Empire.

[58] Strabo—IV, c. 1-13.

[59] Satapatha-Brahmana, Pt. V, "Sacred Books of the East", XLIV, pp. 187, 203, 236. 239, 348-50.

[60] Proceedings of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 1921.

[61] Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 1917-18, pp. 149 et seq.

[62] See my Myths of Crete and pre-Hellenic Europe under "Obsidian" in Index.

[63] R. W. Cochrane Patrick, Early Records relating to Mining in Scotland. Edinburgh, 1878, p. xxviii.

[64] The Damnonii or Dumnonii.

[65] The Fir-domnann were known as "the men who used to deepen the earth", or "dig pits". Professor J. MacNeil in Labor Gabula, p. 119. They were thus called "Diggers" like the modern Australians. The name of the goddess referred to the depths (the Underworld). It is probable she was the personification of the metal-yielding earth.

[66] Alford, A Report on Ancient and Prospective Gold Mining in Egypt, 1900, and Mining in Egypt (by Egyptologist).

[67] Celtic Britain, pp. 44 et seq. (4th edition).

[68] Rough Stone Monuments, London, 1912, pp. 147-8.

[69] The Scottish pearling beds have suffered great injury in historic times. They are the property of the "Crown", and no one takes any interest in them except the "pearl poachers".

[70] L'Anthropologie, 1921, contains a long account of his discoveries.

[71] The colours blue and green were obtained from copper.

[72] Nat. Hist., VII, 56 (57), § 197.

[73] Timagenes (c. 85-5 b.c.), an Alexandrian historian, wrote a history of the Gauls which was made use of by Ammianus Marcellinus (a.d. fourth century), a Greek of Antioch, and the author of a history of the Roman Emperors.

[74] Prehistoric Britain, p. 145.

[75] The Relationship between the Geographical Distribution of Megalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines, pp. 21 et seq.

[76] A worm crept from the heart of a dead Phoenix, and gave origin to a new Phoenix.—Herodotus, II, 73.

[77] Rendel Harris, The Ascent of Olympus, p. 2.

[78] Annals of Tacitus, Book XIV, Chapter 29-30.

[79] The Journal of Egyptian ArchÆology, Vol. I, part I, pp. 18-19.

[80] It may be that Celtic chronology will have to be readjusted in the light of recent discoveries.

[81] Iliad, XXIII, 75 (Lang, Leaf, and Myers' translation, p. 452).

[82] The Mythology of the Eddas, pp. 538-9 (Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature, second series, Vol. XII).

[83] Boudicca was her real name.

[84] Introduction to O'Curry's Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish, Vol. I, pp. ccclxix et seq.

[85] Orcas is a Celtic word signifying "young boar".

[86] Celtic Britain, p. 44.

[87] Ep. X, 22.

[88] Celtic Britain (4th edition), p. 212.

[89] Tacitus, Agricola, Chap. XII.

[90] Agricola, Chap. XXI.

[91] Races of Europe, p. 436.

[92] The Ancient Egyptians, p. 58.

[93] Englished "Damnonians" (Chapter IX).

[94] Tacitus says that the Brigantes were in point of numbers the most considerable folk in Britain (Agricola, Chapter XVII).

[95] Evidently Cuchullin and other heroes of the "Red Branch" in Ireland were descended from peoples who had migrated into Ireland from Britain. Their warriors in the old manuscript tales receive their higher military training in Alba. It is unlikely they would have been trained in a colony.

[96] Ancient sacred stones with horses depicted on them survive in Scotland. In Harris one horse-stone remains in an olf church tower.

[97] The Picts, Inverness, 1921 (lecture delivered to the Gaelic Society of Inverness and reprinted from The Inverness Courier).

[98] The fact that in the Scottish Lowlands the fairies were sometimes called "Pechts" has been made much of by those who contend that the prototypes of the fairies were the original inhabitants of Western Europe. This theory ignores the well-established custom of giving human names to supernatural beings. In Scotland the hill-giants (Fomorians) have been re-named after Arthur (as in Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh), Patrick (Inverness), Wallace (Eildon Hills), Samson (Ben Ledi), &c. In like manner fairies were referred to as Pechts. The Irish evidence is of similar character. The Danann deities were consigned to fairyland. Donald Gorm, a West Highland chief, gave his name to an Irish fairy. Fairyland was the old Paradise. Arthur, Thomas the Rhymer, Finn-mac-Coul, &c., became "fairy-men" after death. A good deal of confusion has been caused by mistranslating the Scottish Gaelic word sith (Irish sidhe) as "fairy". The word sith (pronounced shee) means anything unearthly or supernatural, and the "peace" of supernatural life—of death after life, as well as the silence of the movements of supernatural beings. The cuckoo was supposed to dwell for a part of the year in the underworld, and was called eun sith ("supernatural bird"). Mysterious epidemics were sith diseases. There were sith (supernatural) dogs, cats, mice, cows, &c., as well as sith men and sith women.

[99] Rough Stone Monuments, pp. 82 et seq.

[100] De Bello Gallico, Book III, Chapter II.

[101] Manners of the Germans, Chapter XLV. The boar was the son of a sow-goddess. Demeter had originally a sow form.

[102] Scandinavian Britain (London, 1908), pp. 61-3.

[103] Rhys, Celtic Britain (4th ed.), pp. 152, 317.

[104] O'Curry, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish, Vol. III, p. 136.

[105] Agricola, Chap. XI.

[106] "The rule is", writes Beddoe in this connection (The Anthropological History of Europe, p. 53), "that an anthropological type is never wholly dispossessed or extirpated".

[107] The Anthropological History of Europe (new edition, Paisley, 1912), p. 50.

[108] CÆsar (De Bello Gallico, VI, XIV, 4) says the Druids believed the soul passed from one individual to another.

[109] A Spaniard of the first century a.d.

[110] Book V. Chap. XXVIII.

[111] Pliny (Book XXX) says Britain seems to have taught Druidism to the Persians. Siret's view, given in the concluding part of this chapter, that Druidism was of Eastern origin, is of special interest in this connection.

[112] Celtic Religion, p. 62.

[113] Avalon, Emain Ablach, &c.

[114] The south was on the right and signified heaven, while the north was on the left and signified hell.

[115] Bacon wrote: "Mistletoe groweth chiefly upon crab trees, apple trees, sometimes upon hazels, and rarely upon oaks; the mistletoe whereof is counted very medicinal. It is evergreen in winter and summer, and beareth a white glistening berry; and it is a plant utterly differing from the plant on which it groweth."

[116] The Annals of Tacitus, XIV, 30. The theory that mediÆval witches were the priestesses of a secret cult that perpetuated pre-Roman British religion is not supported by Gaelic evidence. The Gaelic "witches" had no meetings with the devil, and never rode on broomsticks. The Gaelic name for witchcraft is derived from English and is not old.

[117] "Every weapon has its demon" is an old Gaelic saying.

[118] According to the Dingwall records knowledge of "future events in reference especialle to lyfe and death" was obtained by performing a ceremony in connection with the hollowed stone.

[119] L'Anthropologie, 1921. Tome XXX, pp. 235 et seq.

[120] "Comb of the honey and milk of the nut" (in Gaelic cir na meala 'is bainne nan cnÒ) was given as a tonic to weakly children, and is still remembered, the Rev. Kenneth MacLeod, Colonsay, informs me.

[121] Standish H. O'Grady, Silva Gadelica, p. 505.

[122] A Smaller Social History of Ancient Ireland, pp. 100-2 and 367-8.

[123] Macdonell and Keith, Vedic Index, under Soma and Madhu.

[124] Joyce, Irish Names of Places, Vol. I, pp. 507-9, Vol. II, pp. 206-7 and 345· Marsh mallows (leamh) appear to have been included among the herbals of the milk-cult as the soma-plant was in India.

[125] Revue Celtique, Vol. XIII, p. 75.

[126] Warren, Liturgy and Ritual of the Celtic Church, p. 67.

[127] Henderson's Survivals, p. 218.

[128] Rowan-berry wine was greatly favoured. There are Gaelic references to "the wine of the apple (cider)".

[129] George Nicholson, EncyclopÆdia of Horticulture, under "Oak".

[130] Curragh is connected with the Latin corium, a hide.

[131] Schliemann, Troy and Its Remains, p. 232.

[132] Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. XXI, p. 129.

[133] It was because Zeus had been suckled by a sow that the Cretans, as AthenÆus records, "will not taste its flesh" (Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, Vol. I, p. 37). In Ireland the dog was taboo to Cuchullin. There is a good deal of Gaelic lore about the sacred cow.

[134] L'Anthropologie (1921), pp. 268 et seq.

[135] Lady Charlotte Guest, The Mabinogion (Story of "Kilwch and Olwen" and note on "Gwyn the son of Nudd").

[136] Also shiubhail e which signifies "he went off" (as when walking).

[137] When depicted with star-spangled garments she was the goddess of the starry sky ("Milky Way") like the Egyptian Hathor or Nut.

[138] Professor W. J. Watson, Place-names of Ross and Cromarty, pp. 62-3.

[139] Dr. Joyce, Irish Names of Places, Vol. I, p. 375.

[140] Ibid., Vol. II, p. 378.

[141] The two headlands, the "souters" or "sutors", are supposed to have been so called because they were sites of tanneries.

[142] The Diamond (Chicago, 1915).

[143] Natural History, Book IX. Chap. LIV.

[144] Tacitus, Manners of the Germans, Chap. XLV.

[145] British Museum Guide to the Antiquities of the Early Iron Age, pp. 135-6.

[146] Natural History, Book XXXVIII, Chapter III.

[147] Rhys rejects the view of Gildas that "Cuneglasos" meant "tawny butcher".

[148] Herodian, Lib. III, says of the inhabitants of Caledonia, "They mark their bodies with various pictures of all manner of animals".

[149] Book I. Chapter I.

[150] Pliny, Lib. XXXVI. cap. 34.

[151] Ure's History of Rutherglen and Kilbride, p. 219.

[152] Joyce, A Smaller Social History of Ancient Ireland, p. 478.

[153] Professor W. J. Watson has drawn my attention to an interesting reference to amber. In the Proceedings of the British Academy, Vol. II, p. 18, under "Celtic Inscriptions of France and Italy", Sir John Rhys deals with Vebrumaros, a man's name. The second element in this name is maros (great); the first, uebru, "is perhaps to be explained by reference to the Welsh word gwefr (amber)". Rhys thought the name meant that the man was distinguished for his display of amber "in the adornment of his person". The name had probably a deeper significance. Amber was closely associated with the mother goddess. One of her names may have been "Uebru". She personified amber.

[154] Richard of Cirencester (fourteenth century) says the mistletoe increased the number of animals, and was considered as a specific against all poisons (Book I, Chap. IV).

[155] Book I. Chap. V.

[156] This excellent Gaelic word is current in Scotland. Burns uses it in the line, "O' a' the airts the wind can blaw".

[157] Quoted by Sir H. Colt Hoare in Ancient Wiltshire, II. p. 63.

[158] Stone circle.

[159] In Gaelic deis-iÙil means a turning sunwise (by the right or south) from east to west, and tual, i.e. tuath-iÙil, a turning by the north or left from east to west. Deis is the genitive of Deas (south, right hand), and Tuath is north or left hand.

[160] The following stanza is from the "Book of Ballymote":

[161] In the Cuchullin Saga Lugh is "a lone man out of the north-eastern quarter". When the cry of another supernatural being is heard, Cuchullin asks from which direction it came. He is told "from the north-west". The goddess Morrigan then appeared.

[162] In a Cuchullin saga the hero, addressing the charioteer, says: "Go out, my friend, observe the stars of the air, and ascertain when midnight comes". The Irish Gaelic grien-tairisem is given in an eighth-or ninth-century gloss. It means "sun-standing", and refers to the summer solstice.

[163] Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica, Lib. I, cap. 30.

[164] Of course it does not follow that the reasoning originally took place in these islands. Complex beliefs were imported at an early period. These were localized.

[165] In Gaelic these are called "friction fires".

[166] According to some, Isis is a rendering of a Libyan name meaning "old wife".

[167] This connection can be traced in ancient Egypt. The sun and fire were connected, and the sun originally rose from the primordial waters. The sun's rays were the "tears" of Ra (the sun god). Herbs and trees sprang up where Ra's tears fell.

[168 So was a whale. The Latin orca is a Celtic loan-word. Milton uses the Celtic whale-name in the line

[169] O'Curry, Manuscript Materials, pp. 426-7.

[170] Professor W. J. Watson says in this connection: "The Celtic clerics stepped in to the shoes of the Druids. The people regarded them as superior Druids."

[171] In old Gaelic the liver is the seat of life.

[172] Mrs. E. Tawse Jollie, Hervetia, S. Melsetter, S. Rhodesia, writes me under October 12, 1918, in answer to my query, that the Boers regard striep muis (striped mice) as a cure for "weakness of the bowel" in children, &c.

[173] In a Roman representation of her at Birrens, in Perthshire, she is shown as a winged figure holding a spear in her right hand and a globe in her left. An altar in Chester is dedicated to "De NymphÆ Brig". Her name is enshrined in Bregentz (anciently Brigantium), a town in Switzerland.

[174] The beithis lay hidden in arms of the sea and came ashore to devour animals.

[175] The Dragon in China and Japan (1913).

[176] Trevelyan. Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales, p. 165.

[177] W. R. S. Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, pp. 117 et seq.

[178] Journal of the Anthropological Institute, XXVI (1897). p. 23.

[179] Laufer, Jade, p. 310.

[180] My Schools and Schoolmasters, Chapter VI.

[181] Rev. W. Forsyth, Dornoch, in Folk-lore Journal, VI, 171.

[182] It has been suggested that "Dane" stands for "Danann".

[183] A text states: "Kindly is she as Bast: terrible is she as Sekhet."

[184] The Gaelic word for "witch" comes from English. Gaelic "witch lore" is distinctive, having retained more ancient beliefs than those connected with the orthodox witches.

[185] The "fairy" Queen (the queen of enchantment), who carried off Thomas the Rhymer, appeared as a beautiful woman, but was afterwards transformed into an ugly hag. Thomas laments:

[186] Wm. Cashen, Manx Folk-lore (Douglas, 1912), p. 48.

[187] King James VI of Scotland and I of England.

[188] Ben Jonson's reference is in A Masque of the Metamorphosed Gipsies.

[189] The Darker Superstitions of Scotland (London, 1834), p. 425, and Athenian Mercury, V, 1, No. 20, p. 13.

[190] The south-western Scottish pork trade dates only from the latter part of the eighteenth century. There was trouble at Carlisle custom house when the Lowland Scots began to export cured pork, because of the difference between the English and Scottish salt duty. "For some time", complained a Scottish writer on agriculture, in June, 1811, "a duty of 2s. per hunderweight has been charged." Dublin was exporting pork to London in the reign of Henry VIII. A small trade in pork was conducted in eastern Scotland but was sporadic.

[191] King James I of England and VI of Scotland detested ling as he detested pork. The food prejudices of the common people thus influenced royalty, although earlier kings and Norman nobles ate pork, eels, &c.

[192] The Gaelic word sidh (Irish) or sith (Scottish) means "supernatural" and the "peace" and "silence" of supernatural beings. "Fairy", as Skeat has emphasized, means "enchantment". It has taken the place of "fay", which is derived from fate. The "fay" was a supernatural being.

[193] From the root nem in neamh, heaven, nemus, a grove, &c.

[194] Rendel Harris, Apple Cults, and The Ascent of Olympus.

[195] Called also clach na cineamhuinn (the fatal stone).

[196] There is evidence in the Gaelic manuscripts that time was measured by the apparent movements of the stars. Cuchullin, while sitting at a feast, says to his charioteer: "Laeg, my friend, go out, observe the stars of the air, and ascertain when midnight comes".

[197] Elliot Smith, The Ancient Egyptians, p. 42.

[198] It must be borne in mind that among the producers and users of Neolithic artifacts were the Easterners who collected and exported ores.

[199] The boat dates the silting process rather than the silting process the boat.

[200] The ancient belief is enshrined in Milton's lines referring to "ribs of gold" that "grow in Hell" and are dug out of its hill (Paradise Lost, Book I, lines 688-90).

[201] Agricola, Chap. XII.

[202] Herodian, III, 14.

[203] Dion Cassius (Xiphilinus) LXXVI, 12.

[204] Origins of English History, pp. 302-3.