ALUMINUM ORES

Economic Features

Bauxite (hydrated aluminum oxide) is the principal ore of aluminum. Over three-fourths of the world's bauxite production and 65 per cent of the United States production is used for the manufacture of aluminum. On an average six tons of bauxite are required to make one ton of metallic aluminum. Other important uses of bauxite are in the manufacture of artificial abrasives in the electric furnace, and in the preparation of alum, aluminum sulphate, and other chemicals which are used for water-purification, tanning, and dyeing. Relatively small but increasingly important quantities are used in making bauxite brick or high alumina refractories for furnace-linings.

Aluminum is used principally in castings and drawn and pressed ware, for purposes in which lightness, malleability, and unalterability under ordinary chemical reagents are desired. Thus it is used in parts of airplane and automobile engines, in household utensils, and recently in the framework of airplanes. Aluminum wire has been used as a substitute for copper wire as an electrical conductor. Aluminum is used in metallurgy to remove oxygen from iron and steel, and also in the manufacture of alloys. Powdered aluminum is used for the production of high temperatures in the Thermite process, and is a constituent of the explosive, ammonal, and of aluminum paints.

Deposits of bauxite usually contain as impurities silica (in the form of kaolin or hydrous aluminum silicate), iron oxide, and titanium minerals, in varying proportions. Bauxites to be of commercial grade should carry at least 50 per cent alumina, and for the making of aluminum should be low in silica though the content of iron may be fairly high. For aluminum chemicals materials low in iron and titanium are preferred; and for refractories which must withstand high temperatures, low iron content seems to be necessary. The abrasive trade in general uses low-silica high-iron bauxites.

The only large producers of bauxite are the United States and France, which supplied in normal times before the war over 95 per cent of the world's total. Small amounts are produced in Ireland, Italy, India, and British Guiana. During the war a great deal of low-grade bauxite was mined in Austria-Hungary and possibly in Germany; but on account of the large reserves of high-grade material in other parts of the world, it is doubtful whether these deposits will be utilized in the future. Bauxites of good grade have been reported from Africa, Australia, and many localities in India. From geologic considerations it is practically certain that there are very large quantities available for the future in some of these regions.

The international movements and the consumption of bauxite are largely determined by the manufacture of aluminum, and to a lesser extent by the manufacture of abrasives and chemicals. The principal foreign producers of aluminum are France, Switzerland (works partly German-owned), Norway (works controlled by English and French capital), England, Canada, Italy, Germany, and Austria. French bauxite has normally supplied the entire European demands,—with the exceptions that Italy procures part of her requirements at home, and that the Irish deposits furnish a small fraction of the English demand.

The deposits of southern France, controlled largely by French but in part by British capital, have large reserves and will probably continue to meet the bulk of European requirements. France also has important reserves of bauxite in French Guiana.

The United States produces about half of the aluminum of the world, and is the largest manufacturer of artificial abrasives and probably of aluminum chemicals. Most of these are made from domestic bauxite. Prior to the war, the United States imported about 10 per cent of the bauxite consumed, but these imports were mainly high-grade French bauxite which certain makers of chemicals preferred to the domestic material. The small production of Guiana is also imported into the United States. Bauxite is exported to Canadian makers of aluminum and abrasives. During the war period domestic deposits were entirely capable of supplying all the domestic as well as Canadian demands for bauxite, although these demands increased to two and one-half times their previous figure. At the same time considerable amounts of manufactured aluminum products were exported to Europe, whereas aluminum had previously been imported from several European countries.

The United States production of bauxite comes mainly from Arkansas, with smaller amounts from Tennessee, Alabama, and Georgia. The reserves are large but are not inexhaustible. Most of the important deposits are controlled by the large consumers of bauxite, principally the Aluminum Company of America and its subsidiaries, though certain chemical and abrasive companies own some deposits. The Aluminum Company of America also controls immense deposits of high-grade bauxite in Dutch and British Guiana, and further exploration by American interests is under way.

With the return to normal conditions since the war, some of the domestic bauxite deposits probably can not be worked at a profit, a situation which is likely to require the development of the tropical American deposits.

Geologic Features

Aluminum is the third most abundant element in the common rocks and is an important constituent of most rock minerals; but in its usual occurrence it is so closely locked up in chemical combinations that the metal cannot be extracted on a commercial scale. In the crystalline form aluminum oxide constitutes some of the most valuable gem stones. Many ordinary clays and shales contain 25 to 35 per cent alumina (Al₂O₃), and the perfection of a process for their utilization would make available almost unlimited aluminum supplies. The principal minerals from which aluminum is recovered today are hydrous aluminum oxides, the most prominent of which are bauxite, gibbsite, and diaspore—the aggregate of all these minerals going commercially under the name of bauxite.

Prior to the discovery of bauxite ores, cryolite, a sodium-aluminum fluoride obtained from pegmatites in Greenland, was the chief source of aluminum. It is only within about the last thirty-five years that bauxite has been used and that aluminum has become an important material of modern industry. Cryolite is used today to form a molten bath in which the bauxite is electrolytically reduced to aluminum.

Bauxite deposits in general are formed by the ordinary katamorphic processes of surface weathering, when acting on the right kind of rocks and carried to an extreme. In the weathering of ordinary rocks the bases are leached out and carried away, leaving a porous mass of clay (hydrous aluminum silicates), quartz, and iron oxide. In the weathering of rocks high in alumina, and low in iron minerals and quartz, deposits of residual clay or kaolin nearly free from iron oxide and quartz are formed. Under ordinary weathering conditions the kaolin is stable; but under favorable conditions, such as obtain in the weathered zones of tropical climates, it is broken up, the silica is taken into solution and carried away, and hydrous aluminum oxides remain as bauxite ores. This extreme type of weathering is sometimes called lateritic alteration (see pp. 172-173). Impurities of the bauxite ores are the small quantities of iron and titanium present in the original rocks, together with the kaolin which has not been broken up. The deposits usually form shallow blankets over considerable areas, with irregular lower surfaces determined by the action of surface waters—which work most effectively where joints or other conditions favor the maximum circulation and alteration. A certain degree of porosity in the original rock is also known to favor the alteration. A complete gradation from the unaltered rock through clay to the high-grade bauxite, with progressive decrease in bases and silica, concentration of alumina and iron oxide, and increase of moisture and pore space, is frequently evident (see Fig. 13). The bauxite is earthy, and usually shows a concretionary or pisolitic structure similar to that observed in residual iron ores (p. 172). Near the surface there may be an increase in silica,—probably due to a reversal of the usual conditions by a slight leaching of alumina, thus concentrating the denser masses of kaolin which have not been decomposed.

The Arkansas bauxite deposits, the most important in the United States, are surface deposits overlying nepheline-syenite, an igneous rock with a high ratio of alumina to iron content. The most valuable deposits are residual, and some parts have preserved the texture of the original rock, though with great increase in pore space; most of the ore, however, has the typical pisolitic structure. Near the surface the pisolites are sometimes loosened by weathering, yielding a gravel ore, and some of the material has been transported a short distance to form detrital ores interstratified with sands and gravels. The complete gradation from syenite to bauxite has been shown.

In the Appalachian region of Tennessee, Alabama, and Georgia, bauxite occurs as pockets in residual clays above sedimentary rocks, chiefly above shales and dolomites. Its origin has probably been similar to that described.

The bauxite deposits of southern France occur in folded limestones, and have been ascribed by French writers to the work of ascending hot waters carrying aluminum sulphate. They present some unusual features, and evidence as to their origin is not conclusive.At the present time bauxite is doubtless forming in tropical climates, where conditions are favorable for deep and extreme weathering of the lateritic type. The breaking up of kaolin accompanied by the removal of silica is not characteristic of temperate climates, though many clays in these climates show some bauxite. It is possible that, at the time when the bauxite deposits of Arkansas and other temperate regions were formed, the climate of these places was warmer than it is today.

In studying the origin of bauxites, it should not be overlooked that they have much in common with clays, certain iron ores, and many other deposits formed by weathering.

ANTIMONY ORES

Economic Features

Antimony is used mainly for alloying with other metals. Over one-third of the antimony consumed in the United States is alloyed with tin and copper in the manufacture of babbitt or bearing-metal. Other important alloys include type-metal (lead, antimony, and tin), which has the property of expanding on solidification; "hard lead," a lead-antimony alloy used in making acid-resisting valves; Britannia or white metal (antimony, tin, copper, zinc), utilized for cheap domestic tableware; and some brasses and bronzes, solders, aluminum alloys, pattern metals, and materials for battery plates and cable coverings. Antimony finds a very large use in war times in the making of shrapnel bullets from antimonial lead. Antimony oxides are used in white enameling of metal surfaces, as coloring agents in the manufacture of glass, and as paint pigments; the red sulphides are used in vulcanizing and coloring rubber, as paint pigments, in percussion caps, and in safety matches; and other salts find a wide variety of minor uses in chemical industries and in medicine.

Antimony ores vary greatly in grade, the Chinese ores carrying from 20 to 64 per cent of the metal. The presence of arsenic and copper in the ores is undesirable. Several of the more important antimony districts owe their economical production of that metal to the presence of recoverable values in gold. Some lead-silver ores contain small quantities of antimony, and "antimonial lead," containing 12 to 18 per cent antimony, is recovered in their smelting.China is by far the most important antimony-producing country in the world, and normally supplies over half the world's total. Chinese antimony is exported in part as antimony crude (lumps of needle-like antimony sulphide), and in part as antimony regulus, which is about 99 per cent pure metal. France was the only other important source of antimony before the war (25 to 30 per cent of the world production), and Mexico and Hungary produced small amounts. The large demand for antimony occasioned by the war, besides stimulating production in these countries, brought forth important amounts of antimony ore from Algeria (French control) and from Bolivia and Australia (British control), as well as smaller quantities from several other countries. Of the war-developed sources, only Algeria and perhaps Australia are expected to continue production under normal conditions.

Before the war, antimony was smelted chiefly in China, England, and France, and to a lesser extent in Germany. British and French commercial and smelting interests dominated to a considerable extent the world situation, and London was the principal antimony market of the world.

During the war Chinese antimony interests were greatly strengthened, and facilities for treating the ore in that country were increased. Japan also became important as a smelter and marketer of Chinese ore, and increasing quantities of antimony were exported from China and Japan directly to the United States. English exports ceased entirely and were replaced in this country by Chinese and Japanese brands.

The United States normally consumes about one-third of the world's antimony. Before the war the entire amount was secured by importation, two-thirds from Great Britain and the rest from the Orient, France, and other European countries. Domestic production of ore and smelting of foreign ores were negligible. (These statements refer only to the purer forms of antimony; the United States normally produces considerable amounts of antimonial lead, equivalent to somewhat less than 5 per cent of the country's total lead production, but this material cannot be substituted for antimony regulus in most of its uses.)

During the war, under the stimulus of rising prices, mining of antimony was undertaken in the United States and several thousand tons of metal were produced—principally from Nevada, with smaller amounts from Alaska, California, and other western states. The great demands for antimony, however, were met chiefly by increased importation. Imports were mainly of regulus from Chinese and Japanese smelters of Chinese antimony; but about a third was contained in ores, including most of the production of Mexico which had formerly gone to England, and about 15 per cent of the Bolivian output. Antimony smelters were developed in the United States to handle these ores.

At the close of hostilities there had accumulated in the United States large surplus stocks of antimony and antimonial materials. With a very dull market and low prices, domestic mines and smelters were obliged to close down. The dependence of the United States on foreign sources of antimony and the importance of the metal for war purposes led to some agitation for a protective tariff—in addition to the present import duty of 10 per cent on antimony metal—in order to encourage home production (see pp. 365-366, 393-394).

In summary, the United States is almost entirely dependent upon outside sources for its antimony, although there are inadequately known reserves in this country which might be exploited if prices were maintained at a high level. The future of United States smelters is problematical. China, the world's chief source of antimony, at present dominates the market in this country, largely due to the low cost of production and favorable Japanese freight rates.

Geologic Features

The antimony sulphide, stibnite, is the source of most of the world's production of this metal. Antimony oxides, including senarmontite, cervantite, and others, are formed near the surface, and in some of the deposits of Mexico and Algeria they supply a large part of the values recovered. Jamesonite, bournonite, and tetrahedrite (sulphantimonides of lead and copper), when found in lead-silver deposits, are to some extent a source of antimony in the form of antimonial lead.

Stibnite is found in a variety of associations and is present in small quantities in many types of deposits. In the commercial antimony deposits, it is in most cases accompanied by minor quantities of other metallic sulphides—pyrite, cinnabar, sphalerite, galena, arsenopyrite, etc.—in a gangue of quartz and sometimes calcite. Many of the deposits contain recoverable amounts of gold and silver.

The deposits of the Hunan Province of southern China occur as seams, pockets, and bunches of stibnite ore in gently undulating beds of faulted and fissured dolomitic limestone. In the vicinity of the most important mines no igneous rocks have been observed, and the origin of the ores has not been worked out.

In the Central Plateau of France the numerous antimony deposits are stibnite veins cutting granites and the surrounding schists and sediments. An origin related in some way to hot ascending solutions seems probable.

The deposits of the National district of western Nevada, the most important war-developed antimony deposits of the United States, consist of stibnite veins with a gangue of fine-grained drusy quartz, cutting through flows of rhyolite and basalt. They are intimately related to certain gold- and silver-bearing veins, and all are closely associated with dikes of rhyolite, which were the feeders to the latest extrusion in the district. The wall rocks have undergone alteration of the propylitic type. These relations, and the presence of the mercury sulphide, cinnabar, in some of the ores (see pp. 258-259), suggest an origin through the work of ascending hot waters or hot springs. These waters probably derived their dissolved matter from a magmatic source, and worked up along vents near the rhyolite dikes soon after the eruption of this rock.

In the weathering of antimony deposits, the stibnite usually alters to form insoluble white or yellowish oxides, which are sometimes called "antimony ocher." These tend to accumulate in the oxide zone through the removal of the more soluble accompanying minerals. Secondary sulphide enrichment of antimony deposits, if it occurs at all, is negligible.

ARSENIC ORES

Economic Features

About two-thirds of the arsenic consumed in recent years has been used in agriculture, where various arsenic compounds—arsenic trioxide or "white arsenic," Paris green, lead arsenate, etc.—are used as insecticides and weed killers. Arsenic compounds are also used in "cattle-dips" for killing vermin. The only other large use of arsenic is in the glass industry, arsenic trioxide being added to the molten glass to purify and decolorize the product. Small quantities of arsenic compounds are used in the preparation of drugs and dyeing materials, and metallic arsenic is used for hardening lead in shot-making.

The principal arsenic-producing countries are the United States, Germany, France, Great Britain, Canada, and Mexico. Spain, Portugal, Japan, and China are also producers, and recent trouble with the "prickly-pear" pest in Queensland, Australia, has led to local development of arsenic mining in that country. For the most part, European production has been used in Europe and American production in the United States.

Arsenic is recovered almost wholly as a by-product of smelting ores for the metals. The potential supply is ample in most countries where smelting is conducted, but owing to the elaborate plant required to recover the arsenic, apparatus is not usually installed much in advance of the demand for production. Rapid expansion is not possible.

Before the war the arsenic needs of the United States (chiefly agricultural) were supplied by a few recovery plants in the United States, Mexico, and Canada. Several large smelters had not found it profitable to install recovery plants, as the market might have been oversupplied and prices were low. During the war, with the extensive demand for insecticides for gardening, there was a considerable deficiency of arsenic supplies. With rising prices production was stimulated, but was still unable to meet the increased demand. This situation resulted in regulation of the prices of white arsenic by the Food Administration.

Production of arsenic in the United States comes chiefly from smelters in Colorado, Washington, Utah, Montana, and New Jersey. Small amounts are produced by arsenic mines in Virginia and New York. A Mexican plant at Mapimi has been shipping important quantities to the United States. The plant at Anaconda, Montana, is expected to produce an ample supply in the future.

The United States is entirely independent in arsenic supplies and will probably soon have an exportable surplus. Export trade, after the reconstruction period, will probably meet competition from France and Germany where production was formerly large.

Geologic Features

Arsenic-bearing minerals are numerous and rather widely distributed, but only a few of them are mined primarily for their content of arsenic. Arsenopyrite or "mispickle" (iron-arsenic sulphide) has been used intermittently as a source of white arsenic in various places,—notably at Brinton, Virginia, and near Carmel, New York. The former deposits contain arsenopyrite and copper-bearing pyrite impregnating a mica-quartz-schist, adjacent to and in apparent genetic relation with aplite or pegmatite intrusives. In the latter locality arsenopyrite is found associated with pyrite in a gangue of quartz, forming a series of parallel stringers in gneiss close to a basic dike.

The orange-red sulphides of arsenic, orpiment and realgar, are formed both as primary minerals of igneous source and as secondary products of weathering. They are rather characteristic of the oxide zones of certain arsenical metallic ores, and are believed in many cases to have formed from arsenopyrite. They are mined on a commercial scale in China.

The great bulk of the world's arsenic, as previously stated, is obtained as a by-product of smelting operations. The enargite of the Butte copper ores (pp. 201-203) contains a considerable amount of arsenic, a large part of which will be recovered from the smelter fumes by new processes which are being installed. The gold-silver ores of the Tintic district (pp. 235) also yield important amounts, the arsenic-bearing minerals being enargite and tennantite (copper-arsenic sulphides) and others. The silver ores of the Cobalt district of Ontario (pp. 234-235), containing nickel and cobalt arsenides, produce considerable arsenic. Many other metallic ores contain notable amounts of arsenic, which are at present allowed to escape through smelter flues, but which could be recovered under market conditions which would repay the cost of installing the necessary apparatus.

BISMUTH ORES

Economic Features

Bismuth metal is used in alloys, to which it gives low fusibility combined with hardness and sharp definition. Bismuth alloys are employed in automatic fire sprinklers, in safety plugs for boilers, in electric fuses, in solders and dental amalgams, and in some type and bearing metals. Bismuth salts find a considerable application for pharmaceutical purposes, especially in connection with intestinal disorders, and the best grades of bismuth materials are used for this purpose. The salts are also used in porcelain painting and enameling and in staining glass.

Bolivia is the most important producer of bismuth ore. The output is controlled entirely by British smelting interests. An important deposit exists in Peru, the output of which is limited by the same British syndicate. Considerable bismuth is produced in Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand, all of which likewise goes to England. Germany before the war had three smelters which produced bismuth from native ores in Saxony; bismuth was one of the few metals of which Germany had an adequate domestic supply. Recently southern China is reported to be mining increasing amounts of bismuth.

The United States produces the larger part of its bismuth requirements, chiefly from plants installed at two lead refineries. A further installation would make this country entirely independent of foreign supplies if occasion required. Imports, from England and South America, have been steadily declining, but during the war were somewhat increased. The United States does not export bismuth so far as known.

Geologic Features

The principal minerals of bismuth are bismuthinite (bismuth sulphide), bismutite (hydrated carbonate), bismite or bismuth ocher (hydrated oxide), and native bismuth.

The native metal and the sulphide are believed to be formed mainly as primary minerals of igneous origin. In the deposits of New South Wales they are found associated with molybdenite in quartz gangue, in pipe-like deposits in granite. The oxide and the carbonate are probably products of surface weathering. The Bolivian deposits contain the native metal, the oxide, and the carbonate, associated with gold, silver, and tin minerals, in one locality in slates and in another locality in porphyry. The origin is not well known.

In the United States, the sulphide, bismuthinite, is found in the siliceous ores of Goldfield, Nevada (p. 230), and in minor amounts in a great number of the sulphide ores of the Cordilleran region. The ores of the Leadville and Tintic districts (pp. 219 and 235) yield the larger part of the United States production, the bismuth being recovered as by-product from the electrolytic refining of the lead bullion. Large amounts of bismuth pass out of the stacks of smelters treating other western ores, and while it would not be cheap nor easy to save the bismuth thus lost, it could probably be done in case of necessity.

CADMIUM ORES

Economic Features

Cadmium is used in low melting-point alloys—as, for example, those employed in automatic fire-extinguishers and electric fuses,—in the manufacture of silverware, and in dental amalgams. During the war the critical scarcity of tin led to experiments in the substitution of cadmium for tin in solders and anti-friction metals. Results of some of these experiments were promising, but the war ceased and demands for tin decreased before the cadmium materials became widely used. Future developments in this direction seem not unlikely. Cadmium compounds are used as pigments, particularly as the sulphide "cadmium yellow," and to give color and luster to glass and porcelain. Cadmium salts are also variously used in the arts, in medicine, and in electroplating.

Practically the entire cadmium output of the world comes from Germany and the United States. In addition, England produces a very small quantity. Before the war Germany produced about two-thirds of the world's total, and supplied the European as well as a considerable part of the United States consumption. During the war the United States production increased three to four fold, imports ceased, and considerable quantities were exported to the allied nations in Europe and to Japan. At present the United States is entirely independent as regards cadmium supplies. Production is sufficient to supply all the home demand and to permit exports of one-third of the total output. A considerable number of possible cadmium sources are not being used, and the production is capable of extension should the need arise.

Geologic Features

Nearly the only cadmium mineral known is the sulphide, greenockite, but no deposits of this mineral have been found of sufficient volume to be called cadmium ores. Sphalerite almost always contains a little cadmium, probably as the sulphide; and in zinc deposits crystals of sphalerite in cavities are frequently covered with a greenish-yellow film or coating of greenockite. These coatings have probably been formed by the decomposition of cadmium-bearing zinc sulphide in the oxide zone, the carrying down of the cadmium in solution, and its precipitation as secondary cadmium sulphide. The zinc oxide minerals in the surficial zone also are sometimes colored yellow by small amounts of greenockite. In the zinc ores of the Joplin district of Missouri, cadmium is present in amounts ranging from a trace to 1 per cent and averaging 0.3 per cent.

Germany's cadmium is produced by fractional distillation of the Silesian zinc ores, which contain at most 0.3 per cent cadmium. In the United States there are large potential sources in the zinc ores of the Mississippi valley, and considerable cadmium is recovered in roasting them. Much of the American cadmium is also obtained from bag-house dusts at lead smelters.

The general geologic conditions of the cadmium-bearing ores are indicated in the discussion of lead and zinc deposits in an earlier chapter.

COBALT ORES

Economic Features

Cobalt finds its largest use in the form of cobalt salts, employed in coloring pottery and glass and in insect poisons. Cobalt is also used in some of the best high-speed tool steels. "Stellite," which is used to a limited extent in non-rusting tools of various sorts, and in considerable quantity to replace high-speed tool steels, is an alloy of cobalt, chromium, and small quantities of other metals. Considerable experimental work has been done on the properties and uses of cobalt alloys, and their consumption is rapidly on the increase.

Cobalt is an item of commerce of insignificant tonnage. There are only two countries, Canada (Ontario) and the Belgian Congo, which produce noteworthy amounts. The Katanga district in the Congo produces blister copper that contains as much as 4 per cent of cobalt, though usually less than 2 per cent. This product formerly went to Germany, and now goes entirely to Great Britain. Just how much cobalt is saved is unknown, but probably several hundred tons annually. It is probable that most of the cobalt in these ores will be lost on the installation of a leaching process for recovery of the copper. Canada exports most of its product to the United States, though the amount is small. Domestic production in this country has been too small to record. The United States has been dependent on imports from Canada.

Geologic Features

The principal cobalt minerals are smaltite (cobalt arsenide), cobaltite (cobalt-arsenic sulphide), and linnÆite (cobalt-nickel sulphide). Under weathering conditions these minerals oxidize readily to form asbolite, a mixture of cobalt and manganese oxides, and the pink arsenate, erythrite or "cobalt bloom."

Cobalt minerals are found principally in small quantities disseminated through ores of silver, nickel, and copper. The production of Canada is obtained mainly as a by-product of the silver ores of the Cobalt district (described on pp. 234-235), and smaller amounts are recovered from the Sudbury nickel ores (pp. 180-182). The cobalt of Belgian Congo is obtained from rich oxidized copper ores which impregnate folded sediments (p. 205).

MERCURY (QUICKSILVER) ORES

Economic Features

Uses of mercury are characterized by their wide variety and their application to very many different phases of modern industry; they will be named here in general order of decreasing importance. About one-third of the mercury consumed in this country goes into the manufacture of drugs and chemicals, such as corrosive sublimate, calomel, and glacial acetic acid. Mercury fulminate is used as a detonator for high explosives and to some extent for small-arms ammunition—a use which was exceedingly important during the war, but is probably of minor consequence in normal times. Mercuric sulphide forms the brilliant red pigment, vermilion, and mercuric oxide is becoming increasingly important in anti-fouling marine paint for ship-bottoms. Either as the metal or the oxide, mercury is employed in the manufacture of electrical apparatus (batteries, electrolyzers, rectifiers, etc.), and in the making of thermostats, gas governors, automatic sprinklers, and other mechanical appliances. Mercuric nitrate is used in the fabrication of felt hats from rabbits' fur. In the extraction of gold and silver from their ores by amalgamation, large amounts of metallic mercury have been utilized, but of late years the wide application of the cyanide process has decreased this use. Minor uses include the making of certain compounds for preventing boiler-scale, of cosmetics, and of dental amalgam.

The ores of mercury vary greatly in grade. Spanish ores yield an average in the neighborhood of 7 per cent, Italian ores 0.9 per cent, and Austrian ores 0.65 per cent of metallic mercury. In the United States the ores of California yield about 0.4 per cent and those of Texas range from about 0.5 to 4 per cent. In almost all cases the ores are treated in the immediate vicinity of the mines, and fairly pure metal is obtained by a process of sublimation and condensation. This is usually marketed in iron bottles or flasks containing 75 pounds each.

The large producers of mercury are, in order of normal importance, Spain, Italy, Austria, and United States. Mexico, Russia, and all other countries produce somewhat less than 5 per cent of the world's total.

The largest quicksilver mines of the world are those of Almaden in central Spain, which are owned and operated by the Spanish government. This government, after reserving a small amount for domestic use, sells all the balance of the production through the Rothschilds of London. In addition British capital controls some smaller mines in northern Spain. England thus largely controls the European commercial situation in this commodity, and London is the world's great quicksilver market, where prices are fixed and whence supplies go to all corners of the globe. Reserves of the Almaden ore bodies are very large. Sufficient ore is reported to have been developed to insure a future production of at least 40,000 metric tons—an amount equivalent to the entire world requirements at pre-war rates of consumption for 100 years.

The mercury deposits of the Monte Amiata district of central Italy were in large part dominated by German capital, but during the war were seized by the Italian government. The mines of Idria, Austria-Hungary, were owned by the Austrian government and their ultimate control is at present uncertain. Reserves are very large, being estimated at about one-half those of Almaden. Although England has had a considerable control over the prices and the market for mercury, the Italian and Austrian deposits have provided a sufficient amount to prevent any absolute monopoly. English interests have now secured control of the Italian production, and it is expected that they will also control the Austrian production—thus giving England control of something over three-fourths of the world's mercury.

In the United States about two-thirds of the mercury is produced in the Coast Range district of California, and most of the remainder in the Terlingua district of Texas. Smaller quantities come from Nevada, Oregon, and a few other states. The output before the war was normally slightly in excess of domestic demand and some mercury was exported to various countries. Due to the exhaustion of the richer and more easily worked deposits, however, production was declining. During the war, with increased demands and higher prices, production was stimulated, the United States became the largest mercury-producing country in the world, and large quantities were exported to help meet the military needs of England and France.

With the end of war prices and with high costs of labor and supplies, production in the United States has again declined. Many of the mines have passed their greatest yield, and though discovery of new ore bodies might revive the industry, production is probably on the down grade. Future needs of this country will probably in some part be met by imports from Spain, Italy, and Austria, where the deposits are richer and labor is cheaper. This situation has caused much agitation for a tariff on imports. The present tariff of 10 per cent is not sufficient to keep out foreign mercury.

Outside of the United States large changes in distribution of production of quicksilver are not expected for some time. The reserves of the European producers are all large and are ample to sustain present output for a considerable number of years. It is reported that there will be a resumption of mining in the once very productive Huancavelica District of Peru and in Asia Minor, and with restoration of political order there may be an increase in output from Mexico and Russia,—but these districts will be subordinate factors in the world situation. On geologic grounds, new areas of mercury ores may be looked for in regions of recent volcanic activity, such as the east coast of Asia, some islands of Oceania, the shores of the Mediterranean, and the Cordilleras of North and South America,—but no such areas which are likely to be producers on a large scale are now known.

Geologic Features

The chief mineral of mercury, from which probably over 95 per cent of the world's mercury comes, is the brilliant red sulphide, cinnabar. Minor sources include the black or gray sulphide, metacinnabar, the native metal, and the white mercurous chloride, calomel. The ores are commonly associated with more or less iron sulphide, and frequently with the sulphides of antimony and arsenic, in a gangue consisting largely of quartz and carbonates (of calcium, magnesium, and iron). The precious metals and the sulphides of the base metals are rare.

Mercury deposits are in general related to igneous rocks, and have associations which indicate a particular type of igneous activity. They are not found in magmatic segregations, in pegmatites, nor in veins which have been formed at great depths and under very high temperatures. On the contrary, the occurrence of many deposits in recent flows which have not been eroded, their general shallow depth (large numbers extending down only a few hundred feet), and the association of some deposits with active hot springs now carrying mercury in solution, suggest an origin through the work of ascending hot waters near the surface. The mercury minerals are believed to have been carried in alkaline sulphide solutions. Precipitation from such solutions may be effected by oxidation, by dilution, by cooling, or by the presence of organic matter. Being near the surface, it is a natural assumption that the waters doing the work were not intensely hot. At Sulphur Bank Springs, in the California quicksilver belt, deposition of cinnabar by moderately hot waters is actually taking place at present; also these waters are bleaching the rock in a manner often observed about mercury deposits.

The Coast Ranges of California contain a great number of mercury deposits extending over a belt about 400 miles long. The ore bodies are in fissured zones in serpentine and Jurassic sediments, and are related in general to recent volcanic flows. A considerable amount of bituminous matter is found in the ores, and is believed to have been an agent in their precipitation.

The Terlingua ores of Texas are found in similar fractured zones in Cretaceous shales and limestones associated with surface igneous flows. The occurrence of a few ore bodies in vertical shoots in limestone, apparently terminating upward at the base of an impervious shale, furnishes an additional argument for their formation by ascending waters.

In the few deposits (e. g., those of Almaden, Spain, and of the deep mines of New Almaden and New Idria, California,) where there is no such clear relation to volcanic rocks as generally observed, but where the ores contain the same characteristic set of minerals, it is concluded that practically the same processes outlined above have been active in their formation; and that the volcanic source of the hot solutions either failed to reach the surface or has been removed by erosion. The same line of reasoning is carried a step further, and in many gold-quartz veins in volcanic rocks, where cinnabar and its associated minerals are present, it is believed that waters of a hot-spring nature have again been effective. Thus cinnabar, when taken with its customary associations, is regarded as a sort of geologic thermometer.

In the weathering of mercury deposits, cinnabar behaves somewhat like the corresponding silver sulphide, argentite. In the oxide zone, native mercury and the chloride, calomel, are formed. In the Texas deposits a red oxide and a number of oxychlorides are also present. The carrying down of the mercury and its precipitation as secondary sulphide may have taken place in some deposits, but this process is unimportant in forming values.

TIN ORES

Economic Features

The largest use of tin is in the manufacture of tin-plate, which is employed in containers for food, oil, and other materials. Next in importance is its use in the making of solder and of babbitt or bearing metal. Tin is also a constituent of certain kinds of brass, bronze, and other alloys, such as white metal and type metal. Minor uses include the making of tinfoil, collapsible tubes, wire, rubber, and various chemicals. Tin oxide is used to some extent in white enameling of metal surfaces. Roughly a third of the tin consumed within the United States goes into tin-plate, a third into solder and babbitt metal, and a third into miscellaneous uses.

The ores of tin in general contain only small quantities of the metal. Tin has sufficient value to warrant the working of certain placers containing only a half-pound to the cubic yard, although the usual run is somewhat higher. The tin content of the vein deposits ranges from about 1 per cent to 40 per cent, and the average grade is much closer to the lower figure.

Great Britain has long controlled the world's tin ores, producing about half of the total and controlling additional supplies in other countries. The production is in small part in Cornwall, but largely in several British colonies—the Malay States, central and south Africa, Australia, and others. The Malay States furnish about a third of the world's total. Another third is produced in immediately adjacent districts of the Dutch East Indies, Siam (British control), and China, and some of the concentrates of these countries are handled by British smelters, especially at Singapore.

Tin is easily reduced from its ores and most of the tin is smelted close to the sources of production. Considerable quantities, however, have gone to England for treatment. London has been the chief tin market of the world, and before the war the larger portion of the tin entering international trade went through this port. During the war a good deal of the export tin from Straits Settlements was shipped direct to consumers rather than via London, but it is not certain how future shipments may be made.Significant features of the tin situation in recent years have been a decline of production in the Malay States, and a large and growing production in Bolivia. Malayan output has decreased because of the exhaustion of some of the richer and more accessible deposits; certain governmental measures have also had a restrictive effect. Bolivian production now amounts to over a fifth of the world's total and bids fair to increase. About half the output is controlled by Chilean, and small amounts by American, French, and German interests. A large portion of the Bolivian concentrates formerly went to Germany for smelting, but during the war American smelters were developed to handle part of this material; large quantities are also smelted in England.

The United States produces a small fraction of 1 per cent of the world's tin, and consumes a third to a half of the total. The production is mainly from the Seward Peninsula of northwestern Alaska. For American tin smelters, Bolivia is about the only available source of supplies; metallic tin can be obtained from British possessions, but no ore, except by paying a 33-? per cent export tax. The United States exports tin-plate in large amounts, and in this trade has met strong competition from English and German tin-plate makers.

A world shortage of tin during the war required a division of available supplies through a central international committee. Somewhat later, with the removal of certain restrictions on the distribution of tin, considerable quantities which had accumulated in the Orient found their way into Europe and precipitated a sensational slump in the tin market.

Geologic Features

The principal mineral of tin is cassiterite (tin oxide). Stannite, a sulphide of copper, iron, and tin, is found in some of the Bolivian deposits but is rare elsewhere.

About two-thirds of the world's tin is obtained from placers and one-third from vein or "lode" deposits. Over 90 per cent of the tin of southeastern Asia and Oceania is obtained from placers. Tin placers, like placers of gold, platinum, and tungsten, represent concentrations in stream beds and ocean beaches of heavy, insoluble minerals—in this case chiefly cassiterite—which were present in the parent rocks in much smaller quantities, but which have been sorted out by the classifying action of running water.

The original home of cassiterite is in veins closely related to granitic rocks. It is occasionally found in pegmatites, as in certain small deposits of the Southern Appalachians and the Black Hills of South Dakota, or is present in a typical contact-metamorphic silicated zone in limestone, as in some of the deposits of the Seward Peninsula of Alaska. In general, however, it is found in well-defined fissure veins in the outer parts of granitic intrusions and extending out into the surrounding rocks. With the cassiterite are often found minerals of tungsten, molybdenum, and bismuth, as well as sulphides of iron, copper, lead, and zinc, and in some cases there is evidence of a rough zonal arrangement. The deposits of Cornwall and of Saxony show transitions from cassiterite veins close to the intrusions into lead-silver veins at a greater distance. The gangue is usually quartz, containing smaller amounts of a number of less common minerals—including lithium mica, fluorite, topaz, tourmaline, and apatite. The wall rocks are usually strongly altered and in part are replaced by some of the above minerals, forming coarse-grained rocks which are called "greisen."

The origin of cassiterite veins, in view of their universal association with granitic rocks, is evidently related to igneous intrusions. The occurrence of the veins in distinct fissures in the granite and in the surrounding contact-metamorphic zone indicates that the granite had consolidated before their formation, and that they represent a late stage in the cooling. The association with minerals containing fluorine and boron, and the intense alteration of the wall rocks, indicate that the temperature must have been very high. It is probable that the temperature was so high as to cause the solutions to be gaseous rather than liquid, and that what have been called "pneumatolytic" conditions prevailed; but evidence to decide this question is not at present available.

The most important deposits of tin in veins are those of Bolivia, some of which are exceptionally rich. These are found in granitic rocks forming the core of the high Cordillera Real and in the adjacent intruded sediments, in narrow fissure veins and broader brecciated zones containing the typical ore and gangue minerals described above, and also, in many cases, silver-bearing sulphides (chiefly tetrahedrite). There appear to be all gradations in type from silver-free tin ores to tin-free silver ores, although the extremes are now believed to be rare. In the main the tin ores, with abundant tourmaline, appear to be more closely related to the coarse-grained granites, and to indicate intense conditions of heat and pressure, while the more argentiferous ores, with very little or no tourmaline, are found in relation to finer-grained quartz porphyries and even rhyolites, and seem to indicate less intense conditions at the time of deposition. The ores of the whole area, which is a few hundred miles long, have been supposed to represent a single genetic unit, and the sundry variations are believed to be local facies of a general mineralization. Processes of secondary enrichment have in places yielded large quantities of oxidized silver minerals and wood tin near the surface, with accumulations of ruby silver ores at greater depths.

The only other vein deposits which are at present of consequence are those of Cornwall. Here batholiths of granite have been intruded into Paleozoic slates and sandstones, and tin ores occur in fissures and stockworks in the marginal zones. With the exhaustion of the more easily mined placers, the lode deposits will doubtless be of increasing importance.

Cassiterite is practically insoluble and is very resistant to decomposition by weathering. Oxide zones of tin deposits are therefore enriched by removal of the more soluble minerals. Stannite probably alters to "wood tin," a fibrous variety of cassiterite. Secondary enrichment of tin deposits by redeposition of tin minerals is negligible.

URANIUM AND RADIUM ORES

Economic Features

Radium salts are used in various medical treatments—especially for cancer, internal tumors, lupus, and birth marks—and in luminous paints. During the latter part of the war it is estimated that over nine-tenths of the radium produced was used in luminous paints for the dials of watches and other instruments. In addition part of the material owned by physicians was devoted to this purpose, and it is probable that the accumulated stocks held by the medical profession were in this way reduced by one-half. The greatly extended use of radium, together with the distinctly limited character of the world's known radium supplies, has led to some concern; and considerable investigation has been made of the possibilities of mesothorium as a substitute for radium in luminous paints. Low-grade radium residues are used to some extent as fertilizers.

Uranium has been used as a steel alloy, but has not as yet gained wide favor. Uranium salts have a limited use as yellow coloring agents in pottery and glass. The principal use of uranium, however, is as a source of radium, with which it is always associated.

European countries first developed the processes of reduction of radium salts from their ores. Most of the European ores are obtained from Austria, where the mines are owned and operated by the Austrian government, and small quantities are mined in Cornwall, England, and in Germany. Production is decreasing. The European hospitals and municipalities have acquired nearly all of the production.

The United States has the largest reserves of radium ore in the world, and the American market has in recent years been supplied from domestic plants. Before the war, radium ores were shipped to Europe for treatment in Germany, France, and England, and radium salts were imported from these countries. There are now radium plants in the United States capable of producing annually from domestic ores an amount several times as large as the entire production of the rest of the world. Practically all the production has come from Colorado and Utah. Known reserves are not believed to be sufficient for more than a comparatively few years' production, but it is not unlikely that additional deposits will be found in the same area.

Geologic Features

Uranium is one of the rarer metals. Radium is found only in uranium ores and only in exceedingly small quantities. The maximum amount which can be present in a state of equilibrium is about one part of radium in 3,000,000 parts of uranium. The principal sources of uranium and radium are the minerals carnotite (hydrous potassium-uranium vanadate) and pitchblende or uraninite (uranium oxide).The deposits of Joachimsthal, Bohemia, contain pitchblende, along with silver, nickel, and cobalt minerals and other metallic sulphides, in veins associated with igneous intrusions.

The important commercial deposits of Colorado and Utah contain carnotite, together with roscoelite (a vanadium mica) and small amounts of chromium, copper, and molybdenum minerals, as impregnations of flat-lying Jurassic sandstones. The ores carry up to 35 per cent uranium oxide (though largely below 2 per cent), and from one-third as much to an equal amount of vanadium oxide. The ore minerals are supposed to have been derived from a thick series of clays and impure sandstones a few hundred feet above, containing uranium and vanadium minerals widely disseminated, and to have been carried downward by surface waters containing sulphates. The ore bodies vary from very small pockets to deposits yielding a thousand tons or so, and are found irregularly throughout certain particular beds without any special relation to present topography or to faults. The association of many of the deposits with fossil wood and other carbonaceous material suggests that organic matter was an agent in their precipitation, but the exact nature of the process is not clear. In a few places in Utah the beds dip at steep angles, and the carnotite appears in spots along the outcrops and generally disappears as the outcrops are followed into the hillsides; this suggests that the carnotite may be locally redissolved and carried to the surface by capillary action, forming rich efflorescences. Because of the nature of the deposits no large amount of ore is developed in advance of actual mining; but estimates based on past experience indicate great potentialities of this region for future production.

In eastern Wyoming is a unique deposit of uranium ore in a quartzite which lies between mica-schist and granite. The principal ore mineral is uranophane, a hydrated calcium-uranium silicate, which is believed to be an oxidation product of pitchblende. Some of the ore runs as high as 4 per cent uranium oxide, and the ore carries appreciable amounts of copper but very little vanadium.

Very recently radium ores have been discovered in the White Signal mining district of New Mexico, which was formerly worked for gold, silver, copper, and lead. The radium-bearing minerals are torbernite and autunite (hydrous copper-uranium and calcium-uranium phosphates), and are found in dark felsite dikes near their intersections with east-west gold-silver-quartz veins. The possibilities of this district have not yet been determined.

Pitchblende has been found in gold-bearing veins in Gilpin County, eastern Colorado, and in pegmatite dikes in the Appalachians, but these deposits are of no commercial importance. Pitchblende is grayish-black, opaque, and so lacking in distinctive characteristics that it may readily be overlooked; hence future discoveries in various regions would not be surprising.