On Sanskrit legal literature in general, consult the very valuable work of Jolly, Recht und Sitte, in BÜhler’s EncyclopÆdia, 1896 (complete bibliography). There are several secondary Dharma Sutras of the post-Vedic period. The most important of these is the Vaish?ava Dharma Çastra or Vish?u Sm?iti (closely connected with the Ka?haka G?ihya Sutra), not earlier than 200 A.D. in its final redaction (ed. by Jolly, Calcutta, 1881, trans. by him in the Sacred Books of the East, Oxford, 1880). The regular post-Vedic lawbooks are metrical (mostly in Çlokas). They are much wider in scope than the Dharma Sutras, which are limited to matters connected with religion. The most important and earliest of the metrical Sm?itis is the Manava Dharma Çastra, or Code of Manu, not improbably based on a Manava Dharma Sutra. It is closely connected with the Mahabharata, of which three books alone (iii., xii., xvi.) contain as many as 260 of its 2684 Çlokas. It probably assumed its present shape not much later than 200 A.D. It was ed. by Jolly, London, 1887; trans. by BÜhler, with valuable introd., in the Sacred Books, Oxford, 1886; also trans. by Burnell (ed. by Hopkins), London, 1884; text ed., with seven comm., by Mandlik, Bombay, 1886; text, with Kulluka’s comm., Bombay, 1888, better than Nirn. Sag. Pr., ed. 1887. Next comes the Yajnavalkya Dharma Çastra, which is much more concise (1009 Çlokas). It was probably based on a Dharma Sutra of the White Yajurveda; its third section resembles the Paraskara G?ihya Sutra, but it is unmistakably connected with the Manava G?ihya Sutra of the Black Yajurveda. Its approximate date seems to be about 350 A.D. Its author probably belonged to Mithila, capital of Videha (Tirhut). Yajnavalkya, ed. and trans, by Stenzler, Berlin, 1849; with comm. Mitakshara, 3rd ed., Bombay, 1892. The Narada Sm?iti is the first to limit dharma to law in the strict sense. It contains more than 12,000 Çlokas, and appears to have been founded chiefly on Manu. Ba?a mentions a Naradiya Dharma Çastra, and Narada was annotated by one of the earliest legal commentators in the eighth century. His date is probably about 500 A.D. Narada, ed. by Jolly, Calcutta, 1885, trans. by him in Sacred Books, vol. xxxiii. 1889. A late lawbook is the ParaÇara Sm?iti (anterior to 1300 A.D.), ed. in Bombay Sansk. Series, 1893; trans. Bibl. Ind., 1887. The second stage of post-Vedic legal literature is formed by the commentaries. The oldest one preserved is that of Medhatithi on Manu; he dates from about 900 A.D. The most famous comm. on Manu is that of Kulluka-bha??a, composed at Benares in the fifteenth century, but it is nothing more than a plagiarism of Govindaraja, a commentator of the twelfth century. The most celebrated comm. on Yajnavalkya is the Mitakshara of VijnaneÇvara, composed about 1100 A.D. It early attained to the position of a standard work, not only in the Dekhan, but even in Benares and a great part of Northern India. In the present century it acquired the greatest importance in the practice of the Anglo-Indian law-courts through Colebrooke’s translation of the section which it contains on the law of inheritance. From about 1000 A.D. onwards, an innumerable multitude of legal compendia, called Dharma-nibandhas, was produced in India. The most imposing of them is the voluminous work in five parts entitled Chaturvarga-chintama?i, composed by Hemadri about 1300 A.D. It hardly treats of law at all, but is a perfect mine of interesting quotations from the Sm?itis and the Pura?as; it has been edited in the Bibl. Ind. The Dharmaratna of Jimutavahana (probably fifteenth century) may here be mentioned, because part of it is the famous treatise on the law of inheritance entitled Dayabhaga, which is the chief work of the Bengal School on the subject, and was translated by Colebrooke. It should be noted that the Indian Sm?itis are not on the same footing as the lawbooks of other nations, but are works of private individuals; they were also written by Brahmans for Brahmans, whose caste pretensions they consequently exaggerate. It is therefore important to check their statements by outside evidence.

No work of a directly historical character is met with in Sanskrit literature till after the Muhammadan conquest. This is the Rajatarangi?i, or “River of Kings,” a chronicle of the kings of Kashmir, begun by its author, Kalha?a, in 1148 A.D. It contains nearly 8000 Çlokas. The early part of the work is legendary in character. The poet does not become historical till he approaches his own times. This work (ed. M. A. Stein, Bombay, 1892; trans, by Y. C. Datta, Calc., 1898) is of considerable value for the archÆology and chronology of Kashmir.

On the native grammatical literature see especially Wackernagel, Altindische Grammatik, vol. i. p. lix. sqq. The oldest grammar preserved is that of Pa?ini, who, however, mentions no fewer than sixty-four predecessors. He belonged to the extreme north-west of India, and probably flourished about 300 B.C. His work consists of nearly 4000 sutras divided into eight chapters; text with German trans., ed. by BÖhtlingk, Leipsic, 1887. Pa?ini had before him a list of irregularly formed words, which survives, in a somewhat modified form, as the U?adi Sutra (ed. by Aufrecht, with Ujjvaladatta’s comm., Bonn, 1859). There are also two appendixes to which Pa?ini refers: one is the Dhatupa?ha, “List of Verbal Roots,” containing some 2000 roots, of which only about 800 have been found in Sanskrit literature, and from which about fifty Vedic verbs are omitted; the second is the Ga?apa?ha, or “List of Word-Groups,” to which certain rules apply. These ga?as were metrically arranged in the Ga?aratna-mahodadhi, composed by Vardhamana in 1140 A.D. (ed. by Eggeling, London, 1879). Among the earliest attempts to explain Pa?ini was the formulation of rules of interpretation or paribhashas; a collection of these was made in the last century by Nagojibha??a in his ParibhashenduÇekhara (ed. by Kielhorn, Bombay Sansk. Ser., 1868 and 1871). Next we have the Varttikas or “Notes” of Katyayana (probably third century B.C.) on 1245 of Pa?ini’s rules, and, somewhat later, numerous grammatical Karikas or comments in metrical form: all this critical work was collected by Patanjali in his Mahabhashya or “Great Commentary,” with supplementary comments of his own (ed. Kielhorn, 3 vols., Bombay). He deals with 1713 rules of Pa?ini. He probably lived in the later half of the second century B.C., and in any case not later than the beginning of our era. The Mahabhashya was commented on in the seventh century by Bhart?ihari in his Vakyapadiya (ed. in Benares Sansk. Ser.), which is concerned with the philosophy of grammar, and by Kaiya?a (probably thirteenth century). About 650 A.D. was composed the first complete comm. on Pa?ini, the KaÇika V?itti or “Benares Commentary,” by Jayaditya and Vamana (2nd ed. Benares, 1898). In the fifteenth century Ramachandra, in his Prakriya-kaumudi, or “Moonlight of Method,” endeavoured to make Pa?ini’s grammar easier by a more practical arrangement of its matter. Bha??oji’s Siddhanta-kaumudi (seventeenth century) has a similar aim (ed. Nir?aya Sagara Press, Bombay, 1894); an abridgment of this work, the Laghu-kaumudi, by Varadaraja (ed. Ballantyne, with English trans., 4th ed., Benares, 1891), is commonly used as an introduction to the native system of grammar. Among non-Pa?inean grammarians may be mentioned Chandra (about 600 A.D.), the pseudo-Çaka?ayana (later than the KaÇika), and, the most important, Hemachandra (12th cent.), author of a Prakrit grammar (ed. and trans. by Pischel, two vols., Halle, 1877–80), and of the U?adiga?a Sutra (ed. Kirste, Vienna, 1895). The Katantra of Çarvavarman (ed. Eggeling, Bibl. Ind.) seems to have been the most influential of the later grammars. Vararuchi’s Prak?ita-prakaÇa is a Prakrit grammar (ed. by Cowell, 2nd ed., 1868). The Mugdhabodha (13th cent.) of Vopadeva is the Sanskrit grammar chiefly used in Bengal. The Phi? Sutra (later than Patanjali) gives rules for the accentuation of nouns (ed. Kielhorn, 1866); Hemachandra’s LinganuÇasana is a treatise on gender (ed. Franke, GÖttingen, 1886). Among European grammars that of Whitney was the first to attempt a historical treatment of the Vedic and Sanskrit language. The first grammar treating Sanskrit from the comparative point of view is the excellent work of Wackernagel, of which, however, only the first part (phonology) has yet appeared. The present writer’s abridgment (London, 1886) of Max MÜller’s Sanskrit Grammar is a practical work for the use of beginners of Classical Sanskrit.

ZachariÆ in Die indischen WÖrterbÜcher (in BÜhler’s EncyclopÆdia, 1897) deals with the subject as a whole (complete bibliography). The Sanskrit dictionaries or koÇas are collections of rare words or significations for the use of poets. They are all versified; alphabetical order is entirely absent in the synonymous and only incipient in the homonymous class. The AmarakoÇa (ed. with MaheÇvara’s comm., Bombay), occupies the same dominant position in lexicography as Pa?ini in grammar, not improbably composed about 500 A.D. A supplement to it is the Trika??a-Çesha by Purushottamadeva (perhaps as late as 1300 A.D.). ÇaÇvata’s Anekartha-samuchchaya (ed. ZachariÆ, 1882) is possibly older than Amara. Halayudha’s Abhidhanaratnamala dates from about 950 A.D. (ed. Aufrecht, London, 1861). About a century later is YadavaprakaÇa’s Vaijayanti (ed. Oppert, Madras, 1893). The ViÇvaprakaÇa of MaheÇvara Kavi dates from 1111 A.D. The Mankha-koÇa (ed. ZachariÆ, Bombay, 1897) was composed in Kashmir about 1150 A.D. Hemachandra (1088–1172 A.D.) composed four dictionaries: Abhidhana-chintama?i, synonyms (ed. BÖhtlingk and Rieu, St. Petersburg, 1847); Anekartha-sam?graha, homonyms (ed. ZachariÆ, Vienna, 1893); DeÇinamamala, a Prakrit dictionary (ed. Pischel, Bombay, 1880); and Nigha??u-Çesha, a botanical glossary, which forms a supplement to his synonymous koÇa.

Cf. Sylvain LÉvi, ThÉÂtre Indien, pp. 1–21; Regnaud, La RhÉtorique Sanskrite, Paris, 1884; Jacob, Notes on Alamkara Literature, in Journal of the Roy. As. Soc., 1897, 1898. The oldest and most important work on poetics is the Na?ya Çastra of Bharata, which probably goes back to the sixth century A.D. (ed. in Kavyamala, No. 42, Bombay, 1894; ed. by Grosset, Lyons, 1897). Da??in’s KavyadarÇa (end of sixth century) contains about 650 Çlokas (ed. with trans. by BÖhtlingk, Leipsic, 1890). Vamana’s Kavyalam?karav?itti, probably eighth century (ed. Cappeller, Jena, 1875). Ç?ingara-tilaka, or “Ornament of Erotics,” by Rudrabha?a (ninth century), ed. by Pischel, Kiel, 1886 (cf. Journal of German Or. Soc., 1888, p. 296 ff., 425 ff.; Vienna Or. Journal, ii. p. 151 ff.). Rudra?a Çatananda’s Kavyalam?kara (ed. in Kavyamala) belongs to the ninth century. Dhanam?jaya’s DaÇarupa, on the ten kinds of drama, belongs to the tenth century (ed. Hall, 1865; with comm. Nir?aya Sagara Press, Bombay, 1897). The KavyaprakaÇa by Mamma?a and Ala?a dates from about 1100 (ed. in the Pandit, 1897). The Sahityadarpa?a was composed in Eastern Bengal about 1450 A.D., by ViÇvanatha Kaviraja (ed. J. Vidyasagara, Calcutta, 1895; trans. by Ballantyne in Bibl. Ind.).

The only work dealing with this subject as a whole is Thibaut’s Astronomie, Astrologie und Mathematik, in BÜhler-Kielhorn’s EncyclopÆdia, 1899 (full bibliography). See also Cantor, Geschichte der Mathematik, pp. 505–562, Leipsic, 1880. Mathematics are dealt with in special chapters of the works of the early Indian astronomers. In algebra they attained an eminence far exceeding anything ever achieved by the Greeks. The earliest works of scientific Indian astronomy (after about 300 A.D.) were four treatises called Siddhantas; only one, the Suryasiddhanta (ed. and trans. by Whitney, Journ. Am. Or. Soc., vol. vi.), has survived. The doctrines of such early works were reduced to a more concise and practical form by Aryabha?a, born, as he tells us himself, at Pa?aliputra in 476 A.D. He maintained the rotation of the earth round its axis (a doctrine not unknown to the Greeks), and explained the cause of eclipses of the sun and moon. Mathematics are treated in the third section of his work, the Aryabha?iya (ed. with comm. by Kern, Leyden, 1874; math. section trans. by Rodet, Journal Asiatique, 1879). Varaha Mihira, born near Ujjain, began his calculations about 505 A.D., and, according to one of his commentators, died in 587 A.D. He composed four works, written for the most part in the Arya metre; three are astrological: the B?ihat-sam?hita (ed. Kern, Bibl. Ind., 1864, 1865, trans. in Journ. As. Soc., vol. iv.; new ed. with comm. of Bha??otpala by S. Dvivedi, Benares, 1895–97), the B?ihaj-jataka (or Hora-Çastra, trans. by C. Jyer, Madras, 1885), and the Laghu-jataka (partly trans. by Weber, Ind. Stud., vol. ii., and by Jacobi, 1872). His Pancha-siddhantika (ed. and for the most part trans. by Thibaut and S. Dvivedi, Benares, 1889), based on five siddhantas, is a kara?a or practical astronomical treatise. Another distinguished astronomer was Brahmagupta, who, born in 598 A.D., wrote, besides a kara?a, his Brahma Sphu?a-siddhanta when thirty years old (chaps. xii. and xviii. are mathematical). The last eminent Indian astronomer was Bhaskaracharya, born in 1114 A.D. His Siddhanta-Çiroma?i has enjoyed more authority in India than any other astronomical work except the Surya-siddhanta.

Indian medical science must have begun to develop before the beginning of our era, for one of its chief authorities, Charaka, was, according to the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Tripi?aka, the official physician of King Kanishka in the first century A.D. His work, the Charaka-sam?hita, has been edited several times: by J. Vidyasagara, 2nd ed., Calcutta, 1896, by Gupta, Calcutta, 1897, with comm. by C. Dutta, Calcutta, 1892–1893; trans. by A. C. Kaviratna, Calcutta, 1897. SuÇruta, the next great authority, seems to have lived not later than the fourth century A.D., as the Bower MS. (probably fifth century A.D.) contains passages not only parallel to, but verbally agreeing with, passages in the works of Charaka and SuÇruta. (The SuÇruta-sam?hita, ed. by J. Vidyasagara, Calcutta, 3rd ed., 1889; A. C. Kaviratna, Calcutta, 1888–95; trans. by Dutta, 1883, Cha??opadhyaya, 1891, Hoernle, 1897, Calcutta.) The next best known medical writer is Vagbha?a, author of the Ash?anga-h?idaya (ed., with comm. of Aru?adatta, by A. M. Kunte, Bombay, Nir. Sag. Press, 1891). Cf. also articles by Haas in vols. xxx., xxxi., and by A. MÜller in xxxiv. of Jour. of Germ. Or. Soc.; P. Cordier, Études sur la MÉdecine Hindoue, Paris, 1894; Vagbha?a et l’A??angah?idaya-sam?hita, BesanÇon, 1896; LiÉtard, Le MÉdecin Charaka, &c., in Bull. de l’Ac. de MÉdecine, May 11, 1897.

On Indian music see Raja Sir Sourindro Mohun Tagore, Hindu Music from various Authors, Calcutta, 1875; Ambros, Geschichte der Musik, vol. i. pp. 41–80; Day, The Music and Musical Instruments of Southern India and the Deccan, Edinburgh, 1891; Çarngadeva’s Sam?gitaratnakara, ed. Telang, Anand. Sansk. Ser., 1897; Somanatha’s Ragavibodha, ed. with comm. by P. G. Gharpure (parts i.–v.), Poona, 1895.

On painting and sculpture see E. Moor, The Hindu Pantheon, London, 1810; Burgess, Notes on the Bauddha Rock Temples of Ajanta, Bombay, 1879; Griffiths Paintings of the Buddhist Cave Temples of Ajanta, 2 vols., London, 1896–97; Burgess, The Gandhara Sculptures (with 100 plates), London, 1895; Fergusson, Tree and Serpent Worship (illustrations of mythology and art in India in the first and fourth centuries after Christ), London, 1868; Cunningham’s Reports, i. and iii. (Reliefs from Buddha Gaya); GrÜnwedel, Buddhistiche Kunst in Indien, Berlin, 1893; Kern, Manual of Buddhism, in BÜhler’s EncyclopÆdia, pp. 91–96, Strasburg, 1896; H. H. Wilson, Ariana Antiqua, London, 1841.

On Indian architecture see Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, London, 1876; The Rock-Cut Temples of India, 1864; Cunningham, The Bhilsa Topes, or Buddhist Monuments of Central India, London, 1854; Reports of the ArchÆological Survey of India, Calcutta, since 1871; Mahabodhi, or the great Buddhist Temple under the Bodhi tree at Buddha Gaya, London, 1892; Burgess, ArchÆological Survey of Western India and of Southern India; Daniell, Antiquities of India, London, 1800; Hindu Excavations in the Mountain of Ellora, London, 1816; R. Mitra, The Antiquities of Orissa, Calcutta, 1875.

On Technical Arts see Journal of Indian Art and Industry (London, begun in 1884).