To judge of the character of one’s own people is extremely difficult. One is likely to be either too severe or too complimentary. However, I believe, that—after a residence of many years in England and on the Continent, and a subsequent stay of eleven years in America, with frequent visits to the Philippines—I am able to judge in the abstract, and, in fact, comparatively to look upon my own countrymen with the eye of a thorough cosmopolitan.

The natives of the islands are a branch of the Malay race, and may be divided into three large groups,—the Tagalogs, the Visayos, and the Sulus,—each group subject to modifications and exceptions. The Tagalogs inhabit Luzon, the northern islands of the Archipelago, and it is with these that we have mainly to deal, as they are by far the most numerous and the most intelligent part of the population, forming, as they do, also the majority of the inhabitants in Manila and in the largest ports.

The first thing that in the native character impresses the traveler is his impassive demeanor and imperturbable bearing. He is a born stoic, a fatalist by nature. This accounts for his coolness in moments of danger, and his intrepid daring against overwhelming odds. This feature of the Malay character has often been displayed in the conflicts of the race with the Europeans in the East Indies. Under competent leadership the native, though strongly averse to discipline, can be made a splendid soldier. As sailors, too, I do not believe they can be equalled. For, lithe, active, and fond of the water, the Malays have ever shown their inclination for the sea. Their pirates, coursing in their prahus, have, till a few years ago, for centuries infested the bays and inlets of the eastern Archipelagos, looting the towns and villages on shore and taking as booty such foreign merchantmen as they were able to overcome. On account of the ravages of these fierce eastern Vikings, Europeans have come to regard the whole Malay race as cruel and bloodthirsty. But these were pirates in their own waters, and preyed upon their own countrymen, by whom they were feared no less than were the Spanish and English freebooters of old by their countrymen. Why, then, should their outrages and rapacity be taken as indicative of the Malay character any more than are the atrocities of the Caucasian corsair of their race?

The natives are all excellent swimmers, and are absolutely fearless in the water. I have seen groups of boys diving thirty or forty feet for pennies, dropped into the sea by foreign officers on ships anchored in the bay. Many swim miles with the greatest ease; and it is no uncommon sight in the outlying districts to see groups of naked men plunging with drawn dagger among a shoal of sharks, with whom they fight with a fierceness that always results in the victory of the native.

Along the beach at Manila, on a summer evening, at the close of the day’s labor, hundreds of hands from the various tobacco factories—men, women, and children, of all ages and sizes, married and unmarried—may be seen disporting themselves, with peals of laughter and squeals of delight, in the cool surf.

As a result of the stoicism of the native character, he never bewails a misfortune, and has no fear of death. When anything happens he merely says, It is fate, and calmly goes about his business as if nothing had happened.

Europeans often seem to notice in them what they deem a lack of sympathy for the misfortunes of others; but it is not this so much as resignation to the inevitable. This, it must be confessed, saves them many a bitter pang. The educated native, however, impregnated with the bitter philosophy of the civilized world, is by no means so imperturbable. While more keenly alive to the sufferings of others, he is also more sensitive to his own sorrows. After all, whether he is any happier for his wisdom, is a question.

Incomprehensible inconsistencies obtain in nearly every native. Students of character may, therefore, study the Filipinos for years, and yet, at last, have no definite impression of their mental or moral status. Of course those living in the cities are less baffling to the physiognomist and the ethnologist; for endemic peculiarities have been rubbed off or so modified, that the racial traits are not obvious.

But observe the natives in the wilds, in their primitive abodes, where civilizing forces have not penetrated! You will then be amazed at the extraordinary mingling and clashing of antithetical characteristics in one and the same person; uncertain as to when the good or the bad may be manifested. Like the wind, the mood comes and goes,—and no one can tell why.

I myself, with all the inherited feelings, tastes, and tendencies of my countrymen,—modified and transmuted, happily,—have stood aghast or amused at some hitherto unknown characteristic suddenly manifesting itself in an intimate acquaintance; and after I had been for years, too, wholly ignorant of his being so possessed or obsessed. And after that, the same mental or moral squint would be displayed at irregular intervals.

It is said by some that the native is shiftless and improvident.

It is true that he is not noted for foresight and energy, as are the peoples of the temperate zones; but his indolence is the result of generations of tropical ancestors. Even the most energetic Europeans yield, in a few years, to the enervating effects of the climate, and are unable to shake off the lassitude bred by the heat. Besides, deprived by the Spaniards from all active participation in affairs of the Government, and robbed of the fruits of industry, all incentive to advancement and progress was taken away. He, therefore, yields with composure to the crushing conditions of his environment, preferring the lazy joys of indolence rather than labor for the benefit of his oppressors. Naturally. Recent events, however, show that, given the stimulant of hope, even the “indolent natives” of the Philippines can achieve and nobly dare.

Some Spaniards also have asserted that the Filipinos are naturally disloyal and treacherous, and that their word is not to be depended on.

Now, the whole world knows that they have every reason to be disloyal to the Spaniard, who has for centuries so cruelly oppressed them. The devotion to the cause of freedom, however, which has recently made Rizal and hundreds of others martyrs to Spanish cruelty, shows that they also have the stuff that heroes are made of, and that they can be loyal to an animating principle.

In many places the natives are unwilling to work without pay in advance, and this has been a great drawback to investors. For, after receiving their money, they frequently refuse to perform a stroke of work, knowing that their employer has no remedy except in the dilatory process of the courts, which would only increase his expense and exaggerate his troubles. This has no terrors for the native. While, of course, this is to be deprecated, it may be remedied by gaining the confidence of the natives; for it is undoubtedly the result of generations of Spanish robbery, where these people were forced to labor for their employers,—frequently the priests,—having no reward save the lash or promises of a golden crown in heaven. They, therefore, naturally look upon investors with some suspicion. However, in the more civilized districts, where modern and humane business methods prevail, hundreds of thousands are employed, to the profit both of themselves and their employers.

Though calm, the native is not secretive, but often loquacious. He is naturally curious and inquisitive, but always polite, and respectful withal—especially to his superiors. He is passionate, and, in common with all half-civilized races, is cruel to his foes. The quality of mercy, like the sentiment—as distinguished from the passion—of love, is perhaps more the product of the philosophy of civilization than a natural attribute of the human heart. The romantic history of MediÆval Europe, as compared with the placid present, is proof of this.

All travelers unite in attributing to the natives extreme family affection. They are very fond of their children, who, as a rule, are respectful and well-behaved. The noisy little hoodlums of European and American cities are utterly unknown. The old are tenderly cared for, and are venerated; while in almost every well-to-do household are one or two poor relatives who, while mere hangers-on, are, nevertheless, always made welcome to the table of their host. Indeed, the hospitality of the Filipinos is proverbial. A guest is always welcome, and welcome to the best. The better class, too, gladly embrace every opportunity to feast their neighbors or the stranger within their gates.

As a rule, the people are superstitious and very credulous; but how could they be otherwise? For three hundred years they have been denied even the liberty of investigation; when no light, save the dim glimmer of priestcraft pierced the utter darkness of their lot. Those that have been educated, however, have proved apt converts—only too apt say the priests and the Spaniards—to the conclusions of Science and of modern research.

The native is rarely humorous and seldom witty. He is not easily moved to anger, and when angry does not often show it. When he does, like the Malay of Java, he is prone to lose all control of himself, and, with destructive energy, slays all in his path. This is infrequent, however, but is a contingency that may occur at any time.

If a native has been unjustly punished, he will never forget it, and will treasure the memory of his wrong until a good opportunity for revenge presents itself.

Like all courageous people, he despises cowardice and pusillanimity. He has, therefore, but little regard for the meek and humble Chinaman, who will pocket an insult rather than avenge himself. He greatly esteems the European, who is possessed of the qualities that he admires, and will follow him into the very jaws of death. He is easily awed by a demonstration of superior force, and is ruled best by mild but firm coercion,—based upon justice. He is not often ambitious, save socially, and to make some display, being fond of ceremony and of the pomp and glitter of a procession. He is sober, patient, and always clean. This can be said of few peoples. He easily adjusts himself to new conditions, and will soon make the best of his surroundings. As servants they are honest, obedient, and will do as they are told.

It must be said that they enjoy litigation more than is good for them or for the best interests of the colony. There must be some psychological reason for this. It doubtless gives some play to the subtlety of the Oriental mind. It is said that he lacks the sense of initiative; and to some extent this may be true. The recent conduct of Aguinaldo—a full-blooded native—proves, notwithstanding, that he is not wholly deficient in aggressiveness nor in organizing power.

Though not as artistic as the Japanese, the Filipinos have shown many evidences of art talent. This is seen in the embroidery of the women, as well as in the work of the native painters and sculptors. Some of these have been honored with high prizes at the Art Exhibition in Madrid. I remember particularly the brothers Luna: one educated in Spain, and there distinguished by his remarkable talent with the brush; the other known for his wonderful virtuosity.

Moreover, in nothing are the Filipinos so proficient as in music. Every village has its orchestra, and in the evening the whole district turns out to enjoy its playing.

All the people are, in fact, born musicians; even little boys and girls of five or six years of age play the harp, the guitar, or the piano as if by instinct; while their elders show a proficiency that, when their opportunities are considered, is truly astonishing. The clergy, appreciating that music is the foe of vice and a promoter of virtue, have wisely encouraged the natives in this art. It is now taught in all the higher schools in the colony.

At the many feasts, religious and secular, which are the delight of the natives, music is always the most enjoyable feature, the bands playing for hours together, both performers and listeners being so engrossed as to be wholly unconscious of the lapse of time.

The native usually marries early,—the brides often but eleven or twelve years of age. A marriage-feast is entered into with pomp and ceremony. It is a not unimportant occasion for the priest also, who usually sets the day, and expects a large fee,—dependent upon the wealth of the contracting parties. The evening before the ceremony, both bride and groom go to confession, to receive absolution. About five o’clock the following morning they leave the house of the bride, joined by a long procession of relatives.

After mass has been said, the bride and groom stand before the priest, who places over their shoulders a thick mantle, which is to typify the bodily union. He then recites his formula and asks the usual questions. To these both respond in the same low voice characteristic of such replies the world over. As the wedded pair are leaving the church, a bowl of coin is passed to them. The new husband stops, takes a handful and gives it to his wife, who receives it and returns it to the bowl. This is a token that he gives to her his worldly goods. All then solemnly return to the paternal residence, where, meanwhile, a banquet has been prepared.

This feast is called Catapusan which means a gathering of friends. All the notables of the village, as well as all the relatives on both sides, are invited to it. The table is loaded with the good things of the season. Light liquors, chocolate, and sweetmeats are then offered to the guests, with betel-nuts and cigars and cigarettes.

The dancing now begins. A youth and a maiden stand facing each other, both singing a sentimental song. Then follows a musical dialogue, while both dance round each other, keeping step to the music furnished by the native orchestra. A young woman then steps into the middle of the floor,—her long hair flowing down her back, her eyes sparkling. The music begins in a low plaintive key, that gradually becomes more and more forlorn, while her languid movements express various degrees of sorrow. Gradually the strain flows into a livelier measure, and she becomes more and more animated, until at last she sinks down in a whirl of delirious passion. Then, again, a girl dances with a glass of water on her head; or some other form of entertainment is given.

After the dancing, the men and women retire to their respective quarters.

The marriage is always arranged by the parents of the two young persons, who go through an established etiquette of advance and refusal before the dowry terms are arranged. If the parents of the young man are poor and he can offer no dowry, he often enters the household of his intended on probation,—as Jacob did to win Rachael.

The wedding-feast is always given by the father of the groom, who also furnishes the dowry for the bride. The young married couple then live with the parents of one of the parties. The wife always remains mistress of her own property, and the husband can in no event inherit it. The children often add the surname of the mother to that of the father, thus making the woman of greater prominence.

Before the middle of the century there were no distinct family surnames, and there were, consequently, no complications of families possible. To introduce greater simplicity into the laws of inheritance, the names of distinguished Spanish families were introduced into the colony,—each family receiving a distinct appellation.

The men are usually of medium height, lithe, and of a rich brown color, with large cheek-bones, bright eyes and immobile countenances. The better kind dress in loose shirts, or blouses, worn outside the trousers and of native manufacture, made of abacÁ, or Manila hemp; or of the airy, delicate, and almost transparent piÑa,—a texture of pine-apple leaf, as choice as the finest lace.

This is of white, or light yellow, and often interwoven with red, green or blue silk, or embroidered with flowers. The white or light-colored trousers are fastened round the waist with a belt. The feet are sometimes bare, or protected by sandals or patent-leather shoes. On the head is usually worn a salacot—a large round hat, strongly plaited with gray-and-black intersecting patterns of nito or liana fibre, the brim ornamented with a band of embroidered cloth or silver.

The dress of the poorer class is very similar—the material being coarser, the colors red and orange predominating.

The woman wears a flowing skirt of gay colors—bright red, green or white—with a silken saya or sarong of many colors. Over this is a narrower waist-cloth usually of silk and of a darker color. Over the breast and shoulders is generally thrown a starched neckcloth of beautiful embroidered piÑa—folded triangularly, the points fitting in the hollow of the V-shaped chemisette. On the head is worn a white mantle, from which the rippling cataract of raven hair falls in massy folds almost to the ground. The toes of the naked feet are enveloped in chinelas,—a heelless slipper, which is shuffled with languorous grace.

Many of the women are pretty, and all are good-natured and smiling. Their complexion, of light brown, is usually clear and smooth; their eyes are large and lustrous, full of the sleeping passion of the Orient. The figures of the women are usually erect and stately, and many are models of grace and beauty.

The women of every class are far more industrious than the men, and also more cheerful and devout. Adultery is almost unheard of. The men, however, are exceedingly jealous. The natives believe that during sleep the soul is absent from the body, and they say that if one be suddenly wakened they fear the soul may not be able to return. Therefore, they are extremely careful not to waken anyone rudely or suddenly, but always call with softly-rising and falling tones, to bring the sleeper gradually to consciousness.

The preceding observations concerning the Tagalogs, the natives of the north, are also, in the main, true of the Visayos, their southern brethren. The latter, however, are not so cheerful or so hospitable, and are more ostentatious and aggressive. Their women, too, are more vain and avaricious. These slight differences are perhaps due to the fact that they have far less intercourse with the civilized world than the Tagalogs.

No less interesting, and even more influential than the natives, are the half-breeds, or mestizos. They form a large percentage of the population. These are usually of native mothers and of Spanish or Chinese fathers. The Spanish fathers are, however, a distinct class from the Chinese fathers, and rank much higher socially, exchanging visits with the pure Spanish. They are, most always, a handsome race, and more intelligent than the pure natives, and far more energetic and ambitious. Among them are many leading merchants and men of influence.

The mestiza girls are, as a rule, often of wonderful beauty. They are lithe and graceful and of a soft olive complexion, with red lips, pearly teeth, and ravishing black eyes, whose long lashes droop coquettishly in response to the admiring glance of a stranger. Their dancing is justly famed, and those educated in the convents are musical and often accomplished in other ways. The peculiar characteristics and the increase of energy due to this infusion of European blood, however, disappear if no further admixture takes place in the second generation. It is more lasting, on the other hand, where the Malay has been crossed with the Chinese. This is probably due to the great similarity of the two races.

These Malays, with an infusion of Chinese, are called mestizo-Chinos. They also are more intelligent than the pure Malay, and far more shrewd. Many of the leading merchants of Manila are of this mixture. They do not, however, enjoy the confidence of the people, and are a tricky and disturbing element in the population. They have the mongrel stamp and a cunning, shifty look. They are full of intrigue too, and it was, indeed, because they formed so large a part of the rebels that the high-class natives hesitated so long about joining the insurgents; not wishing to combine even with the despised mestizo-Chinos against the hated Spanish; for the government of the latter was preferable to that of the former.

Over all the islands are scattered a mountain tribe called Aetas, or Negritos. These are supposed to be the aborigines. They are very dark, some being as black as negroes. They are doubtless of African descent and are said to resemble the natives of New Guinea. Their hair is black, curly, and matted. They go almost naked, and have but little self-respect. They are also puny, stupid, and ugly, and of a low order of intellect, incapable of improvement, and deficient in judgment and in aggressiveness. They are, on the other hand, remarkably fleet of foot. They subsist mainly by hunting. Their usual weapons are a lance of bamboo, a palm-wood bow, and a quiver of poisoned arrows.

About fifty families commonly live together, and their villages of rude, thatched huts, raised on bamboo poles high from the ground, present a curious appearance. They were the original lords of the islands, and when the first Malays settled here, they, with unfailing regularity, exacted tribute from the newcomers. The latter, however, soon became too powerful, and the Negritos are now either employed by the Tagalogs as servants, or they have fled to their retreats in the mountains. But they are fast disappearing, and, hence, before many generations, will have perished before the destructive blast of progress.

Their principal food is fish, roots, fruits, and rice. They are notorious cattle-thieves, swooping down upon the valley and carrying their prey to their fastnesses in the mountains. Their agricultural skill consists in scratching the soil with a stick and throwing in the seed. They rarely ever spend more than one season in one locality, thus constantly moving from place to place.

Their religion seems to consist in a deification of the supernatural and of the mysterious. When the railroad was first constructed from Manila to Dagupan, these Negritos constantly appeared along the track, which they regarded with feelings of awe.

When the trial journey of the first locomotive took place, and that huge iron salamander appeared thundering down the track, it is related that they all fell upon their knees in abject terror, worshiping the strange monster as some new and powerful deity.

Unlike most savages, they care tenderly for their aged, and are full of reverence for their dead.

As a rule, too, they are independent of Spanish domination, and neither pay taxes nor submit to enumeration for the census.

A few years ago the Government started a mission in Pampanga; a great many Negritos were herded together, and were given a year’s provisions and tools to work with. Teachers were also provided, and all went well as long as the provisions lasted. They refused to work, however, and were averse to all restraint, and the second year they returned to their native haunts.

They have a curious marriage custom. After a young man has shown his passion for a girl, and his advances have been well received by the parents of his intended, he catches her in his arms. She breaks loose, however, and runs. He follows hard behind. Again he catches her. She resists, and once more frees herself, running away from the eager arms of her ardent lover. After this play of struggle and chase have been kept up a little while, she finally yields, and he leads her triumphantly back to her home.

The father of the bride now drags the youth up a rude ladder to the floor of the elevated hut; the mother likewise leads up her daughter. They are then made to kneel down, when the old man throws a cocoanut-shell full of water over the pair. He then bumps their heads together, and they are adjudged man and wife. They spend their honeymoon in the mountains, where, in undisturbed and shelterless connubial bliss, they remain five days and nights. Then they return to the commonplace life of the village.

In the northwestern part of Luzon is a fierce, unsubdued tribe known as the Gaddanes. They are very dark and strong, and present a fine appearance, armed with long, sharp spears and with bows and arrows. They wear their hair down to their shoulders, and, like the American Indians, take the scalps of their enemies slain in battle; these the young men present to the fathers of their intended as a proof of their valor.

This takes place when the fire-tree bursts into bloom; its fiery blossoms have, to their minds, a certain religious significance. It is then they collect all trophies of war, and perform the rude rites of their nature-worship. They subsist on fish, game, and fruit.

A fine race are the Igorrotes, spread over the northern half of Luzon. They are copper-colored, and also wear their hair long. A few are bearded. Their shoulders are broad, and their limbs brawny and powerful. Because of their high cheek-bones, flat noses, and thick lips, they would not, however, by a European or an American, be considered good-looking.

They cultivate sugar-cane, rice, and sweet-potatoes, but have never been able to give up their savage customs for civilization. Their houses are not unlike the huts of the Esquimaux. Polygamy sometimes exists, but adultery is almost unknown. Murder is said to be frequent, and family feuds often take off great numbers.

Their depredations in the interior are often of great annoyance to the domesticated natives; for they carry off their cattle and their crops. Many expeditions have, from time to time, been made by the Spaniards against them; but all have signally failed. The Igorrotes obstinately refuse to be civilized. Spanish dominion holds for these liberty-loving people few advantages; Catholicism offers them little peace; while they maintain that the traditional heaven of the European would not at all suit them.

Upon one occasion a Catholic priest was horrified when an Igorrote asked him why it was that no black man ever became a white man’s Saint? When told that it was possible, he refused to believe it, saying that he, for his part, was content with the religion of his ancestors, and did not intend to bend his knees in adoration of the gods of the pale-faces.

The Igorrote-Chinese are the descendants of the Chinese that the pirate Li-ma-hong left behind him when he suddenly quitted his colony in the province of Pangasinan in 1574. These, to escape the advancing Spaniards, hid in the hills, where they intermarried with the Igorrotes, their descendants, whom they much resemble, with, however, some important differences. For, with the cunning and the shrewdness of their Chinese ancestors, they combine the Igorrote fierceness and independence. Many of these have been domesticated.

In the district of El Abra, in Luzon, are the Tinguianes, who are semi-civilized and under the control of the Spaniards. They prefer, however, their own laws to those of the Spanish code, and usually abide by them. If a man is accused of a crime and he denies it, the head-man of his village, who is also the judge, causes a handful of straw to be burnt in his presence. The accused then holds up an earthen pot and says: “May my belly be changed to a pot like this if I am guilty of the crime of which I am accused.” If he remains unchanged in body, the judge declares him innocent.

The head-man himself, upon assuming his office, takes the following curious oath: “May a destructive whirlwind kill me, may the lightning strike me, and may an alligator devour me when I am asleep if I fail to do my duty.”

They are pagans, and they believe that their gods will answer prayer. For worship, they resort to their caves in the mountains. When a child is to be named, it is carried to the woods, where the priest raises a knife over its head, at the same time pronouncing a name. He then, with the knife, strikes a tree. If sap flows forth, the name is deemed good; if not, he goes through the same ceremony until the desired result is produced; the god, then, is supposed to have given his consent.

They are very intelligent, and are a well-formed race, and many are handsome, with aquiline noses. On the crown of the head they wear a tuft of hair, like the Japanese. Like the domesticated natives, they are very fond of music and of dress. They tattoo their bodies and also black their teeth, and are supposed to have descended from the shipwrecked Japanese cast upon the island.

Long before the Spanish occupation, Chinese trading-junks stopped at the Philippine Islands; and, after the founding of Manila, being well received by the Spaniards, who depended upon them for many necessities, they established trading-posts in various parts of the colony.

In 1580 the Government built the Alcayceria—a large building that was used as a kind of Chinese market. Here were situated all the Chinese shops, which it was thought better to confine to one locality: they might be regulated the more easily.

The Alcayceria proved too small, however, and the shops were soon in every part of the Binondo. Other centres were soon provided for them, where the Government protected and even encouraged the enterprise of the Chinamen.

The native and the Spanish merchants becoming alarmed at the increase of the Celestials, began an agitation, whose object was to limit their number to 6,000; but the movement received little encouragement from the Government, which drew a large revenue from the Chinamen.

In 1755 this agitation was renewed, and it was resolved to expel all non-Christian Chinese. The day before the law went into effect 515 asked for and obtained baptism, while over 1100 desired to stay, that they might study the mysteries of the Christian religion. More than 2,000 were banished from the colony. In 1603 two Chinese mandarins, accompanied by a large retinue, came to Manila to make inquiries concerning a mountain of gold that some of their countrymen had said was located near Cavite. They were received with much ceremony, and the Governor-General allowed them to pursue their quest. It proved fruitless, of course.

Persuaded that they had been deceived, they sailed away, leaving the colony in a fever of speculation as to the real object of their visit. Various rumors sprang up in Manila; all to the effect that the Chinese Emperor contemplated the conquest of the colony, and that the Chinese population were fomenting an insurrection to aid his designs. They were also accused of secreting arms, and many outbreaks from time to time arose against them, until finally the poor Chinese, beset on every hand, and hourly menaced by secret assassination and open violence, were forced to assume the offensive. Accordingly, they raised fortifications, and on the eve of St. Francis’ day they opened hostilities by attacking one of the suburbs of the city. With the beating of gongs and the flying of colors they next besieged Binondo itself, burning houses and committing many other outrages on the way.

The Spaniards gallantly advanced to repel them, and DasmariÑas, the ex-Governor-General, led the attack with the flower of his countrymen; but the odds against them were too great, and scarcely a man was left to tell the tale of their defeat.

The Chinese, flushed with success, now besieged the city itself, but, running short of provisions,—which the natives were, of course, unwilling to furnish them,—they were finally compelled to give up the siege.

As they retreated, the Spaniards, constantly reinforced by bands of natives, pursued them, killing thousands on the way. They were then finally driven into the interior, where the same fate awaited them—of whom not less than 24,000 were killed and taken prisoners.

In 1639 some Chinese traders, in the town of Calamba, Laguna province, exasperated beyond endurance by the insults and outrages heaped upon them by the Spanish Governor, killed this official and one or two of his subordinates, and flew to open rebellion. The Chinese all over the colony joined the rebels, and it is estimated that not less than 30,000 Chinese were under arms. This lasted nearly a year, and resulted in the surrender of the Chinese; most of whom, however, were spared.

In 1660 there was another rising and a massacre. The Chinese, nevertheless, were still allowed to remain. They were so important a part of the commercial life of the province they could not long be spared. For more than a century the Chinese now pursued their avocations in absolute security.

When, however, in 1763 they joined the British invaders, little mercy was shown them by the Spaniards, who killed several thousands.

In 1820 the natives began the massacre of the Chinese and other foreigners, whom they accused of poisoning the drinking water, thus producing an epidemic of cholera.

Only since 1843 have the Chinese shops been opened on the same terms as those of other foreigners. But there is no doubt that the Chinese have been a great boon to the colony. They have had, in the main, a civilizing influence on the natives, and have taught them many important things: as the working of iron and the manufacture of sugar from the juice of the sugar-cane. They have also ever been the leaders in commerce and the chief middlemen of the colony; and, for this reason mainly they have been deemed an unwelcome necessity; for, without them, trade would almost be brought to a standstill, and, in consequence, labor would suffer and living be rendered dearer to every class.

By their superior shrewdness and unscrupulous cunning they have, on the other hand, excited the hatred of the natives, who despise them for their cowardice. Thus, from time to time, the feeling against them is very bitter.

Another objection against the Celestial is that he underbids all competitors, working for what others deem less than living wages. Furthermore, he spends little, and all that he saves he carries to his own country. Their expulsion, however, would be as unwise as it is impracticable, and the only remedy that meets the case is a proper State-control. The employment of coolie labor, notwithstanding, is at present impossible, on account of the hatred that the lower-class natives feel toward them.

In Manila there are at present no less than 40,000 Chinese, while the whole colony contains about 100,000. They have their own courts, their guilds, and secret societies, which are necessary for their self-protection, and they choose representative deputations to represent them in the Government.