There exists at present considerable confusion in the number of species and the classification of the northern seals. A scientific argument on classification is beyond the province of this report, and it need only be mentioned that, after careful inquiry from the Eskimos of Baffin island and Hudson bay, there is no doubt that, including the walrus, there are but six species of seals in the northern seas of eastern America, and that the other species named are simply due to varieties of age, size and colour.
The present account is confined to the distribution, habits and uses of these animals.
Callocephalus vitulinus, Linn.—The Harbour seal, Freshwater seal, or Ranger (Kassigiak, Eskimo), is common but not plentiful on all the coasts. It is found usually about the mouths of rivers, and in bays and fiords. It is also found in some of the larger lakes of Labrador and Baffin island. These lakes are often far inland and high above the present level of the sea, and there is no doubt that in a number of them the seals reside permanently. The young, unlike those of the other seals, are produced in July on the rocks about the banks of rivers.
The skins are prized by the natives owing to their fur-like character and beauty of colour. They are dressed with the hair on, and are chiefly used for women’s garments, fancy bags and for the boot-legs of dandies.
The flesh and blubber, especially of the older and larger freshwater seals, have a disagreeable odour and taste, and consequently are not so highly prized by the natives as are those of the following species.
Pagomys foetidus, Fab.—The Ringed seal, or Jar (Nietshik, Eskimo), is the common small seal of all the coasts.
The variations in size, markings and colour, due to age, have led to this seal being classed under several species.
Its flesh is the chief article of diet of the natives the year round, while its skin when dressed with the hair is used for clothing, tentings and bags; when dressed by removing the hair, it is used as covering for the kyak and for boot-legs. The blubber, burned in stone lamps, is the chief source of artificial heat.
The young are born in March in snow-houses scraped out by the female from a snow-bank, close to an air-hole on the ice. When born they have a glistening white coat of soft hair.
Pagophilus groenlandicus, Mull.—The Harp seal, Saddle-back, Bedlamiers, (Kirolik, Eskimo,) supplies fully two-thirds of the seals taken annually off the coasts of Newfoundland in the spring, when the females give birth to their young on the floating ice of the Arctic pack. The Harp seal is more or less common on the northern coasts, and southward along the Atlantic coast of Labrador, at all seasons. In Hudson strait they are rare in summer, but are not uncommon after the shore-ice forms in the autumn, and before it leaves in the early summer. These seals commonly travel in bands, and are known by their habit of frequently leaping from the water. They are rare in Hudson bay, especially during the summer season, and are only occasionally seen at other times.
The flesh and blubber are used by the natives for food and fuel. The skins are used mostly for tentings and boot-legs, and where the skin of the Ground seal is not available for boot-bottoms.
Phoco barbata, Fab.—The Bearded seal, Big seal, Ground seal, Square-flipper, (Oujuk, Eskimo,) is common on all the coasts, and is the most abundant seal at Cape Haven, and Cape Chidley on the eastern coast.
It brings forth its young, which are born near an opening in the shore-ice, about a month later than the Ringed seal. This seal is next in size to the walrus, and its capture always brings gladness to the Eskimos, providing, as it does, a large amount of meat and blubber, while from its hide is cut an exceedingly strong line used for dog-traces and other purposes. The dressed skin is used for the soles of boots, for covering kyaks and women’s boats, for tentings, and many other purposes. The flesh is coarser in texture, but less fishy in flavour, than that of the smaller seals. The liver is said to be somewhat poisonous, and is not often eaten.
Cystophera cristata, Erxl.—-The Hooded seal, or Bladder-nose, (Nietshivok, Eskimo,) is a large and ferocious seal, second in size only to the Big seal. It produces its young about two weeks later than the Harps, and usually on ice farther off the coast. These seals make up the remainder of the catch of the Newfoundland sealers. In the summer they are common at Ponds inlet, and become rarer along the coasts to the southward. The Hooded seal is unknown to the natives of Hudson bay, and is an exceedingly rare visitor in Hudson strait.
Trichechus rosmarus, Linn.—The walrus, (Aivik, Eskimo,) is found in all the northern waters, where it appears to prefer the presence of floating ice, and rarely or never comes out on the shore-ice. During the past voyage of the Neptune many walrus were seen; the most northern locality was at the entrance to Smith sound, where large numbers were congregated on pans of floating ice, between Etah and Cape Sabine. Numbers were seen along the coast of Ellesmere island and in the waters of Lancaster sound. The whalers and natives report them as very plentiful in Wellington channel. They are common along the coast of Baffin island, a considerable number being killed annually at the station at Cape Haven, and in Cumberland gulf. They are very numerous in Fox channel and Frozen strait, where they are captured while on the floating ice usually found in these localities throughout the summer. When the ice leaves Hudson bay and Hudson strait, the walrus resort to favourite localities, usually small rocky islands, where they are frequently found in large numbers. Such islands are located in King sound, near Douglas harbour, on the south side of the strait; at the west end of Charles island, also in the strait; at Walrus island in Fisher strait, and at several small islands of the Belcher and other outer islands of the east coast of Hudson bay.
When the St. Lawrence was discovered the walrus was found as far south as the Magdalen islands, and, within a comparatively recent time, they were common on the Atlantic coast of Labrador; now they are only killed rarely at Cape Chidley, the northern point of that coast. On Hudson bay they were formerly found as far south as Paint islands on the east side of James bay, but now they do not frequent that coast south of latitude 60° N., and their southern limit is about latitude 57° N., on the Belcher islands. There has been a rapid diminution in the number of walrus in the northern part of the bay during the past few years, since the Active has been engaged in their capture, and it is only a question of a few years, if the present methods of killing are continued, before the walrus will become as rare as the Right whale in the waters of Hudson bay. It is acknowledged that, with present methods of capture and the difficulties of the chase, only one in four or five of the animals killed is eventually secured. The walrus is necessary for the subsistence of the northern Eskimo and his dogs. The flesh is strong and sustaining, the blubber is abundant and good, while the tusks are of great use for shoeing sleds and the manufacture of spears and harpoons, and other hunting and domestic gear. The present value of the walrus to civilization is small. Oil is made from the blubber, and the skins are used chiefly for ‘buffing’ metal goods. The ivory of the tusks is inferior, and only worth about fifty cents a pound. The present price for hides is from eight to ten cents a pound, and consequently the entire products of a large walrus is under fifty dollars in value.
Taking into consideration the value of the animal to the native, the great waste of life in the killing, and the comparative small value to civilization, it might be well to pass regulations reserving this animal wholly for the use of the Eskimos.
CHAPTER XI.
NAVIGATION OF HUDSON BAY.
The question of the navigation of Hudson bay and Hudson strait has been before the Canadian public for a period extending back almost to the time of Confederation. An answer to this question has become more and more pressing, as the latent wealth of the grain-fields of the Northwest has been proved, and as the present means of transport of this great volume of grain to the eastward become yearly less capable of handling it expeditiously and cheaply.
Within the past few years the yield of Northwest grain has increased enormously, and a second line of rails is being laid across the continent to aid in the rapid transport of this wealth to the seaboard. If the increase in the area of land opened annually to cultivation continues as at present, a few years will show such a volume of grain to be transported that the new outlets will be unable to give free exit to it, and a new lane by which it can be taken to the European markets must be found.
The route by rail to the port of Churchill, on the western side of Hudson bay, and from thence to Europe in ships, is the shortest, and is likely to prove the best, of all those outside the present routes by rail to the headwaters of the St. Lawrence navigation.
Ships go wherever cargoes can be obtained, and all that is needed to open Hudson bay for ordinary commercial navigation is a line of rails to carry freight to one of its ports. At present the Hudson’s Bay Company and the Revillon Fur Company have ships going annually to the bay, and a greater amount of freight would attract more steamers.
As stated in the historical summary, the London merchants opened communication with northern Russia by ships trading in the White sea in the days of Queen Elizabeth. Spurred on by the success attending this adventure to the northeast, a few years later they sent vessels to the northwest, in the hopes of opening up a similar trade, and of discovering a short and safe passage to the rich markets of China and India.
Hudson’s voyage in 1610 resulted in the discovery of Hudson bay, and in the knowledge that no great opportunities existed there for extensive commerce, owing to the lack of civilized natives. James and Fox completed the exploration of the bay, without coming in contact with any of the natives residing on its shores.
The formation of the Hudson’s Bay Company was due to the knowledge of the French fur traders, that a profitable trade might be carried on with the natives frequenting the shores of the bay. This trade from its nature never required a large fleet of ships in its carrying trade, but since 1668 the company have sent annually one or more ships to supply its posts, and to bring back the valuable furs obtained from the inhabitants; and it is remarkable that with the imperfect charts of its waters so few ships have been lost in the last two hundred and fifty years; of these only a small number have met with disaster from contact with the ice in the bay or strait. From the time of the Treaty of Utrecht to the transfer of the lands of the Hudson’s Bay Company to the Dominion, the bay and strait were a closed sea belonging exclusively to the Company, and other ships entered these waters unlawfully, and navigation by outsiders was practically prohibited there. The American whalers visited the northern portions of the bay as early as 1860, and within a few years their number had increased to fourteen ships wintering in its northern waters. As these vessels did not directly interfere with the fur trade they were left undisturbed, and are only mentioned here to show that other ships besides those of the Hudson’s Bay Company have for a considerable period been navigating the bay, but being intent upon a paying enterprise did not herald their achievements to the public.
The Dominion Government, in 1885-86, sent out steamers under Commander Gordon to test the period of navigation of Hudson strait, and at the same time established observation stations along the length of the strait, where the action of the ice was studied during these two years. Commander Gordon reported that the strait was open for three or four months for navigation by specially constructed ships. In 1897 a second expedition was sent out under the charge of Commander Wakeham, who was accompanied by Mr. Fisher, a representative of the Manitoba government. Both reported on the navigation of the strait and bay, and practically upheld all the statements of Commander Gordon.
I was attached to the second expedition as a geologist, and performed some exploring duties on the southern coast of the strait in the late summer, having been on board the ship during her first passage through the strait. This experience in the navigation of these waters was further increased by a passage westward through the strait during the following summer in the Hudson’s Bay Company’s steamer Erik, and still further by the four trips of the past voyage.
Hudson strait has a length of nearly five hundred miles from Cape Chidley, on the south side of its eastern end, to Cape Wolstenholme on the same side of its western end. The general trend of the strait is a little north of west, so that the western cape is about a degree and a half to the northward of the eastern one, and is in 62° 30´ N. latitude. At its eastern entrance the strait has a practical channel nearly thirty-five miles wide between the outermost Button island off Cape Chidley, and the shores of Resolution island on the north side. Gray strait is a narrower channel between the Button islands and the southern mainland. Immediately to the westward of Cape Chidley the southern shore falls away to the southward to form the great bay of Ungava, which is one hundred and forty miles wide, and somewhat more than that distance in length. The large island of Akpatok lies in this bay, but as its north end is to the southward of a line drawn across the mouth of the bay, it does not seriously interfere with navigation in the strait.
From Cape Hopes Advance, the western point of Ungava bay, the southern shore of the strait has a northwest direction to Cape Weggs, situated one hundred and fifty miles beyond. The northern shore opposite has the same general trend, and the strait for this distance averages sixty miles across. Big island, situated on the north side in the western half of this portion, extends southward, so as to reduce the width to thirty miles.
To the westward of Cape Weggs the general trend of the south coast is nearly due west, while the opposite side continues northwest to form Gordon bay, after which it bends to the west and south, so that at its western end the strait is about one hundred miles from mainland to mainland, but of this distance the practical channel is limited to that portion between the south coast and the large island of Nottingham, a distance of thirty-five miles.
In the western half of the strait, Charles island, which lies about twenty-five miles beyond Cape Weggs, is the only obstruction to navigation. This island is twenty-five miles long, and lies nearly due east-and-west, some twenty miles from the south shore of the strait. The ship channel passes to the northward of the island, although there is a good channel on its south side.
The depth of water in the ship track through the strait varies from fifty to two hundred fathoms. There are no shoals, and with ordinary precautions, there is little danger from stranding on the bold shores of either side of the strait, or on the few islands that bound the channel.
A number of safe harbours easy of approach have been explored on the southern side of the strait, and others equally good and safe are known to be located on the north side, although they are at present unsurveyed.
The passage from the western entrance of the strait to the port of Churchill, on the western side of Hudson bay, is five hundred miles. From the mouth of the strait the course is due west for seventy miles to the eastern end of the wide channel between Coats and Mansfield islands. This channel is practically one hundred miles long, and varies in width from fifty miles at the eastern end, to over a hundred at the other.
The general course of the ship track from the eastern end of this channel to Churchill is nearly southwest, and there are nowhere any dangerous shoals or other obstructions to navigation.
In the track across Hudson bay the depth of water varies from fifty to two hundred fathoms, while the approach to the low shores of Coats and Mansfield and those of the western mainland is signalled by the gradual lessening of the depth of water, which gives ample warning to ships approaching the land.
It will be seen from the above description that there is no natural difficulty in the navigation of the bay and strait so far as the depth of water, presence of obstructions and width of channel are concerned, and if situated in a more southern region the route would be an ideal one for the navigator.
The western coast of Hudson bay is low and flat. It rises very slowly inland from swampy shores, while the water deepens slowly, and there are numerous shoals and bars that extend for a considerable distance from the shore-line and render coastwise navigation dangerous. This character of coast extends from the southern end of James bay to beyond the mouth of Churchill harbour. Further north the character of the coast changes somewhat, being still low, but much more uneven in outline, with a corresponding unevenness in the sea-bottom. Beyond Eskimo point, in 61° N. latitude, the straight shores of the southward give place to a ragged coast-line broken by large bays, and fringed with rocky islands having shallow water between them, and a broken bottom very dangerous to navigation. On this account, and because of the danger from outlying shoals and strong currents, the navigation of Chesterfield inlet and that of the other northern bays and harbours is debarred from consideration.
The mouths of all the large rivers to the southward of Churchill are more or less blocked by deposits of sand and clay brought down by the streams and deposited in the quieter waters at their mouths in the form of bars or flat shoals. In consequence of these obstructions, only small craft can enter the harbours inside the mouths of these rivers, and larger ships are obliged to lay in the dangerous roadsteads usually several miles away from the nearest dry land.
The approach to the harbour of Churchill, if aided by a few beacons and lights, would be comparatively safe, as the channel of approach is fairly deep and wide. Once inside the points of the mouth, the harbour extends up stream about a mile, and has an average width of half a mile, with a couple of shallow places in the upper part that might easily be removed by dredging; the general depth of the harbour being from four to four and a half fathoms.
Some knowledge of the currents is desirable in discussing the navigability of Hudson strait and Hudson bay, for on them depend largely the character and amount of ice met with in these northern waters. Observations on the drift of the ice that covers the Arctic seas point to a general law governing the currents. This law, briefly stated, is, that no matter what the size, shape or direction of one of these northern bodies of water may be, the direction of flow of the current will be such that one facing with it will have the land on the right hand. This may be differently stated by saying that with bodies of water having a general north-and-south trend, the current will flow north on the east side and south on the west, while in east-and-west bodies the direction of flow will be west on the north side and east on the south side. This law has been found to apply to the waters of Hudson strait and Hudson bay as well as to those of the more northern bays and straits visited on the Neptune. The mere statement of this law is made here, as the discussion of the causes producing it, be they due to the earth’s motion or wind action, is outside the province of this report.
The current from the eastward along the northern side of Hudson strait was known to the early navigators of those waters, who took advantage of it when passing through the strait from the Atlantic. The presence of icebergs in the northern waters of the strait can only be accounted for by this current, for they must all come from Davis strait, there being no glaciers to produce them on the lands fronting on the strait or bay. These icebergs have been seen as far west as the western end of Salisbury island, almost to the entrance of Hudson bay.
The east-flowing current of the south side of the strait was proved by the drift of the Neptune when beset in the ice off Cape Wolstenholme, and later, off Cape Weggs. In the former instance the drift of the ship was thirty miles in twenty-four hours, while in the latter it was twenty miles in twenty hours. Driftwood borne north on the current of the east side of Hudson bay is not rare on the southern shores of the western part of the strait, while large quantities of it are found on the eastern shores of Ungava bay, having been drifted east and north from the mouths of the rivers emptying into the head of that bay.
The current flowing westward along the north side of the strait sweeps northward up the east side of Fox channel, rounds the head of that large northern bay, and then flows southward along the east side of Southampton, bringing with it the heavy ice from the northern parts of Fox channel, so that heavy drift ice is almost always found to the north of the eastern entrance to Evans strait, and often comes sufficiently south to partly block the channel between Mansfield and Coats islands.
The current from the north along the western shores of Hudson bay is not important as regards navigation, as it comes from the narrow waters of Roes Welcome and does not transport a large quantity of field ice.
Rafted Ice in Roes Welcome, June, 1904.
Similar currents follow the shores of Baffin bay and Davis strait; on the east, or Greenland side, the flow is northward, while along the west side or that of the Arctic islands the current is southward, and carries on its surface great quantities of heavy field ice formed in these northern waters, together with extensive masses of Arctic ice which have passed south or east through the wide sounds connecting the northern parts of Baffin bay with the Arctic ocean. Many icebergs discharged from the northern glaciers are also found in this heavy ice of the ‘middle pack’ of Baffin bay and Davis strait. This Arctic current closely follows the eastern shores of Baffin island, branches of it sweeping into Cumberland gulf and Frobisher bay. When it reaches the latitude of the mouth of Hudson strait, the part adjacent to the land turns westward through the channel between Resolution island and the north shore of the strait, while another stream sweeps westward around the island of Resolution, where, meeting the current flowing out of the strait, the strong cross currents, tides and ‘overfalls’ noted by the earliest navigators are formed.
The main stream of the Arctic current passes southward across the mouth of Hudson strait, and forms the northern current of the Atlantic coast of Labrador. It bears on its surface the wide stream of ice which in the summer forms the ‘middle pack’ of Baffin bay, and which later in the year passes the mouths of Cumberland gulf and Frobisher bay, and in November, or early in December, closes the eastern entrance to Hudson strait. At that time a considerable area of this northern ice may enter the eastern part of the strait, but is prevented from completely filling the strait by the amount of locally formed ice already covering its waters. Continuing southward on the current, this stream of ice, often upwards of fifty miles in width, blocks the coast of Labrador during the early months of the year, and by the end of March arrives off the coasts of Newfoundland, bearing on its surface an immense number of newly-born seals to make the important seal fishery of Newfoundland. Part of this ice is carried through the Strait of Belle Isle into the northern portion of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, while the greater portion passes south along the east coast of Newfoundland to Cape Race. Here the western part of the ice is deflected to the westward along the southern shores of the island, and finally enters the southern part of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, while the remainder is soon melted in the warmer waters of the Atlantic south of Newfoundland.
Ice commences to form in the smaller bays of the northern parts of Hudson bay and Hudson strait early in October, and by the end of that month the northern harbours are frozen over. The more southern ones, especially those at the mouths of the larger rivers, do not close until late in November or early in the following month. By the beginning of January, James bay is frozen across, and at the same time solid ice usually extends from the east coast of Hudson bay to the outer line of islands, some sixty or seventy miles from that coast. In other parts of Hudson bay, and in Hudson strait a margin of solid ice usually extends from one to five miles from the shore, except where the coast is high and bold with deep water close to the base of the cliffs. In such places, especially at headlands, solid ice does not form, and the natives in winter often have to make long and difficult detours inland to pass them.
The main body of Hudson bay does not freeze solid, and the same may be said of Hudson strait. Although this is the case, these waters are quite unnavigable for ordinary ships during the winter and spring months owing to the great sheets of heavy ice borne backwards and forwards by the tides and currents, and drifted about by the winter gales. There is little doubt that a specially constructed ship for ice navigation might pass through Hudson strait at any season, but the voyage would be a long one, and the difficulties and dangers would be great.
Ice in Cumberland Gulf. September, 1904.
The ice of Hudson bay and the greater part of that of Hudson strait is of local origin, being formed by the freezing of the surface of the sea near-by. Observations on the growth in thickness of the ice were made in Fullerton harbour throughout the winter of 1903-04, and a record of the weekly observations is given later in the report. These observations show that the thickness increases steadily until the month of June, when a maximum of seventy-four inches was measured. The conditions under which this was obtained were very favourable for the ice, and only in similarly protected northern harbours does it attain such a thickness. In the larger bays and along the unprotected coasts, where the ice freezes later, and is frequently broken up by gales during the winter, the thickness rarely exceeds three or four feet. This thinner ice makes up the greater part of that found in the spring-time covering the waters of Hudson bay and strait.
As the ice continues to increase until June, winter conditions continue well into that month, and it is not until its last days that the heat of the sun is sufficiently strong and sustained to begin the melting process. With the advent of July this process is well under way, and the daily change in the condition and amount of the ice is then marvellous, so much so, that where everything was fast frozen in the beginning of the month, by the middle not a vestige of ice remains.
If a single thickness of sheet ice covered these northern waters they would be completely clear early in July, but unfortunately much of the floating ice is ‘rafted’ or piled up, sheet on sheet, and the whole cemented solidly together to form large masses often twenty feet or more in thickness. This rafting is caused by the pressure formed by large masses of ice driven together, or against ice attached to the shores, which causes the ice along the margins to break and buckle, cake on cake. These pressure areas are often of considerable size, and usually are many times longer than broad. They serve as a framework to hold together large fields of single sheet ice. When the thinner ice melts, these pressure masses remain, and are dangerous to shipping until the water has become sufficiently warm to melt the ice cementing the cakes together; then they are harmless, as the slightest shock causes the mass to fall to pieces with a great commotion but with little danger. This disintegration is known as ‘calving.’
The northern ice which occasionally enters Hudson strait in the early part of the winter as before described, is much more complicated and much heavier in character than the local ice. Some of this ice may be met with in the early period of navigation to the eastward of Big island, and should be treated with respect. The icebergs included with it often remain until late in the season, and form a source of danger in foggy weather, but they are usually so few as to be negligible, especially in the western half of the strait.
To summarize the foregoing: Hudson strait and Hudson bay do not freeze solid, but are so covered with masses of floating ice as to be practically unnavigable for at least seven months in the year. The ice does not begin to melt until well into the month of June, and is not sufficiently melted for safe navigation with ordinary steamers until the middle of July. No ice is formed in the strait and bay sufficiently heavy to obstruct ordinary navigation until the latter part of November, but towards the close of this period there is danger from the early passage of the northern pack across the mouth of the strait, and also, to a much less degree, from the ice from Fox channel partly closing the western entrance to the strait.
When the temperature of the air falls several degrees below zero, as it does in November, a thick mist or fog rises from the open water and renders navigation somewhat dangerous. In the early part of the season before the ice has completely melted, fogs are liable to occur in proximity to the ice fields. At other times fogs are not prevalent, and the weather is ordinarily fair.
The worst storms come from the south and east, and these are usually accompanied by rain in the summer, and by snow later in the season. Northerly winds bring clear cold weather as a rule.
The period of safe navigation for ordinary iron steamships through Hudson strait and across Hudson bay to the port of Churchill, may be taken to extend from the 20th of July to the 1st of November. This period might be increased without much risk by a week in the beginning of the season and by perhaps two weeks at the close.
Ships entering Hudson strait from the Atlantic during the early part of the season, when ice is present in the strait, should keep in the northern half of the channel between Resolution and the Button islands. Care should be taken to keep some miles from Resolution, as the strong currents close to the island cause the ice to come together and open again with considerable violence. The north side of the strait should be followed as far as Big island, keeping at a respectful distance from the land in order to avoid the pressure when the ice is pressed on the land by southerly winds. There are frequently large quantities of ice in the neighbourhood of Big island, with at times considerable pressure; on this account ships should not approach close to the island. From Big island the course should be so laid that the ship may pass a few miles to the northward of Charles island, and from there the middle channel should be followed to pass between Nottingham island and Cape Wolstenholme. The southern side of the channel between Mansfield and Coats is usually freer of ice than the north side.
In passing eastward through Hudson strait, advantage should be taken of the favourable current on the south side, and that shore followed to Charles island, where the channel to the south of the island may be used, taking care to keep well away from the mainland until Cape Weggs is passed. The southern half of the centre channel should then be followed to beyond Big island, when the mid channel across the mouth of Ungava bay will probably be found clear of ice.
The fur trade with the Indians and Eskimos living about Hudson bay or along interior routes tributary to it, has for a period extending over two centuries and a half furnished cargoes for two or more ships belonging to the Hudson’s Bay Company. At the present time two ships are engaged in this trade for the Company, while Revillon Bros. employ two more. The whale fishery now supports two ships. These four ships represent the developed trade of the bay and strait at the present time.
The undeveloped natural resources of the regions surrounding these waters appertain to mining and fisheries, and to the forestry of the territory surrounding the rivers flowing into the southern parts of the bay. Iron ores have been found on the islands and shores of the eastern side of Hudson bay, where they cover large areas and where valuable deposits corresponding to those of the hard ores of Lake Superior will be discovered when sought for. On the western shores of the bay between Chesterfield inlet and Churchill, extensive deposits of copper-bearing rocks have been located, and there is every prospect of valuable mines being discovered in that region when the ground has been properly prospected. A valuable mica mine is being worked at a profit on the north shore of Hudson strait, and the condition and character of the rocks there point to the discovery of similar deposits on that side of the strait. Iron ores are known to occur along the west side of Ungava bay, and the rocks of the southern side of the strait in many places are favourable to the occurrence of valuable minerals. The greater part of the coastal region has only been geologically examined in a hurried manner, while large stretches are practically unknown inland.
Nothing is at present known of the fisheries of the deeper waters of the strait and bay, and the knowledge of the fisheries of these waters is confined to the coasts and rivers. In the southern part of the bay, large quantities of sea-run trout and whitefish are taken by the natives. The Arctic salmon, a fish superior to the best Pacific salmon, is plentiful along the eastern side of the bay to the northward of James bay, as well as in the mouths of the rivers of the northern and northwest coasts, and also along both shores of the strait. Lake trout is a common fish in these northern rivers and lakes. Cod have been taken in several places along the east side of Hudson bay as far north as Cape Smith; on the western side little is known of this fish beyond the occurrence of a few in Roes Welcome, and some small specimens taken among the ice at Fullerton. A cod fishery has been carried on for a number of years at Cape Chidley, and these fish are said to be plentiful along the east side of Ungava bay, but do not appear to go farther westward through the strait from the Atlantic. Cod are reported to be abundant in some of the fiords of the south side of Frobisher bay.
The forestry of the southern rivers is outside the scope of this report, and it need only be mentioned that large areas of pulpwood and merchantable spruce occur along the banks of these streams, awaiting a suitable outlet to market by way of Hudson bay and strait.
These undeveloped resources of the north will no doubt when developed add greatly to the annual shipping of Hudson bay, but the main increase to the fleet will be due to the products of the great plains of the Northwest, now rapidly filling with robust settlers. These products of the western farms, grain, butter, and cattle, will naturally seek the shortest road to the European markets; a road not only shorter, but owing to its cool climate, capable of landing perishable products and grain in a better condition than the more southern routes.
Taking Regina as a convenient centre for these northwestern farming lands, the distance from there by way of Prince Albert to Churchill is about 800 miles, or the same distance as from Regina to Fort William on Lake Superior, and a thousand miles shorter than the distance from Regina to Montreal at the head of sea navigation on the St. Lawrence. The distance from Churchill to Liverpool is almost the same as that from Montreal to Liverpool; consequently there is a saving in distance of a thousand miles of rail or river carriage in favour of the northern route.
The question of the storage of the grain until the season following the harvest, is at first sight a serious one, but when it is known that not twenty per cent of the grain at present reaches the seaboard before the opening of navigation of the year following that in which it is harvested, this objection practically disappears, for the grain may be as well stored on the shores of Hudson bay as in the elevators on the plains, or at Fort William. The question of storage is reduced to the length of time between the opening of navigation of Hudson strait, and the time required to transport grain from Fort William to Montreal after the opening of navigation on the great lakes, and this difference in time may be measured by days.
The country through which a railway must run to reach the port of Churchill is known to offer no serious difficulties, and although the local freights between the bay and the head of Lake Winnipeg may be small, the district traversed is equal in fertility and natural resources to much of that through which the Canadian Pacific Railway runs to the northward of the great lakes. Given a good harbour, such as that of Churchill, and an adequate number of tramp steamships, there will be no difficulty in removing from that port during the season of safe navigation all the grain and other supplies that can be drawn there by a single line of rails.
The object of this article on the navigation of Hudson strait and Hudson bay is to point out the period of safe navigation, and the advantages and drawbacks of this route to Europe; other problems of transportation and usefulness being left to those in a better position to judge and pronounce upon them.
APPENDICES
