  ORIGIN AND METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS. CHAPTER I. THE CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. Title: On the Origin and Metamorphoses of Insects Author: Sir John Lubbock Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 E-text prepared by Bryan Ness, Turgut Dincer, | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Note: | Images of the original pages are available through Internet Archive/American Libraries. See http://www.archive.org/details/onoriginmetamorp00lubb |
Transcriber's note:
All non-italic genus names in the text have been italicized.
ORIGIN AND METAMORPHOSES
OF INSECTS.
ON THE
ORIGIN AND METAMORPHOSES
OF INSECTS
BY
SIR JOHN LUBBOCK, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., D.C.L., LL.D.
PRINCIPAL OF THE LONDON WORKING MEN’S COLLEGE; PRESIDENT OF THE LONDON
CHAMBER OF COMMERCE; AND VICE-CHAIRMAN OF THE LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL
WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS
London
MACMILLAN AND CO.
AND NEW YORK
1890
The Right of Translation and Reproduction is Reserved
Richard Clay and Sons, Limited,
london and bungay.
First Edition 1873. Reprinted 1874.
New Edition 1890.
PREFACE.
For some years, much of my leisure time has been devoted to the study of the anatomy, development, and habits of the Annulosa, and especially of Insects, on which subjects I have published various memoirs, chiefly in the Transactions of the Royal, LinnÆan, and Entomological Societies: of these papers I subjoin a list. Although the details, of which these memoirs necessarily for the most part consist, offer little interest, excepting to those persons who are specially devoted to Entomology, still there are portions which, having reference to the nature of metamorphoses and to the origin of insects, are of a more general character. I have also briefly referred to these questions in a Monograph of the Collembola and Thysanura, recently published by the Ray Society, and in the Opening Address to the Biological Section of the British Association at Brighton in 1872. Under these circumstances, it has been suggested to me that a small volume, containing, at somewhat greater length, in a more accessible form, and with the advantage of illustrations, the conclusions to which I have been led on this interesting subject, might not be altogether without interest to the general reader. The result, which has already appeared in the pages of Nature, is now submitted to the public, with some additions. I am well aware that it has no pretence to be in any sense a complete treatise; that the subject itself is one as to which our knowledge is still very incomplete, and on which the highest authorities are much divided in opinion. Whatever differences of opinion, however, there may be as to the views here put forward, the facts on which they are based will, I believe, be found correct. On this point I speak with the more confidence, on account of the valuable assistance I have received from many friends: to Mr. and Mrs. Busk and Dr. Hooker I am especially indebted.
The papers above referred to are as follows:—
1. On Labidocera.—Annals and Magazine of Natural History, vol. xi., 1853.
2. On Two New Sub-genera of CalanidÆ.—Annals and Magazine of Natural History, vol. xii., 1853.
3. On Two New Species of CalanidÆ.—Annals and Magazine of Natural History, vol. xii., No. lxvii., 1853.
4. On Two New Species of CalanidÆ.—Annals and Magazine of Natural History, vol. xii., No. lxix., 1853.
5. On some Arctic CalanidÆ.—Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 1854.
6. On the Freshwater Entomostraca of South America.—Transactions of the Entomological Society, vol. iii., 1855.
7. On some New Entomostraca.—Transactions of the Entomological Society, vol. iv., 1856.
8. On some Marine Entomostraca found at Weymouth.—Annals and Magazine of Natural History, vol. xx., 1857.
9. On the Respiration of Insects.—Entomological Annual, 1857.
10. An Account of the Two Methods of Reproduction in Daphnia.—Transactions of the Royal Society, 1857.
11. On the Ova and Pseudova of Insects.—Transactions of the Royal Society, 1858.
12. On the Arrangement of the Cutaneous Muscles of PygÆra Bucephala.—Linnean Society’s Transactions, vol. xxii., 1858.
13. On the Freshwater Entomostraca of South America.—Entomological Society’s Transactions, 1858.
14. On Coccus Hesperidum.—Royal Society Proceedings, vol. ix., 1858.
15. On the Distribution of TracheÆ in Insects.—Linnean Society’s Transactions, vol. xxiii., 1860.
16. On the Generative Organs and on the Formation of the Egg in Annulosa. Transactions of the Royal Society, 1861.
17. On SphÆrularia Bombi.—Natural History Review, 1861.
18. On some Oceanic Entomostraca.—Linnean Society’s Transactions, vol. xxiii., 1860.
19. On the Thysanura. Part 1.—Linnean Society’s Transactions, 1862.
20. On the Development of Lonchoptera.—Entomological Society’s Transactions, 1862.
21. On the Thysanura. Part 2.—Linnean Society’s Transactions, 1862.
22. On the Development of ChloËon. Part 1.—Linnean Society’s Transactions, 1863.
23. On Two Aquatic Hymenoptera.—Linnean Society’s Transactions, 1863.
24. On some little-known Species of Freshwater Entomostraca.—Linnean Society’s Transactions, vol. xxiv., 1863.
25. On SphÆrularia Bombi.—Natural History Review, 1864.
26. On the Development of ChloËon. Part 2.—Linnean Society’s Transactions, 1865.
27. Metamorphoses of Insects.—Journal of the Royal Institution, 1866.
28. On Pauropus.—Linnean Society’s Transactions, 1866.
29. On the Thysanura. Part 3.—Linnean Society’s Transactions, 1867.
30. Address to the Entomological Society.—Entomological Society’s Transactions, 1867.
31. On the Larva of Micropeplus Staphilinoides.—Entomological Society’s Transactions, 1868.
32. On the Thysanura. Part 4.—Linnean Society’s Transactions, 1869.
33. Addresses to the Entomological Society.—Entomological Society’s Transactions, 1867-1868.
34. On the Origin of Insects.—Journal of the Linnean Society, vol. xi.
35. Opening Address to the Biological Section of the British Association.—British Association Report, 1872.
36. Observations on Ants, Bees, and Wasps. Part 1.—Journal of the Linnean Society, 1873.
37. On British Wild Flowers considered in relation to Insects, 1874.
38. Observations on Ants, Bees, and Wasps. Part 2.—Journal of the Linnean Society, 1874.
39. Observations on Ants, Bees, and Wasps. Part 3.—Journal of the Linnean Society, 1875.
40. Observations on Ants, Bees, and Wasps. Part 4.—Journal of the Linnean Society, 1877.
41. On some Points in the Anatomy of Ants.—Quekett Lecture, 1877.—Microscopical Journal.
42. On the Colors of Caterpillars.—Entomological Society’s Transactions, 1878.
43. Observations on Ants, Bees, and Wasps. Part 5.—Journal of the Linnean Society, 1878.
44. Observations on Ants, Bees, and Wasps. Part 6.—Journal of the Linnean Society, 1879.
45. On the Anatomy of Ants.—Linnean Society’s Transactions, 1880.
46. Observations on Ants, Bees, and Wasps. Part 7.—Journal of the Linnean Society, 1880.
47. Observations on Ants, Bees, and Wasps. Part 8.—Journal of the Linnean Society, 1881.
48. On Fruits and Seeds.—Journal of the Royal Institution, 1881.
49. Observations on Ants, Bees, and Wasps. Part 9.—Journal of the Linnean Society, 1881.
50. On the Limits of Vision among some of the lower Animals.—Journal of the Linnean Society, 1881.
51. Observations on Ants, Bees, and Wasps. Part 10.—Journal of the Linnean Society, 1882.
CONTENTS.
| CHAPTER I. | |
| THE CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. | |
| Introduction.—Stages in the Life of an Insect.—Classification of Insects.—Characters derived from the Wings; from the parts of the Mouth; from the Metamorphoses.—The Classes of Insects: Hymenoptera, Strepsiptera, Coleoptera, Euplexoptera, Orthoptera, Thysanoptera, Neuroptera, Trichoptera, Diptera, Aphaniptera, Heteroptera, Homoptera, Lepidoptera | page 1-26 |
| CHAPTER II. | |
| THE INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL CONDITIONS ON THE FORM AND STRUCTURE OF LARVÆ. | |
| LarvÆ depend partly on the group to which they belong.—Wood-eating LarvÆ.—LarvÆ of Lamellicorns.—LarvÆ depend also in part on mode of life.—LarvÆ of Hymenoptera, of Sirex; of Tenthredo; of Ichneumons; of Bees.—Rudimentary legs of Bee Embryo.—Beetles, Weevils, Scolytus, Crioceris, Sitaris, Metamorphoses of PteromalidÆ. Platygaster, Polynema.—Influence of external conditions.—Developmental and adaptive Metamorphoses | page 27-41 |
| CHAPTER III. | |
| THE NATURE OF METAMORPHOSES. | |
| The life history of an Insect must be considered as a whole.—Vagueness of the term Larva.—Some larvÆ much more advanced than others.—Organs develope in different order, in different groups.—Suppressed stages.—Apod condition of Phryganea; of Aphis; of Chrysopa.—LibellulidÆ.—Donacia.—Spiders.—Myriapods.—Apod stage of Homomorphous Insects once probably longer than now.—Suppression of embryonic stages.—Metamorphoses of Hydroida, Crustacea, Isopods, and Amphipods.—Echinoderms.—Variations in development induced by the influence of external conditions. | page 41-62 |
| CHAPTER IV | |
| THE ORIGIN OF METAMORPHOSES. | |
| Origin of Metamorphoses.—Views of Messrs. Kirby and Spence.—Nature of the question.—Young animals often more similar than mature.—Views of Darwin, Herbert Spencer, Johannes MÜller, Fritz MÜller, and Agassiz.—Effect of size of egg.—Insects leave the egg in a more or less developed condition.—Consideration of pupal condition.—Quiescence of pupa.—Period of quiescence at each moult.—Changes not so abrupt as generally supposed.—Change in mouth-parts.—Difficulty in reference to Darwinian theory.—Mouth-parts of Campodea and Collembola, as intermediate between the mandibulate and haustellate types.—Change in mouth-parts as connected with pupal conditions.—Origin of wings.—Use of wings under water.—Connection of metamorphoses with alternation of generations.—Parthenogenetic larvÆ of Cecidomyia.—In alternation of generations one form always agamic.—Dimorphism and Dieidism.—Summary and Conclusions | page 62-81 |
| CHAPTER V | |
| THE ORIGIN OF INSECTS. | |
| The Origin of Insects.—Mistaken views of Darwinian theory.—Natural selection a vera causa.—Application of Darwin’s views to Insects.—Similarity of young Crustacea as compared with mature forms; ditto in Insects.—Type of Insecta.—Two principal types of larvÆ: Hexapod and Apod.—Conclusions to be drawn from them.—Campodea the modern representative of the Insect-stock.—Campodea, perhaps derived from Tardigrade.—Vermiform or Apod type of larva.—Views of Fritz MÜller, Brauer, and Packard.—Represents a still earlier ancestor.—Modern representatives.—Notommata, Albertia, Lindia.—Earlier forms difficult to trace.—Lowest forms of animal life.—Yolk-segmentation.—Embryology and Evolution.—Light thrown by the evolution of the individual on that of the species | page 82-108 |
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.
PLATE I. p. 7.
FIG.
1. Cricket. Westwood, Intro. to the Modern Classification of Insects, vol. i. p. 440.
2. Earwig. Westwood, loc. cit. vol. i. p. 399.
3. Aphis. Packard, Guide to the Study of Insects, pp. 521, 522.
4. Scolytus. Westwood, loc. cit. vol. i. p. 350.
5. Anthrax. Westwood, loc. cit. vol. ii. p. 538.
6. Balaninus.
7. Cynips. Westwood, loc. cit. vol. ii. p. 121.
8. Ant (Formica). Westwood, loc. cit. vol. ii. p. 218.
9. Wasp. Ormerod, Nat. Hist. of Wasps, pl. i. fig. 1.
PLATE II. p. 8.
FIG.
1. Larva of Cricket. Westwood, loc. cit. vol. i. p. 440.
2. Larva of Aphis. Packard, loc. cit. pp. 521, 522.
3. Larva of Earwig. Westwood, loc. cit. vol. i. p. 399.
4. Larva of Scolytus. Westwood, loc. cit. vol. i. p. 350.
5. Larva of Anthrax. Westwood, loc. cit. vol. ii. p. 546.
6. Larva of Balaninus.
7. Larva of Cynips. Westwood, loc. cit. vol. ii. p. 121.
8. Larva of Ant (Formica). Westwood, loc. cit. vol. ii. p. 226.
9. Larva of Wasp. Newport, Art. Insecta, Todd’s Cycl. Anat. and Phys., p. 871.
PLATE III. p. 14.
FIG.
1. ChloËon. Linn. Trans. 1866.
2. MeloË. Spry and Shuckard, Coleoptera Delineated, pl. 56.
3. Calepteryx.
4. Sitaris. Spry and Shuckard, loc. cit. pl. 56.
5. Campodea. Suites À Buffon. AptÉres.
6. Acilius. Westwood, loc. cit. vol. i. p. 100.
7. Termes. Westwood, loc. cit. vol. ii. p. 12.
8. Stylops. Duncan, Met. of Insects, p. 387; Packard, p. 482.
9. Thrips. Westwood, loc. cit. vol. ii. p. 1.
PLATE IV. p. 15.
FIG.
1. Larva of ChloËon. Linn. Trans. 1863.
2. Larva of MeloË. Chapuis and CandÈze, Mem. Soc. Roy. LiÉge, 1853, pp. 1, 7.
3. Larva of Calepteryx. Dufour, Ann. Sci. Nat. 1852.
4. Larva of Sitaris. Duncan, Met. of Insects, p. 309.
5. Larva of Campodea. Gervais' Suites À Buffon. AptÉres.
6. Larva of Acilius. Westwood, loc. cit. vol. i. p. 100.
7. Larva of Termes. Duncan, loc. cit. p. 348.
8. Larva of Stylops. Westwood, Trans. Ent. Soc. 1839, vol. ii. pl. xv. fig. 13a.
9. Larva of Thrips. Westwood, loc. cit. vol. ii. p. i.
PLATE V. p. 99.
FIG.
1-5. Protamoeba.
6-9. Protamyxa aurantiaca. Haeckel Beit. zur. Monog. der Moneren, pl. 1.
10-18. Magosphoera planula. Haeckel, loc. cit. pl. v.
PLATE VI. p. 105.
FIG.
1-4. Yolk-segmentation in Laomedea. After Allman. Mon. of Tubularian Hydroids. Ray Society.
5-9. Yolk-segmentation in Filaria. After Van Beneden. Mem. sur les Vers Intestinaux.
10-13. Yolk-segmentation in Echinus. After Derbes. Ann. des. Sci. Nat. 1847.
14-17. Yolk-segmentation in Lacinularia. After Huxley. J. of Mic. Sci. 1853.
18-21. Yolk-segmentation in Purpura. After Koren and Danielssen. Ann. des. Sci. Nat. 1853.
22-24. Yolk-segmentation in Amphioxus. After Haeckel. Naturliche SchÖpfungsgeschichte, pl. x.
25-29. Yolk-segmentation in Vertebrate. After Allen Thompson. Art. Ovum. Cyclop. of Anatomy and Physiology.
DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES.
FIG.
1. Larva of the Cockchafer (Melolontha)
2. Larva of Cetonia.
3. Larva of Trox.
4. Larva of Oryctes.
5. Larva of Aphodius.
6. Larva of Lucanus.
7. Larva of Brachytarsus.
8. Larva of Crioceris.
9. Larva of Sitaris humeralis.
10. Larva of Sitaris humeralis, in the second stage.
11. Larva of Sitaris humeralis, in the third stage.
12. Larva of Sitaris humeralis, in the fourth stage.
13. Pupa of Sitaris.
14. Larva of Sirex.
15. Egg of Rhynchites, showing the parasitic larva.
16. The parasitic larva, more magnified.
17. Egg of Platygaster.
18. Egg of Platygaster, showing the central cell.
19. Egg of Platygaster, after the division of the central cell.
20. Egg of Platygaster, more advanced.
21. Egg of Platygaster, more advanced.
22. Egg of Platygaster, showing the rudiment of the embryo.
23. Larva of Platygaster.—mo, mouth; a, antenna; kf, hooked feet; r, toothed process; lfg, lateral process; f, branches of the tail.
24. Larva of another species of Platygaster. (The letters indicate the same parts as in the preceding figure.)
25. Larva of a third species of Platygaster. (The letters indicate the same parts as in the preceding figure.)
26. Larva of Platygaster in the second stage.—mo, mouth; slkf, oesophagus; gsae, supra-oesophagal ganglion; lm, muscles; bsm, nervous system; gagh, rudiments of the reproductive glands.
27. Larva of Platygaster in the third stage.—mo, mouth; ma, mandibles; gsae, supra-oesophagal ganglion; slk, oesophagus; ag, ducts of the salivary glands; bnm, ventral nervous system; sp, salivary glands; msl, stomach; im, imaginal discs; tr, tracheÆ; fk, fatty tissue; ed, intestine; ga, rudiments of reproductive organs; ew, wider portion of intestine; ao, posterior opening.
28. Embryo of Polynema.
29. Larva of Polynema.—asch, rudiments of the antennÆ; flsch, of the wings; bsch, of the legs; vfg, lateral projections; gsch, rudiments of the ovipositor; fk, fatty tissue.
30. Egg of Phryganea (Mystacides).—A1, mandibular segment; C1-C5, maxillary, labial, and three thoracic segments; D, abdomen.
31. Egg of Phryganea somewhat more advanced.—b, mandibles; c, maxillÆ; cfs, rudiments of the three pairs of legs.
32. Egg of Pholcus opilionides, showing the Protozonites.
33. Embryo of Julus.
34. Colony of Bougainvillea fruticosa, natural size, attached to the underside of a piece of floating timber.
35. Portion of the same, more magnified.
36. The Medusa from the same species.
37. Larva of Prawn, Nauplius stage.
38. Larva of Prawn, more advanced, ZoËa stage.
39. Larva of Echino-cidaris oequituberculata seen from above ✕ 6/10.
40. Larva of Echinus ✕ 100.—A, front arm; F, arms of the mouth-process; B, posterior side arm; E1, accessory arm of the mouth-process; a, mouth; a1, oesophagus; b, stomach; b1, intestine; o, posterior orifice; d, ciliated bands; f, ciliated epaulets; c, disc of future Echinus.
41. Comatula rosacea.
42. Larva of Comatula rosacea.
43. Larva of Comatula rosacea, more advanced.
44. Larva of Comatula rosacea, in the Pentacrinus state.
45. Larva of Starfish (Bipinnaria), ✕ 100.
46. Larva of Starfish (Bipinnaria), ✕ 100, seen from the side.—a, mouth; b, oesophagus; c, stomach; c1, intestine.
47. Larva of another Bipinnaria, showing the commencement of the Starfish.—g, canal of the ciliated sac; i, rudiments of tentacles; d, ciliated band.
48. Larva of Moth (Agrotis).
49. Larva of Beetle (Haltica).
50. Larva of Saw-fly (Cimbex).
51. Larva of Julus.
52. Agrotis suffusa.
53. Haltica.
54. Cimbex.
55. Julus.
56. Tardigrade.
57. Larva of Cecidomyia.
58. Lindia torulosa.
59. Prorhynchus stagnalis.
60. Egg of Tardigrade.
61. Egg of Tardigrade, after the yolk has subdivided.
62. Egg of Tardigrade, in the next stage.
63. Egg of Tardigrade, more advanced.
