  [1] The term “socialist” is here used in a wide sense to include all varieties, even communistic anarchism. [2] Les Associations Professionelles OuvriÈres, Office du Travail (Paris, 1899), vol. i, p. 7. [3] Annuaire Statistique. [4] Les Associations Professionelles, vol. i, p. 8. [5] H. Lagardelle, L'Évolution des Syndicats Ouvriers en France (Paris, 1901), p. 13. [6] Les Associations Professionelles, vol. i, pp. 11-12. [7] Les Associations Professionelles, vol. i, pp. 13-14. [8] Les Associations Professionelles, vol. i, p. 14. [9] The obligation of the livret was abolished in 1890. G. Weill, Histoire du Movement Social en France (Paris, 1904), p. 332. [10] Les Associations Professionelles, vol. i, pp. 18-19. [11] Ibid., pp. 19-20, and p. 26. [12] M. Du Cellier, Histoire des Classes Laborieuses en France (Paris, 1860), p. 362. [13] Octave Festy, Le Movement Ouvrier au DÉbut de la Monarchie de Juillet, passim. [14] Octave Festy, Le Movement Ouvrier au DÉbut de la Monarchie de France (Paris, 1900), vol. i, pp. 600 et seq. [15] Les Associations Professionelles, vol. i, p. 95. [16] Maxime Leroy, Syndicats et Services Publics (Paris, 1909), p. 12. [17] On the compagnonnage see, J. Connay, Le Compagnonnage, 1909; E. Martin St. Leon, Le Compagnonnage, 1901; Agricol Perdiguier, Le Livre du Compagnonnage, 1841. [18] Les Assoc. Profess., vol. i, p. 193. [19] Ibid., p. 199. [20] Les Associations Professionelles, vol. i. pp. 201-203. [21] Ibid., vol. i, p. 204. [22] Les Associations Professionelles, vol. i, p. 204. [23] Ibid., pp. 205-6. [24] On the history of French socialism: R. T. Ely, French and German Socialism (1878); Th. Kirkup, A History of Socialism (1906); G. Isambert, Les IdÉes Socialistes en France (1905); P. Louis, Histoire du Socialisme FranÇais (1901). [25] Georges Renard, La RÉpublique de 1848. [26] Albert Thomas, Le Second Empire (Paris, 1907). [27] G. Weill, op. cit., pp. 63-65. [28] Commission OuvriÈre de 1867, Recueil des ProcÉs-Verbaux, vol. i, p. 28. [29] Lagardelle, Évolution des Syndicats, pp. 218-9. [30] Commission OuvriÈre de 1867, vol. i, p. 28. [31] P. Hubert-Valleroux, La Co-opÉration (Paris, 1904), pp. 14-17. [32] P. Hubert-Valleroux, op. cit., p. 16. [33] P. J. Proudhon, De la CapacitÉ Politique des Classes OuvriÈres (Paris, 1865), p. 59. [34] A. Thomas, Le Second Empire, p. 332. [35] A. Thomas, op. cit., p. 332. [36] E. E. Fribourg, L'Association Internationale des Travailleurs (Paris, 1871). [37] A. Thomas, op. cit., p. 363. [38] Ibid., p. 358. [39] James Guillaume, L'Internationale, Documents et Souvenirs (Paris, 1905), vol. i, p. 205. [40] A. Thomas, op. cit., p. 352. [41] Barberet was afterwards appointed chief of the Bureau of Trade Unions, which was constituted as part of the Dept. of the Interior. [42] J. Barberet, Monographies Professionelles (Paris, 1886), vol. i, p. 16. [43] Barberet, op. cit., pp. 20-25. [44] Fernand Pelloutier, Histoire des Bourses du Travail (Paris, 1902), p. 35. [45] SÉances du CongrÈs Ouvrier de France, Session de 1876, p. 43. [46] SÉances du CongrÈs Ouvrier, 1876 (Paris, 1877), p. 9. [47] Afterward one of the active members of the Office du Travail. [48] Assoc. Profess., vol. i, p. 243. [49] Terrail-Mermeix, La France Socialiste (Paris, 1886), p. 51. [50] L'ÉgalitÉ, 18 Nov., 1877. [51] Terrail-Mermeix, op. cit., p. 98. [52] Leon Blum, Les CongrÈs Ouvriers et Socialistes FranÇais (Paris, 1901), pp. 33-4. [53] Ibid., p. 36. [54] Leon de Seilhac, Les CongrÈs Ouvriers en France (Paris, 1899), p. 47. [55] Pourquoi Guesde n'est-il pas anarchiste? p. 6. [56] On the anarchist theory, the works of Bakounin, Kropotkin, Reclus and J. Grave should be consulted; on anarchism in France see Dubois, Le PÉril anarchiste; Garin, l'Anarchie; also various periodicals, particularly, Le RÉvolte and Les Temps Nouveaux. [57] John LabusquiÈre, La TroisiÈme RÉpublique (Paris), p. 257. [58] L'ÉgalitÉ, 30 June, 1880. [59] In socialist writings this transition period is always spoken of as the “Dictatorship of the Proletariat.” [60] Jules Guesde, Le Socialisme au jour le jour (Paris, 1899), p. 268. [61] Jules Guesde and Paul Lafargue, Le Programme du Parti Ouvrier, 4th edition (Paris, 1897), p. 32. [62] Le Programme du Parti Ouvrier, p. 52. [63] Le Programme du Parti Ouvrier, p. 30. [64] L. Blum, op. cit., p. 75. [65] On the socialist groups of this period see Leon de Seilhac, Le Monde Socialiste (Paris, 1896). [66] Seilhac, Les CongrÈs Ouvriers, p. 124. [67] Blum, op. cit., p. 93. [68] SÉances du CongrÈs Ouvrier, session de 1886, pp. 18-19. [69] CongrÈs National des Syndicats Ouvriers, Compte Rendu, pp. 344-5. [70] Pelloutier, op. cit., p. 60. [71] Charles Franck, Les Bourses du Travail et la ConfÉdÉration GÉnÉrale du Travail (Paris, 1910), p. 17. [72] G. de Molinari, Les Bourses du Travail (Paris, 1893), p. 257. [73] Molinari, op. cit., p. 280. [74] Pelloutier, op. cit., p. 64. [75] Seilhac, Les CongrÈs Ouvriers, p. 230. [76] B. & S. Webb, History of Trade Unionism, pp. 118-122. [77] Dr. E. Georgi, Theorie und Praxis des Generalstreiks in der modernen Arbeiterbewegung (Jena, 1908). [78] H. Lagardelle, La GrÈve GÉnÉrale et le Socialisme (Paris, 1905), p. 42. [79] L. Blum, op. cit., pp. 129, 137. [80] Le CongrÈs National des Syndicats, Compte Rendu, pp. 45 et seq. [81] To meet this criticism the Allemanists argued that the militant workingmen could have “reserves” accumulated little by little which would allow them to await for some time the results of the general strike. [82] G. Deville, Principes Socialistes (Paris, 1896), pp. 191-201. [83] Seilhac, Les CongrÈs Ouvriers, p. 286. [84] Annuaire Statistique. [85] Seilhac, CongrÈs Ouvriers, p. 231. [86] On the Bourses du Travail see, F. Pelloutier, Histoire des Bourses du Travail, 1902; Ch. Franck, Les Bourses du Travail et la ConfÉdÉration GÉnÉrale du Travail, 1910; P. Delesalle, Les Bourses du Travail et la C. G. T. (Paris, 1910). [87] Pelloutier, op. cit., pp. 87-88. [88] Annuaire Statistique. [89] Pelloutier, op. cit., pp. 121-2. [90] There were 23 in 1907. Franck, op. cit., pp. 127-8. [91] On the life of Pelloutier see Maurice Pelloutier, F. Pelloutier. Sa Vie, son Oeuvre (Paris, 1911). [92] P. Delesalle, Temps Nouveaux, 23 Mars, 1901. [93] Seilhac, CongrÈs Ouvriers, p. 272. [94] The anarchists in France call themselves libertaires. [95] Pelloutier, op. cit., p. 151. [96] F. Pelloutier, op. cit., p. 77. [97] F. Pelloutier, op. cit., p. 154. [98] F. Pelloutier, op. cit., pp. 170-1. [99] F. Pelloutier, op. cit., p. 160. [100] F. Pelloutier, op. cit., p. 163. [101] F. Pelloutier, op. cit., pp. 163-4. [102] Seilhac, CongrÈs Ouvriers, p. 317. [103] The changes in the form of organization which have been made since 1902 are in harmony with the fundamental ideas of the constitution adopted in 1902. [104] XI CongrÈs National Corporatif (Paris, 1900), p. 35. [105] Typographical Union. [106] Seilhac, p. 328. [107] Seilhac, CongrÈs Ouvriers, p. 325; Ch. Franck, op. cit., p. 323. [108] Seilhac, CongrÈs Ouvriers, pp. 331-2. [109] Ch. Franck, op. cit., pp. 226-7. [110] Sabotage means the obstruction in all possible ways of the regular process of production; cf. ch. v. [111] E. Pouget, Le Sabotage (Paris, 1910), pp. 15-16. [112] X CongrÈs National Corporatif (IV de la C. G. T.), Rennes, 1898, p. 77. [113] X CongrÈs National Corporatif (Rennes, 1898), p. 334. [114] Ibid., p. 334. [115] X CongrÈs National Corporatif (Rennes, 1898), p. 302. [116] XI CongrÈs National Corporatif (Paris, 1900), p. 198. [117] Ibid., p. 113. [118] XI CongrÈs National Corporatif (Paris, 1900), p. 110. [119] XI CongrÈs National Corporatif (Paris, 1900), p. 205. [120] The growth of syndicats in France since 1895 is shown in the following table:
[121] XII CongrÈs National Corporatif (Lyons, 1901), p. 170. [122] Ibid., pp. 177-8. [123] Ibid., p. 179. [124] See the “Circulaire” in G. Severac, Guide Pratique des Syndicats Professionnels (Paris, 1908), pp. 125-136. [125] G. Hanoteaux, Modern France (tr. by J. C. Tarver, New York, 1903-09), vol. ii, p. 181. [126] A. Lavy, L'Oeuvre de Millerand (Paris, 1902), p. 2. [127] A. Lavy, op. cit., p. 66. [128] Ibid., p. 79. [129] A. Lavy, op. cit., p. 80. [130] Only the most important measures of M. Millerand are mentioned; they do not by any means exhaust his legislative activities during this period. [131] XII CongrÈs National Corporatif (VI de la C. G. T.), Lyons, 1901, p. 110. [132] Ibid., p. 114. [133] Ibid., p. 210. [134] Ibid., p. 112. [135] Ibid., p. 218. [136] Ibid., p. 110. [137] XI CongrÈs National Corporatif, p. 114. [138] Ibid., p. 119. [139] A. Hamon, Le Socialisme et le CongrÈs de Londres (Paris, 1897), p. 11. [140] L. Blum, CongrÈs Ouvriers et Socialistes, p. 146. [141] Chambre des DeputÉs, DÉbats Parlementaires; July 11, 1895; November 22, 1895. [142] Deville, Principes Socialistes. [143] A. Millerand, Le Socialisme RÉformiste FranÇais (Paris, 1903), pp. 31-32. [144] Le Mouvement Socialiste, Jan., 1899. [145] XII CongrÈs Corporatif (Lyons, 1901), p. 151. [146] CongrÈs GÉnÉral des Organisations Socialistes (Paris, 1899), p. 152. [147] Ibid., p. 155. [148] To understand the change in the attitude of the anarchists towards the syndicats, the disillusioning effect of their terroristic campaign from 1890 to 1894, during which the exploits of Ravachole, Henri, Casiers, and others took place, must also be considered. [149] XI CongrÈs Corporatif, (Lyons, 1901), p. 29. [150] Ibid., p. 14. [151] Ibid., p. 69. [152] An intermediate form of sabotage is that known as sabotage À bouche ouverte (sabotage of the open mouth). It consists in the disclosure of conditions generally withheld from the public, such as conditions in hotel-kitchens and restaurants, methods of weighing and measuring in stores, practices followed by druggists, frauds resorted to by contractors and builders, etc. [153] The fundamental principle of democracy is that all citizens are equal before the law and that there are no classes in the state. [154] G. Sorel, L'Avenir Socialiste des Syndicats (Paris, 1901), p. 3. [155] G. Sorel, RÉflexions sur la Violence (Paris, 1910), p. 249. [156] Ibid., p. 246. [157] G. Sorel, RÉflexions sur la Violence (Paris, 1910), p. 249. [158] G. Sorel, L'Avenir Socialiste des Syndicats, pp. 3-4. [159] Ibid., p. 39. [160] Ibid., p. 4. [161] G. Sorel, RÉflexions sur la Violence, pp. 289-5. [162] Ibid., p. 42. [163] G. Sorel, Preface to Pelloutier's Histoire des Bourses du Travail. [164] G. Sorel, RÉflexions sur la Violence, p. 179. [165] G. Sorel, Illusions du ProgrÈs (Paris, 1911), p. 10. [166] G. Sorel, Illusions du ProgrÈs, p. 59. [167] Ibid., p. 276. [168] G. Sorel, RÉflexions sur la Violence, pp. 256-7. [169] Ibid., p. 150. [170] G. Sorel, RÉflexions sur la Violence, p. 8. [171] Ibid., p. 12. [172] Ibid., p. 13. [173] G. Sorel, L'Avenir Socialiste des Syndicats, p. 54. [174] G. Sorel, RÉflexions sur la Violence, pp. 201-2. [175] H. Lagardelle, Le Socialisme Ouvrier (Paris, 1911). [176] See articles of Lagardelle, G. Weil and Cornelissen in the Archiv fÜr Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, 1907-1910. [177] Le Mouvement Socialiste (May, 1908), p. 390. [178] Le Mouvement Socialiste (March, 1911), pp. 184-5. [179] J. Guillaume, L'Internationale, vols. i-iii; also Report of 7th Congress of “International” in Brussels in 1874. [180] In 1906 the statutes were so modified as to admit no new trade federations. This was a decided step in the direction of the industrial form of organization. [181] At the last congress of the Confederation which was held in Havre in September, 1912, a resolution was passed that the Bourses du Travail in each Department of France should form Departmental Unions (Unions Departmentales), and that on January 1, 1914, these Departmental Unions should take the place of the Bourses du Travail in the organization of the Confederation. The resolution has not yet been fully carried into effect, and the process of reorganization is still going on. When it is completed, the General Confederation of Labor will emerge with a more compact and centralized form of organization embracing Federations of industry, on the one hand, and Departmental Unions, on the other. The single Bourses will not disappear, and their functions will not be curtailed; but they will henceforth form the constituent elements of the more comprehensive Departmental Unions and will have no individual representation in the Confederal Committee. The reorganization was made necessary by the rapid growth of Bourses du Travail, the number of which far outstripped the number of Federations of industry and which thus controlled the policies of the Confederal Committee. The number of the Departmental Unions can not exceed eighty-seven (87), as there are but eighty-seven political subdivisions in France called Departments. [182] E. Pouget, Le ConfÉdÉration GÉnÉrale du Travail (Paris, 1908), p. 16. [183] From Jan. 1, 1914, called the “Section of the Federation of Departmental Unions.” [184] Increased in 1909 to 60 centimes. For further increase see page 195. [185] When the reorganization is completed, this section will consist of one delegate from each Departmental Union, who will form the ComitÉ des Unions Departmentales. See note 181 on page 162. [186] Changed in 1909 to five centimes for each member per year. [187] Executive Committee. [188] Senator Paul Straus in La Grande Revue (Feb., 1914), pp. 320 et seq. [189] Journal des DÉbats (Nov. 6, 1903), p. 865. [190] Journal des Économistes (November, 1903), p. 315. [191] XIV CongrÈs National Corporatif (Bourges, 1904), p. 8. [192] XIV CongrÈs Corporatif (Bourges, 1904), pp. 95-6. [193] Mouvement Socialiste (Nov., 1904), p. 61. [194] A. Keufer, Le Mouvement Socialiste (Nov., 1904), p. 93. [195] XIV CongrÈs Corporatif (Bourges, 1904), pp. 205-6. [196] Ibid., p. 207. [197] Journal des DÉbats (27 April, 1906), p. 769. [198] Statistique des GrÈves, 1893-1908. [199] XV CongrÈs National Corporatif (Amiens, 1906), p. 103. [200] Statistique des GrÈves, 1906, pp. 774 et seq. [201] XV CongrÈs Corporatif (Amiens, 1906), p. 3. [202] XV CongrÈs Corporatif (Amiens, 1906), pp. 135-6. [203] Ibid., p. 134. [204] Ibid., p. 165. [205] XIV CongrÈs Corporatif (Amiens, 1906), pp. 154-157. [206] XV CongrÈs Corporatif (Amiens, 1906), p. 167. [207] XVI CongrÈs National Corporatif, p. 213. [208] M. GuÉrard, once revolutionary, had become moderate. [209] G. Weill, Histoire du Mouvement Social du France, 386. [211] The first two conferences were held at Balberstadt (1900) and at Stuttgart (1902). [212] An account of the Paris conference is given in Mr. Gompers' Labor in Europe and America (New York, 1910). [213] These figures are for 1911. [214] La Vie OuvriÈre, 20 Oct., 1910, p. 483; XVII CongrÈs National Corporatif (Toulouse, 1910), p. 226. [215] L. Jouhaux, Le Terrassier, 20 June, 1911. [216] On the peculiar character of French history see Adams, Growth of the French Nation; Berry, France since Waterloo; Barrett Wendell, France of To-day. [217] Op. cit., pp. 345-6. [218] A. Pawlowski, La ConfÉdÉration GÉnÉrale du Travail (Paris, 1910), p. 51. [219] Mouvement Socialiste, May, 1911. [220] E. Thery, Les ProgrÈs Économiques de la France (Paris, 1909), p. 181. [221] Journal des Économistes, Jan., 1911, p. 133. [222] Statistique des GrÈves, 1909, vi-vii. [223] XIII CongrÈs National Corporatif, 1902, pp. 30-31. [224] X CongrÈs National Corporatif, p. 203; XII CongrÈs National Corporatif, pp. 15, 29, 44. [225] A. Pawlowski, La ConfÉdÉration GÉnÉrale du Travail, p. 130. [226] Ibid., p. 123. [227] This is admitted by both sides. See reports of last Congress held at Toulouse (1910), p. 111. [228] Terrail-Mermeix, La Syndicalisme contre le Socialisme (Paris, 1907), p. 231. [229] It is estimated that France has about 40,000,000,000 francs invested in foreign countries. [230] See Preface to Second Edition. [231] The active population in 1906 was over 20,000,000, out of a total population of over 39,000,000. Journal des Économistes, Jan., 1911. [232] L'HumanitÉ, August 8, 1911. [233] M. Colrat, Vers l'Équilibre social, quoted by Mr. J. L. Puecht, “Le Mouvement des Classes Moyennes,” in La Grande Revue, Dec., 1910. 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