Botany for Ladies / or, A Popular Introduction to the Natural System of Plants, According to the Classification of De Candolle.

CHAPTER III. (2)

PHANEROGAMOUS PLANTS.—MONOCOTYLEDONEÆ.

All the trees belonging to this division are natives of tropical countries; and they, as well as all the herbaceous plants belonging to it, are distinguished by the veins of their leaves being never branched, but principally in parallel lines. These plants are re-divided into those with a perianth, which are called the PetaloideÆ, and in which are included the OrchidaceÆ and the bulbous-rooted plants; and those without a perianth, which are called GlumaceÆ, and in which are included the grasses, and sedges.

§ I.—PETALOIDEÆ.

ORDER CLXXIX.—HYDROCHARIDEÆ.—THE FROG’S BIT TRIBE.

Aquatic plants, two of which are of very curious construction. In Vallisneria, the male and female flowers are on different plants, and the buds of the female flowers rise on long spiral stalks, which gradually uncoil, till the flower appears above the surface of the water, where it expands. The male flowers are produced on separate plants at the bottom, but, before they expand, they detach themselves from the soil, and rise up to the surface, where they float till the flowers have opened, and the pollen has fallen on the stigmas of the female flowers, after which the male flowers wither, and the female ones coil up their stalks again to ripen the seed-vessels at the bottom. This curious arrangement is necessary, because the pollen should be dry when it falls on the stigmas; and nearly a similar arrangement takes place with the Fresh-water Soldier (Stratiotes). The Frog’s Bit (Hydrocharis morsus ranÆ) is a floating plant, with pretty white flowers. Damosonium indicum is a very handsome water-plant, with white flowers and winged stems.

ORDER CLXXX.—ALISMACEÆ.—THE WATER PLANTAIN TRIBE.

The principal genera in this order are Alisma, Sagittaria, and Actinocarpus, all common British aquatic plants. The Water Plantain (Alisma plantago) has ribbed leaves, and a loose panicle of small pinkish flowers, which have a permanent calyx of three sepals, a corolla of three petals, six stamens, and numerous carpels, which grow close together so as to form a head, as in the Ranunculus tribe. A. natans, which is generally found on lakes in the mountainous districts of Wales and Cumberland, has rather large white flowers, with a yellow spot at the base of each petal. The flower-stalks rise high above the water, and the flowers expand in the months of July and August. The common Arrowhead (Sagittaria sagittifolia) has curiously-shaped leaves, resembling the head of an arrow. The flowers are white, and resemble those of A. natans; but they have a pink spot at the base, and there are numerous stamens. The flowers are in whorls, and those in the upper whorls are generally destitute of carpels. The common Star-fruit (Actinocarpus damsonium) has only six carpels, which are so arranged as to form a star-like fruit when ripe.

ORDER CLXXXI.—BUTOMEÆ.—THE FLOWERING RUSH TRIBE.

The flowering Rush (Butomus umbellatus) is certainly the handsomest of the British aquatic plants. The flowers are rose-coloured, crimson, or white; and they are produced in large erect umbels. The calyx and the corolla are generally of the same colour, and in three divisions each; there are nine stamens and six capsules, which are many-seeded. The leaves are trian gular or flat. Limnocharis Plumieri is a very handsome Brazilian aquatic belonging to this order.

ORDER CLXXXII.—JUNCAGINEÆ.—THE ARROWGRASS TRIBE.

Insignificant bog plants, with grassy leaves, and central spikes or racemes of greenish yellow flowers.

ORDER CLXXXIII.—ORCHIDACEÆ.

The plants belonging to this order may be divided into two kinds, those that grow in the earth, and those which require to have their roots suspended in the air; the latter being the beautiful tropical plants called Orchideous Epiphytes. Most of the terrestrial OrchidaceÆ are British plants belonging to several genera, the most curious of which are Orchis, Habenaria, Ophrys, Aceras, Noettia, Epipactis, and Malaxis. Nearly all the British OrchidaceÆ have tuberous roots, which remain above ground, a new tuber being formed every year. The leaves are alternate, with an entire margin, without any footstalk, and sheathing the stem at the base. The flowers are produced in a spike, furnished with bracts, and though they are very irregular in their forms, there are cer tain particulars in which they all agree. Though in reality sessile, they appear to have each a footstalk, but this footstalk is only the long twisted ovary (c in fig. 146), which is one-celled Fig.146.—Orchis Morio. and many-seeded, and which serves to support the calyx and corolla of the flower, which are both above it. The calyx consists of three sepals, one of which has the appearance of a hood (a), and the others (b b) look like wings. The petals are very disproportionate in their size; two are generally very small, and are only seen peeping beneath the hood of the calyx; while the third (d), which is called the labellum, or lip, is very large, and hangs down. In the centre of the flower is a singular mass, called the column, composed of the stamens and pistil, grown together (see a in fig. 147). In this column there is one perfect Fig.147.—Pollen Masses of the Orchis. anther (b), and two imperfect ones (c c). The perfect anther consists of a pouch or bag, which, when opened, displays two stalked masses of globular pollen, one of which (d) is pulled down to show its appearance, while the other remains in its case at (e). The stigma is a sort of cup half full of a glutinous fluid, but it appears entirely shut out from the pollen, which is not only enclosed in its pouch or bag, but is of such a solid waxy nature as to prevent any possibility of its being carried by wind or insects to the stigma. Nature, however, has contrived a means of obviating the difficulty. At the foot of each stalk of the pollen masses, there is a little protuberance, covering a gland, through which the pollen descends to the stigma, and thence to the ovary or germen.

The different genera are distinguished, partly by the manner in which the granules of the pollen adhere together, and partly by the shape of the flowers; and their different species vary principally in the form of the labellum. In the genera Orchis and Habenaria, the labellum is drawn out behind into a kind of spur (see e in fig. 146); and in others it assumes strange shapes, as in the Man Orchis (Aceras anthropophora), where the labellum looks like a little man; and in the Lizard Orchis (A. or Orchis hircina) where the labellum is drawn out into a long tail, which looks like the tail and long body of the lizard, while the petals, which are long and narrow and bent back, look like the hind legs. In the genus Ophrys, the labellum also takes strange shapes, sometimes resembling a bee, at others a fly, and at others a spider. In the genus Cypripedium, the two side stamens bear anthers and pollen, and only the central one is imperfect.

In the orchideous epiphytes the same general construction prevails, but the forms of the flowers are still more varied and fantastic. All of them have pseudo bulbs above ground, which serve as substitutes for the tubers of the terrestrial species.

ORDER CLXXXIV.—SCITAMINEÆ.

This order contains several plants, well known for their useful properties, as for example, the Ginger (Zingiber officinale), and the Turmeric (Curcuma Zerumbet). Some of the plants grow tall and reed-like, as for example in Hedychium. Most of the genera have a creeping underground stem, called a rhizoma, which is often jointed. The flowers are produced in spathe like bracts; the calyx is tubular, and adheres to the ovary; and the corolla, which is also tubular, has six segments arranged in two rows; the inner row, which is supposed to consist of the dilated filaments of abortive stamens, has one of the segments, called the labellum, larger than the rest. There are three stamens, two of which are abortive, as in the OrchidaceÆ; but the pollen does not cohere in masses, and it is not inclosed in a kind of pouch or bag. The ovary is three-celled (though the cells are sometimes imperfect), and many-seeded; the style is filiform, and the stigma is dilated and hollow. The fruit is generally a capsule; but in some cases it is a berry.

ORDER CLXXXV.—CANNEÆ.

The most interesting genera are—Canna, containing reed-like plants with brilliant flowers; as, for example, C. indica, the Indian Shot; Thalia, a curious aquatic; and Maranta, the tubers of which furnish India Arrowroot. The flowers in their construction greatly resemble those of the preceding order; but the filaments of the stamens are petal-like, and it is one of the side stamens that is perfect, the middle and the other side stamens being always abortive. The fruit is always capsular.

ORDER CLXXXVI.—MUSACEÆ.

The genus Musa is known by its fruit, which is eaten under the names of Plantain and Banana. The flowers are produced in spikes, enclosed in spathe-like bracts, which are often richly coloured; and they are succeeded by the fruit, which hang down in massive spikes of enormous weight. The leaves are very large and strong, and Indian muslin is manufactured from the fibres of one of the species. The principal other genera, Strelitzia and Heliconia, are both remarkable for the brilliant colours of their flowers.

ORDER CLXXXVII.—IRIDACEÆ.

The principal genera belonging to this order are—Iris, MorÆa, Marica, Vieusseuxia, Homeria, Sisyrinchium, Patersonia, Witsenia, Ferraria, Tigridia, Babiana, Watsonia, Gladiolus, Sparaxis, Tritonia, Ixia, and Crocus; but almost every genus contained in the order has showy flowers, and is consequently well known in gardens. The leaves are generally thin, long, and flat, with the edge towards the stem, and the flowers are produced from spathes; the perianth is also in six segments coloured alike, the calyx and corolla being in most cases confounded together. The genus Iris has generally tuberous or solid bulbous roots, of the kind called corms, and the perianth of the flower is divided into six segments, three of which are larger than the others; these three larger segments, which form the calyx, (see a in fig. 148) are reflexed, and Fig.148.—Flower of the Iris. a stamen springs from the base of each, which reclines upon it, with its anther turned from the rest of the flower, the segment, in many species, having a kind of crest or beard near the base, as though it were intended to form a cushion for the stamen to repose on, while over each stamen is spread, as a kind of coverlid, a stigma (b) which is dilated so as to resemble a petal. The petals (c) often stand erect, and were called by LinnÆus the standards. The seed-vessel, which forms below the flower, is a three-celled capsule, opening, when ripe, by three valves, and containing numerous seeds.

The other genera differ from the Iris in having the lower part of the segments of the perianth generally combined into a tube, with the ovary below, looking like a footstalk; the limb being divided into six parts, all so much alike, both in form and position, as to render it difficult to distinguish the calyx from the corolla. There is only one style, with three stigmas, which are always more or less leafy, and the anthers (which are never more than three) are always turned away from the pistil. In Ferraria, the filaments of the stamens grow together, and form a hollow tube, as in the Passion-flower, surrounding the style and stigmas; and in the Saffron Crocus (C. sativa), the stigmas (which, when dried, form the saffron) are so heavy, as to hang out on one side of the perianth from between the segments. Most of the genera have solid bulbs or corms at the base of their stems; but some, such as Marica, Sisyrinchium, and Patersonia, have only fibrous roots. The genera Colchicum and Bulbocodium very much resemble the Crocus in the appearance of their flowers; but they are distinguished by having three styles and a superior ovary, and they are included in the order MelanthaceÆ.

ORDER CLXXXVIII.—HÆMODORACEÆ.

The principal genera are Wachendorfia, HÆmadorum, and Anigozanthos, which differ from the preceding genus principally in having six stamens, the anthers of which are turned towards the stigma. Most of the genera have only fibrous roots, but Wachendorfia has a rhizoma, producing buds in the scales. The plants are natives of the Cape of Good Hope and New Holland, and the roots of some of the species yield a brilliant scarlet dye.

ORDER CLXXXIX.—HYPOXIDEÆ.

Bulbous-rooted plants, with long narrow leaves covered with soft downy hairs, and rather small yellow flowers, which are frequently fragrant.

ORDER CXC.—AMARYLLIDACEÆ.

A large order of genera, all of which have bulbous roots, and most of them splendid flowers. Some of the most interesting genera are—Amaryllis, Nerine (the Guernsey Lily), Brunsvigia, HÆmanthus, Crinum, Pancratium, Narcissus, Galanthus (the Snowdrop), Leucojum, Alstroemeria, and Doryanthes. The different kinds of Amaryllis have large lily-like flowers, divided into six equal segments, which are joined into a tube below, with six stamens, the anthers of which are turned towards the pistil, and a long style crowned with a simple stigma. The ovary is beneath the other parts of the flower, to which it serves as a receptacle; and in most of the plants it looks like a small green calyx below the perianth. The leaves are very long, but they are rather thick and fleshy, and their edge is not turned towards the stem. In Narcissus, Pancratium, and some other genera, the flowers have a kind of cup within the perianth, formed of the filaments of abortive stamens grown together. In Pancratium, the filaments of the anther-bearing stamens grow into the others, so as to form a part of the cup, the anthers springing from the margin of it; but in Narcissus, the fertile stamens are distinct. In Galanthus, and its allied genera, the anthers open by pores, as in the EricaceÆ, and there is a kind of receptacle on the germen, in which the petals, and sepals, and the filaments of the stamens, are inserted.

ORDER CXCI.—HEMEROCALLIDEÆ.

This order, which included the Day Lilies (Hemerocallis and Funkia), the African Lily (Agapanthus), the Aloe (AloË), the Tuberose (Polianthes), with several other genera which have their flowers in upright racemes or umbels, is now generally considered to form a section of the order LiliaceÆ.

ORDER CXCII.—DIOSCOREÆ.

The Yam (DioscoreÆ), and the Elephant’s-foot (Testudinaria), are the principal genera in this order; and both have an enormously-large tuberous root which is eatable, and a very slender climbing stem, with rather small leaves and inconspicuous flowers. The ovary is below the flower, and the fruit is capsular.

ORDER CXCIII.—TAMACEÆ.

This order consists only of the genus Tamus, the Black Bryony, which Dr. Lindley includes in DioscoreÆ. It has, however, a berry-like fruit.

ORDER CXCIV.—SMILACEÆ.

This order includes Smilax, the root of a species of which affords the drug called Sarsaparilla, the Lily of the Valley (Convallaria), and the Alexandrian Laurel, or Butcher’s Broom (Ruscus). The male and female flowers in Smilax are on different plants; and in Ruscus the flowers spring from the middle of the leaves. The perianth is in six equal segments, and there are six stamens. The ovary is three-celled, with the cells one or many seeded, and the fruit is a globose berry. The seeds, when ripe, have a brown membranous skin. Dr. Lindley confines this tribe to Smilax, and Ripogonum; and includes the other genera in LiliaceÆ.

ORDER CXCV.—ASPHODELEÆ.

This order includes the Hyacinth (Hyacinthus), the squills (Scilla), the onions (Allium), the Grape Hyacinth (Muscari), the Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum), King’s Spear (Asphodelus), Anthericum, Albuca, Gagea, Thysanotus, Asparagus, the Dragon-wood (DracÆna), and New Zealand flax (Phormium). Many of these plants have tunicated bulbs; that is, bulbs which consist of several fleshy tunics or coats, which may easily be separated from each other, as may be seen in the hyacinth and the onion. The leaves are fleshy, and ligulate or strap-shaped; and the stems are frequently hollow. The flowers are generally in upright racemes, or umbels; they are regular, and sometimes bell-shaped; the perianth is divided into six segments, which are sometimes partly united into a tube, and recurved at the tip. There are six stamens attached to the perianth, and the fruit is either a fleshy or dry three-celled capsule, generally with several seeds, and opening into three valves, when ripe. Dr. Lindley makes this a separate order in his Ladies’ Botany, but he combines it with LiliaceÆ in his Introduction to the Nat. Syst., and Sir W. J. Hooker includes in it Yucca and Aloe, the first of which in the Hortus Britannicus is included in TulipaceÆ, and the latter in HemerocallideÆ.

ORDER CXCVI.—TULIPACEÆ.

This order in the Hortus Britannicus comprises the genera Yucca, Tulipa, Fritillaria, Cyclobothra, Calochortus, Lilium, Gloriosa, and Erythronium (the Dog Violet); but Sir W. J. Hooker omits Yucca, and adds Blandfordia, Hemerocallis, and Polianthes; while Dr. Lindley includes all these plants, together with those comprised in AsphodeleÆ, in the order LiliaceÆ. This last appears the most natural arrangement, as all these plants have a regular perianth of six segments, with six stamens, and a dry or fleshy capsule of three cells, opening by as many valves. Some of the genera have more seeds than others, and some of the seeds have a hard, dry, black skin, while others have the skin spongy and soft. Some of the genera have the flowers erect and single, as in the Tulip; in others the flowers are erect, but in umbels, as in the Orange Lily; and in others they are in racemes and drooping, as in the Yucca, or single and drooping, as in the Fritillaria, or with the segments curved back as in the Martagon Lily.

ORDER CXCVII.—MELANTHACEÆ.

The plants belonging to this order have generally inconspicuous flowers, except Colchicum and Bulbocodium, both of which have flowers like the Crocus. The bulbs of the Colchicum are used in medicine; but they and the whole plant abound in an acrid juice, which is poisonous if taken in too large a dose. The root of Veratrum is also poisonous, and this plant is believed to be the Hellebore of the ancients. The Colchicum and the Bulbocodium are distinguished from the Crocus genus, which they so strongly resemble in the appearance of their flowers, by the ovary being within the flower instead of below it, as is the case with all the AmaryllidaceÆ, and by their having three distinct styles, instead of one style and three stigmas. In all other respects they are the same.

ORDER CXCVIII.—BROMELIACEÆ.

This order includes the Pine Apple (Bromelia Ananas), the American Aloe (Agave americana), Billbergia, the magnificent plant Bonapartea juncea, now called LyttÆa geminiflora, and the curious epiphyte Tillandsia. What we are accustomed to call the fruit of the Pine Apple is, in fact, a fleshy receptacle, like that of the Strawberry, covered with scaly bracts, which are the remains of the fallen flowers. The flowers are blue, and one is produced in each bract; when they fall, the bracts thicken and grow together, and cover the ovaries, which sink into the fleshy part of the receptacle.

ORDER CXCIX.—PONTEDERACEÆ.

Elegant aquatic plants, with kidney-shaped leaves, and spikes or racemes of blue or white flowers. The principal genus is Pontederia.

ORDER CC.—COMMELINEÆ.

This order is principally known in Britain by the Spiderwort (Tradescantia), and the beautiful Commelina cÆlestis. Both plants have the flowers springing from a tuft of leaves which sheath the stem.

ORDER CCI.—PALMÆ.—THE PALM TRIBE.

This order contains many lofty trees, which are, with one exception, without branches, and bear a tuft of large leaves, called fronds, at the summit. The flowers are small, with bracts, and they are enclosed in a spathe, which bursts on the under side. The mass of flowers is called a spadix; and it is succeeded by the fruit, which, when ripe, is either a drupe or a berry. In the Cocoa-nut Palm (Cocos nucifera) the fruit is a drupe; but the pericardium consists of hard, dry, fibrous matter, which is uneatable, the only part fit for food being the albumen of the kernel. The Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera), and the Sago Palm (Sagus Rumphii), are two interesting plants, from their products.

ORDER CCII.—PANDANEÆ.

The most interesting plant in this order is the Screw Pine (Pandanus), which has the habit of the Palms, but the flowers of the Arum tribe.

ORDER CCIII.—TYPHINEÆ.—THE BULLRUSH TRIBE.

The Bullrushes (Typha), also called Cat’s-tail and Reed-mare, are tall rush-like plants, with a cylindrical mass of dark brown flowers round the stem, surmounted by a spike of yellow flowers. The lower dark-brown flowers are female ones, and the yellow ones are the males; the former consist only of an ovary on a long stalk, and a calyx cut into fine hairs so as to form a kind of pappus. The male flowers have a chaff-like calyx, enclosing the stamens, the filaments of which are united at the base, and the anthers are very long and of a bright yellow. The seed is a dry capsule, and the plant has a rhizoma or creeping stem under the water.

ORDER CCIV.—AROIDEÆ.—THE ARUM TRIBE.

These curious plants have their flowers in a spadix, enclosed in a spathe, the male and female flowers being separate, and the former above the latter, with some abortive ovaries again above them. The male flowers have only one stamen in each without any covering; and the female flowers in like manner consist each of a single ovary, with a puckered-up hole in the upper part, which serves as the stigma. The fruit consists of a cluster of red berries, which form round the spadix. Many of these plants have a very unpleasant smell, and some of them have a tuberous root, which, when cooked, is eaten, though it is poisonous when raw. Arum or Caladium esculentum is thus eaten as a common article of food in the East Indies; but the Dumb Cane (A. or C. seguinum) has its English name from its juice being so poisonous as, if tasted, to cause the lips to swell so as to prevent the possibility of speaking. The beautiful marsh plant called Calla or Richardia ethio pica, or the White Arum, belongs to this order; as does the fragrant rush, Acorus Calamus. The order TyphaceÆ is included by many botanists in AroideÆ; and indeed, the difference between them consists principally in the Bullrushes having no spathe.

ORDER CCV.—FLUVIALES, OR NAIADES.—THE POND-WEED TRIBE.

Floating plants, of which Aponogeton distachyon is by far the most beautiful. This plant, which is a native of the Cape of Good Hope, has oblong, deeply-ribbed leaves on very long footstalks, and the flowers in two-cleft spikes, with snow-white bracts, which are very ornamental and very fragrant; each flower consists of from six to twelve stamens, and from two to five carpels. The root is tuberous, and eatable when roasted. The Duckweed (Lemna), which is sometimes included in this order, appears to consist entirely of a few leaves floating on the water, each of which sends down a root; and many people believe that it never flowers. If, however, it be watched in the months of June and July, two yellow anthers will be seen peeping out of the side of each leaf; and if the opening be enlarged, the flower will be found to consist of a kind of bag, open on one side, and containing two stamens, with an ovary furnished with a style and simple stigma. The fruit is a one-celled capsule, containing one or more seeds. Some botanists place this plant in a separate order, called PistiaceÆ, from another genus included in it.

ORDER CCVI.—JUNCEÆ.—THE RUSH TRIBE.

The most interesting genus is the Rush (Juncus). These plants, low as they rank in the vegetable world, have a regular perianth of six divisions with six stamens, and a three-celled capsule which opens by three valves. The perianth of the flowers is, however, so small as to be inconspicuous. Most of the species are weeds, which are considered to indicate cold, wet, and poor ground.

ORDER CCVII.—GILLESIEÆ.

A grass-like plant, a native of Chili, with greenish flowers.

ORDER CCVIII.—RESTIACEÆ.—THE PIPEWORT TRIBE.

Rigid, inelegant, and often leafless, plants, with the habit of rushes, natives of New Holland and the Cape of Good Hope.

§ II.—GlumaceÆ.

These plants, instead of having a regular calyx and corolla, have nothing but green and brown scales, which are called glumes, to cover the stamens and pistil. There are only two orders belonging to this division in British fields and gardens.

ORDER CCIX.—CYPERACEÆ.—THE SEDGE TRIBE.

These plants have solid stems, and the leaves not only sheathe the stem, but grow together round it, so as to form a kind of tube. The flowers are arranged in heads, some of which contain only male flowers, each of which consists of a membranous scale and three stamens, and others contain only female flowers. In the genus Carex, the Sedge, these flowers are each enclosed in a kind of bottle formed by two scales growing together, and opening at the top into two parts so as to show three stigmas, which have only a single style. The fruit is a dry, hard, triangular capsule with only one seed. The most remarkable genera are Papyrus, the plant anciently used for paper; Scirpus, the Club-rush, used for making the seats of chairs, mats, &c.; Eriophorum, Cotton-grass; and Cyperus.

ORDER CCX.—GRAMINEÆ.—THE GRASS TRIBE.

This very important order includes not only the common Grasses, but the Bread Corns, or Cereal Grasses—Wheat, Oats, Barley, Rye, and Maize; and the Sugar-cane and Rice. All these plants are botanically allied to the Sedges, but their stems are hollow, except at the joints, where they become solid; and their leaves, though sheathing the stem, do not unite round it. The flowers are produced in spikes, which are what are called spikelets. The glume, or calyx as it was called by LinnÆus, is generally two-valved; and within it are two thinner smaller scales, or paleÆ, which were called the corolla by LinnÆus. Besides these, there are frequently two still smaller scales within the paleÆ. There are generally three or six stamens, the anthers of which are two-celled, and forked at the extremity. There are two styles, either quite distinct, or combined at the base, and the stigmas are feathery. The pericarp is membranaceous, and adheres to the seed, forming a kind of caryopsides. The seeds contain a great deal of albumen, which, when ground into flour, becomes nourishing food. The stems, or culms, are hollow and articulated; the leaves, which are alternate, springing from each joint. The most important genera are Wheat (Tri ticum), Barley (Hordeum), Rye (Secale), Oats (Avena), Maize (Zea), the Sugar-cane (Saccharum), Rice (Oryza), and the Bamboo (Bambusa). Oats are not produced in spikes, but in loose panicles; and the male and female flowers of the Maize or Indian Corn are on different plants.

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